Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/trends-in-food-science-
and-technology

Review

A review on recent advances in cold plasma technology for the food

industry: Current applications and future trends
Flora-Glad Chizoba Ekezie a, b, c, Da-Wen Sun a, b, c, d, *, Jun-Hu Cheng a, b, c
a
School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, China
b
Academy of Contemporary Food Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
c
Engineering and Technological Research Centre of Guangdong Province on Intelligent Sensing and Process Control of Cold Chain Foods, Guangzhou Higher
Education Mega Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
d
Food Refrigeration and Computerized Food Technology (FRCFT), Agriculture and Food Science Centre, University College Dublin, National University of
Ireland, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background: Cold plasma (CP) is an emerging technology, which has attracted the attention of scientists
Received 14 July 2017 globally. It was originally developed for ameliorating the printing and adhesion properties of polymers
Received in revised form plus a variety of usage domains in electronics. In the last decade, its applications were extended into the
17 August 2017
food industry as a powerful tool for non-thermal processing, with diverse forms for utilization.
Accepted 17 August 2017
Scope and approach: This review presents an overview of recent studies on the application of cold plasma
Available online 24 August 2017
in the food industry. Specific areas discussed include microbial decontamination of food products,
packaging material processing, functionality modification of food materials and dissipation of agro-
Keywords:
Cold plasma
chemical residues. The application of CP has also been expanded into areas, such as hydrogenation of
Reactive species edible oils, mitigation of food allergy, inactivation of anti-nutritional factors, tailoring of seed germina-
Food processing tion performance and effluent management. In addition, the paper provides a summary of plasma
Surface modifications chemistry and sources, factors influencing plasma efficiency and strategies for augmentation. Further-
Microbial decontamination more, key areas for future research are highlighted and salient drawbacks are discussed.
Key findings and conclusions: The recent studies conducted on the interaction of reactive species with
food contact surfaces establish plasma processing as an eco-friendly technique with minimal changes to
food products, making it a befitting alternative to traditional techniques. Active researches focused on
up-scaling for commercial applications are urgently required.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction thermal processing techniques have gained their popularity in

Besides thermal techniques such as cooling (McDonald, Sun, &
Kenny, 2000, 2001; Sun, 1997; Sun & Brosnan, 1999; Sun &
Zheng, 2006; Wang & Sun, 2004; Zheng & Sun, 2004), freezing
(Cheng, Sun, & Pu, 2016; Cheng, Sun, Zhu, & Zhang, 2017; Kiani,
Zhang, Delgado, & Sun, 2011; Ma et al., 2015; Pu, Sun, Ma, &
Cheng, 2015; Xie, Sun, Xu, & Zhu, 2015; Xie, Sun, Zhu, & Pu,
2016) and drying (Delgado & Sun, 2002; Ma, Sun, Qu, & Pu, 2017;
Pu & Sun, 2016, 2017; Qu et al., 2017; Sun, 1999; Yang, Sun, &
Cheng, 2017) that are commonly used in food processing, non-
* Corresponding author. School of Food Science and Engineering, South China
University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, China.
E-mail address: dawen.sun@ucd.ie (D.-W. Sun).
URL: http://www.ucd.ie/refrig, http://www.ucd.ie/sun
recent years for the food industry. Cold plasma (CP) technology is
an emerging non-thermal food processing technique, which has
attracted the attention of many researchers across the globe. CP
was originally employed for ameliorating the printing and adhesion
properties of polymers, increasing surface energy of materials and a
variety of usage domains in electronics. It is commonly used to treat
textiles, glasses, paper, and other products. A new research trend
suggests that CP technology is a powerful and profitable technology
for the food industry. The non-thermal technology is highly ad-
vantageous for microbial decontamination of food products
including sporulating and spoilage/pathogenic organisms; owing
to the ample amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) contained in
the quasi-neutral plasma gas (Butscher, Zimmermann, Schuppler, &
Rudolf von Rohr, 2016; Choi, Puligundla, & Mok, 2017; Devi,
Thirumdas, Sarangapani, Deshmukh, & Annapure, 2017; Jung

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.007
0924-2244/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
et al., 2017; Min et al., 2017; Patange, Boehm, Bueno-Ferrer, Cullen,
& Bourke, 2017; Sohbatzadeh, Mirzanejhad, Shokri, & Nikpour,
2016). As an illustration, atmospheric plasma at 18 kV can kill
Salmonella spp. on strawberry samples by 1.7e2.3 log CFU/sample
(Ma et al., 2015). Likewise, using dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)
plasma at 80 kV for 5 min successfully decontaminated cherry to-
matoes containing Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and
Listeria monocytogenes by up to 3.5, 3.8, and 4.2 log CFU/tomato,
respectively (Ziuzina, Patil, Cullen, Keener, & Bourke, 2014).
Therefore, sterilization using CP proffers low cost and minimal
changes to food products, thus a befitting alternative to heat-based
techniques.
CP have also been employed for the processing of packaging
materials in order to improve barrier properties and bestow anti-
microbial activity (Oh, Roh, & Min, 2016; Puligundla, Lee, & Mok,
2016). Other documented pathways for the utilization of CP tech-
nology in food processing includes functionality modification of
food components, enhancement of seed germination performance,
improved physiochemical properties of grains and degradation of
agrochemical residues (Mir, Shah, & Mir, 2016; Sarangapani,
O'Toole, Cullen, & Bourke, 2017a, Sarangapani, Yamuna devi et al.,
2017b; Sivachandiran & Khacef, 2017; Yepez & Keener, 2016). One
might refute the need for another review since some reviews have
already been published on the applications of CP in these specific
areas. However, CP is a trending area of research with a significant
number of research output in the past two years, as the technology
is new and has not been fully exploited in the food industry. Thus, it
is also important that consistent generalizations are made to drive
the technology's awareness, point out future research needs and
promote its acceptability. Interestingly, our latest literature survey
also shows that CP application has recently been expanded into
hydrogenation of vegetable oils to yield trans-free edible oils,
inactivation of anti-nutritional factors, control of food allergens, etc.
(Mohamed, Al Shariff, Ouf, & Benghanem, 2016; Yepez & Keener,
2016).
Therefore, this review summarizes recent developments in the
applications of non-equilibrium plasma for the food industry. An
overview of plasma chemistry and generation sources, equipment
and apparatuses are first presented. Existing and novel areas for the
applications of CP in the food industry, their underlying principles
and mechanical pathways are then elucidated. Pre-requisites and
challenges that must be subdued including future directions for
research are also discussed. It is hoped that the current review will
encourage early adoption of this eco-friendly technology by the
food industry and food regulatory agencies; so that its full potential
for industrial applications could be established.
2. Fundamentals of cold plasma technology
2.1. Plasma chemistry and sources
Plasma is the fourth state of matter, which is an ionized gas
containing an array of active species, i.e., electrons, free radicals,
ions, etc (Ekezie et al., 2017; Dasan et al., 2017). Plasma exists in
either ground or its excited state, possessing a net neutral charge. It
is induced under varying temperatures and pressures by energizing
a neutral gas, thus being classified into thermal and non-thermal
plasma. Thermal plasma requires extreme pressure levels
(
105 Pa) and up to 50 MW of power for its propagation, which is
also distinguished by a thermodynamic equilibrium between the
electrons and heavier species due to uniform gas temperature for
all constituents (Scholtz, Pazlarova, Souskova, Khun, & Julak, 2015).
Whilst, non-thermal plasma is produced at low levels of pressures
and power, without a localized thermodynamic equilibrium, thus
designated as non-equilibrium plasma. In general, the supplied
47
energy disassociates the gas into a manifold of reactive species,
following other reactions such as excitation, de-excitation and
ionization. For the applications in the food industry, non-thermal
plasma induced by electrical discharges is of primary interest due
to its potential relevance in processing foods at low temperatures.
Moreover, the specific method exercised during cold plasma gen-
eration determines the trajectory for application alongside
magnitude and composition of reactive species. It is therefore
important to first delineate the technological pathways for plasma
generation, which includes those induced by atmospheric pressure
and those operating under reduced pressure.
2.1.1. Plasma generated at atmospheric pressure
Contemporary innovations in plasma engineering brought
about plasma sources that can operate at atmospheric pressure.
They include dielectric barrier discharges (DBD), gliding arc
discharge, corona discharge, and radio frequency plasma. DBD
plasma is generated by an alternating current emitted when two
metal electrodes are kept apart using a dielectric material such as
plastic, quartz or ceramic at a discharge gap ranging from 100 mm
to several centimeters. The dielectric thwarts the formation of
sparks due to movement of charges. The expediencies of DBD in-
cludes relative simplicity, employment of different gases, reduced
gas flow rate, flexibility owing to varying electrode geometries, and
uniform discharge ignition over several meters. However, the
approach requires high ignition voltages of 10 kV, therefore
adequate precautionary measures are required. Typical areas of
applications include ozone generation, ultraviolet (UV) generation
in excimer lamps and CO2 lasers.
Gliding arc discharges (GAD) are created in a reactor containing
two or more diverging metallic electrodes operating at a high po-
tential difference of 9 kV and 100 mA in alfresco conditions.
Generally, an inlet gas consisting of humid air is pumped into the
discharge gap between the electrodes, leading to an arc formed in
between the narrowest inter-electrode area, which is subsequently
blown away by the inlet gas into the diverging area. Typically, GAD
produces both thermal and non-thermal plasmas, depending on
the conditions. This technique possesses excellent adaptability for
both surface and liquid treatments and has been utilized for
experimental investigations involving degradation of chemical
contaminants like organic constituents, solvents and industrial
wastes present in water and for bacterial decontamination.
Corona discharge plasma is a diffused route for plasma ignition
that develops around sharp pointed electrodes, containing sub-
stantial electric field for expediting the ionization energy of arbi-
trarily produced electrons to that of milieu gas atoms or molecules
(Scholtz et al., 2015). It is usually generated at high voltage and
occurs predominantly on one electrode. Additionally, the technique
is inexpensive and simple to implement. Corona discharges have
been exploited for microbial decontamination, surface treatment,
electro-precipitation, etc., however it is restricted to non-
homogeneous diminutive areas. In contrast, radio frequency
plasma is usually achieved when a gas is placed within an oscil-
lating electromagnetic field, produced by an induction coil or
distinct electrodes kept outside the reactor. Analogous to micro-
waves, this class of plasma leverages on well-known sophistication
and operates at frequencies covering Hz to MHz.
2.1.2. Plasma generated at reduced pressure
Non-thermal plasma generated under low pressure is basically
delineated by microwave powered (MP) plasma, driven by elec-
tromagnetic waves at frequencies over hundreds of MHz. As
opposed to electrode-based methods, microwave discharges are
generated using a magnetron that supplies microwaves into a
process chamber guided by a coaxial cable. The irradiation is
48 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
subsequently absorbed by the process gas and heat is produced,
causing ionization reactions by inelastic collisions. MP plasma is
considered advantageous owing to the absence of electrodes and
can be easily enkindled in air. Also, gas requirements are low and
large quantities of reactive species are usually released. Albeit, MP
plasma is spatially limited, i.e., its application to large areas requires
an array of discharges comparable to the arrangement of plasma
jets. Fig. 1 depicts a schematic representation of various routes for
plasma generation.
2.2. Factors influencing the efficiency of cold plasma
2.2.1. Processing variables
The effectiveness of cold plasma is dependent on several factors,
which is primarily connected to the fact that various plasmas and
the techniques used for their induction have distinct characteris-
tics. For example, the type of processing gas employed principally
determines the nature and quantities of reactive species produced
in the discharge as well as the efficacy of the treatment procedure.
Analogously, the active species generated are subject to frequency
and input voltage, i.e., higher values correlates with increase in
energy density (Guo, Huang, & Wang, 2015). An additional process
variable affecting CP efficiency is the mode of exposure, with direct
exposure as a preferable approach for process improvement, in
contrast to indirect or remote exposure; as the latter decreases the
amount of heat transmitted to the matrix considering the self-
quenching nature of charged particles and their ability to recom-
bine before reaching the sample (Patil et al., 2014).
2.2.2. Intrinsic attributes
Internal characteristics of microorganism are also essential
yardsticks that influence CP efficiency. For example, during mi-
crobial decontamination of food products, the inherent properties
of the microorganism are critical for an effective process, since
sensitivity can differ within species or even strains (Lunov et al.,
2016; Yong et al., 2015). Generally, bacteria in stationary phase
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of different plasma sources: a) Dielectric barrier discharge b) Corona discharge c) Microwave discharge d) Radiofrequency discharge (Niemira, 2012;
Surowsky, Schlüter, & Knorr, 2014).
are sensitive to several inactivation treatments than those in the
exponential phase, while gram-positive bacteria were found to
possess less plasma sensitivity than gram-negative bacteria owing
to the outer features of their lipopolysaccharide membranes and
peptidoglycan thickness (Lunov et al., 2016; Yong et al., 2015).
Analogous to other inactivation processes, sporulated bacteria are
more resistant to plasma treatment than vegetative cells and a high
concentration of bacteria clusters more cells, reducing the pene-
tration capacity of reactive species. In addition, cell walls of fungi
composed chiefly of chitin exhibits stronger resistance to plasma
treatment than bacteria due to the intricate rigidity imparted (Liang
et al., 2012).
2.2.3. Milieu factors
Surrounding factors such as relative humidity, pH and nature of
sample substantially affect the effectiveness of CP treatment. For
instance, solid and liquid food matrixes interact differently with
reactive species, as most liquids are able to vaporize during treat-
ment and partake in subsequent reactions. Also, foods with lower
pH respond differently to heat, stress and other conditions as
demonstrated by Muranyi, Wunderlich, and Heise (2008), who
showed that upon completion of plasma treatment, a 4.7 log
reduction in Bacillus cereus was observed at pH 5 against 2.1 log
recorded at pH 7. Likewise, increasing relative humidity enhances
the inactivation of microbes due to increase in the composition of
hydroxyl radicals. Concurrently, the nature of the matrix influences
process efficiency, for example, a filter membrane or agar plate can
be effectively decontaminated, compared to those present on a fruit
surface or cheese slice due to migration of microorganism from the
outer to inner tissues at a definite velocity (Yong et al., 2015).
2.3. Methods for augmenting plasma efficiency
Cold plasma is widely acknowledged to be thermally benign and
can achieve high inactivation efficiency when applied on food
surfaces. Nevertheless, certain contact surfaces, e.g., egg shells may
 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
experience decreased interaction between reactive species as a
result of stacking of microbes, considering the relatively unsmooth
nature of egg shells (Fernandez, Noriega, & Thompson, 2013).
Therefore, augmentation strategies such as integration of other
techniques or certain conditions are usually employed to improve
CP lethality or process efficacy.
2.3.1. Modified atmosphere
In the food industries, fresh produce is usually packed in
different gas mixtures to extend shelf-life and avoid contamination.
This is also known as modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).
Generally, MAP comprises of other gases except air (78e79% N2,
20e21% O2, 0.03% CO2 and trace gases). Nitrogen is the most
commonly utilized gas in MAP. As an inert gas, it decreases the
proportion of other gases and maintains the shape of the packaging
material. The inclusion of a high amount of oxygen protects the
product from microbial action while carbon dioxide exhibits a
preservative effect against bacterial growth (Kerry, O’grady, &
Hogan, 2006; Sivertsvik, Jeksrud, & Rosnes, 2002). With respect
to CP, it is well-known that the reactive species generated following
ionization is largely dependent on the composition of input gases.
For instance, only neutral, active or ionized argon species are the
resultant stream derived when a pure argon gas is ionized (Niemira,
2012). But this can be remedied using MAP. As reported by Misra,
Moiseev, et al. (2014a) and Misra, Pankaj, et al. (2014b), straw-
berries sealed in a package containing varying combinations of
oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide and subsequently subjected to
DBD induced plasma at 60 kVrms (50 Hz), led to 3.0 log cycle
reduction in microbial populations after 5 min from an initial 5
log10 CFU/g. Similarly, MAP gas mixtures were shown to influence
the reactive species produced during inactivation against Staphy-
lococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli (Han,
Boehm et al., 2016). Notably, the high oxygen MAP treatment
improved ROS generation and decontamination efficiency, with
listeria populations undetectable after 15 s of treatment (Han,
Boehm et al., 2016a).
2.3.2. Chemical augmentation
The characteristic active species released from plasma sources
can also be supplemented by chemical augmentation strategies
including addition of hydrogen from moisture, i.e., plasma-
activated water (PAW) (Niemira, 2012). To substantiate this asser-
tion, mushrooms were soaked in 500 mL of PAW for 15 min and its
influence on post-harvest quality over a period of 7 days at 20  C
was investigated by Xu, Tian, Ma, Liu, and Zhang (2016), who found
a 1.5 and 0.5 log reduction in bacteria and fungi populations,
respectively, alongside delayed softening. Similar findings were
obtained for Chinese bayberries immersed in a 1500 mL PAW so-
lution for 5 min (Ma et al., 2016). The result depicted up to 1.1 log
CFU reduction in microbes after 8 days of storage at 3  C, with 50%
decrease in fruit decay. The PAW solution that contained significant
portions of ROS compared to control facilitated microbial inacti-
vation, considering its high oxidation-reduction potential, i.e.,
510 mV (p  0.05) against 269 mV for control as well as a reduction
in pH of PAW solution to 3.57 (p  0.05) after 25 min of plasma
activation, which induced oxidative stress on cell membrane (Ma
et al., 2016). Fig. 2 shows the experimental arrangement
employed in this study. In addition, applying sanitizers (sodium
dodecyl sulfate and lactic acid) on red chicory alongside atmo-
spheric cold plasma demonstrated a 4.78 and 3.77 log CFU/cm2
reduction in L. monocytogenes and verotoxin-producing E. coli,
respectively (Trevisani et al., 2017). Furthermore, injection of
essential oils and other high molecular weight compounds can
enhance the antimicrobial efficacy of CP. For instance, the anti-
listeria effect of nitrogen induced cold plasma (500 W, 120 s)
49
coupled with lemongrass oil (5 mg/mL, 30 min) during pork loin
decontamination showed a 2.80 log reduction in L. monocytogenes
(Cui, Wu, Li, & Lin, 2017). These studies emphasize the possibility of
enhancing cold plasma efficiency using chemicals such as food-
based sanitizers or natural antimicrobials.
2.3.3. Magnetic field
A magnetic-assisted field is an alternative approach for
increasing plasma density. As depicted in a configuration
comprising of a plasma jet and an axial magnetic-field of 0.587 T,
oxygen concentration and electron density was increased by 2.4
and 1.5 times, respectively (Liu et al., 2016). In addition, a rise in
hydroxyl radicals generation was noted and bactericidal efficiency
of the plasma jet against E.coli was amplified by 1.23 times (Liu
et al., 2016). Currently, this augmentation strategy has been uti-
lized in bio-medical applications, and could in the future, be
exploited in food applications for increasing radical generation at
plasma/substrate interface region.
3. Current applications of cold plasma in food processing
3.1. Microbial decontamination of food products
Momentarily, the food industry is faced with the daunting
challenge of delivering nutritious, safe and shelf-stable food prod-
ucts to consumers by preventing microbial contamination. During
processing or post-harvest operations, microbial invasion can occur
at any step including human handling, equipment operation,
transportation or the actual processing. Ordinarily, thermal pro-
cessing is used to produce microbiologically safe and stable food
products. However, it is not a preferred method due to loss of
nutritional and sensorial qualities. Moreover, most consumers now
frown at food products containing chemical preservatives. This has
led to the emergence of mild non-thermal decontamination tech-
nologies such as pulsed electric fields (PEF), high pressure pro-
cessing (HPP), irradiation and non-thermal plasma.
The antimicrobial efficacy of CP treatment have been estab-
lished by a significant number of studies (Dasan et al., 2017;
McClurkin-Moore, Ileleji, & Keener, 2017; Wang, Zhuang, &
Zhang, 2016; Xu et al., 2017). As a non-thermal preservation tech-
nique, it proffers certain benefits such as low temperature, minimal
nutrient destruction and loss of sensorial properties as well as
absence of toxic by-products. From some preliminary studies, it
was shown that CP treatment was able to destroy microorganisms
in chicken meat (Noriega, Shama, Laca, Díaz, & Kong, 2011). It was
also capable of killing Listeria innocua in ready-to-eat meat by up to
1.6 ± 0.5 log cfu/g, depending on the composition of the charged
species (Rød, Hansen, Leipold, & Knøchel, 2012). Several mecha-
nisms emanating from the interaction of food matrixes with CP
reactive species have been proposed and summarized in a review
by Liao et al. (2017). Firstly, oxygen and nitrogen plasmas are known
to generate ample amount of ROS including NO2, NO, OH, O3, O2, O.,
and a high rate constant is required for the oxidation of atomic
oxygen at room temperature, which is also higher than molecular
oxygen (Critzer, Kellywintenberg, South, & Golden, 2007). As a
result, a reaction occurs on the double bond of ROS-sensitive un-
saturated fatty acid (mostly polyunsaturated fatty acids, PUFA)
present on the cell membrane, thereby impeding the movement of
biomolecules due to oxidative stress (Alkawareek, Gorman,
Graham, & Gilmore, 2014). During lipid peroxidation, the PUFA
loses a H atom to yield fatty-acid radicals (L.), which is subsequently
oxidized by O2 into a lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH) (Joshi et al., 2011).
In addition, UV photons also produce lethal effects on the micro-
organism by altering its DNA, thereby retarding cells multiplication.
Alternatively, the chemical modification and degradation of
50 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58

Fig. 2. A schematic diagram of the experimental arrangement, including PAW generation and PAW treatment of Chinese bayberries (Ma et al., 2016).

membrane proteins owing to the action of hydroxyl radicals
generated from CP have also been opined as another pathway for
the inactivating effect of CP (Dobrynin, Fridman, Friedman, &
Fridman, 2009). Other studies suggested that the accumulation of
intracellular charged particles may induce apoptosis, electrostatic
disruption (Lunov et al., 2016) and electroporation (Liao et al., 2017).
Although the inactivating effect of non-thermal plasma is undis-
putable, information regarding specific mechanism and cellular
targets are still obscure and inconsistent due to the complexities
associated with food systems, microorganisms and plasma.
Among the recent publications on the sterilization effect of CP
treatments summarized in Table 1, Choi et al. (2017) reported the
decontamination of dried squid using corona discharge plasma
generated at 20 kV (58 kHz) for 0e3 min. Upon termination, a 2.0,
1.6 and 0.9 log reduction was observed for aerobic bacteria, marine
bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively, with minimal
changes to the sensorial profile and volatile basic nitrogen, when
compared with control. Similarly, the sporacidal effect of micro-
wave induced CP against onion powder stored at two distinct
temperatures (4 and 25  C) were examined. The investigation
revealed that a 40 min duration of high microwave density CP could
inhibit B. cereus, A. brasiliensis, and E. coli O157:H7 by 2.1, 1.6 and 1.9
log CFU/cm2, respectively, after 21 days without affecting the
quercetin content, color and radical scavenging ability of the sam-
ple (Kim, Oh, Won, Lee, & Min, 2017).
In general, during CP treatment microorganisms suffer severe
bombardment by reactive species, provoking surface lesions on the
living cells, which explains the swift killing effect of plasma gas.
With regards to food product quality, no changes in surface light-
ness or the appearance of fresh chicken meat was reported,

Table 1
Recent findings on microbial decontamination of food products using cold plasma technology.

Food matrix Microorganisms Plasma Source Treatment Conditions Observation References

Mandarin Penicillium italicum Microwave P ¼ 900 W, PL ¼ 0.7 kPa, d ¼ 24 cm, 84% reduction in disease incidence Won et al. (2017)
discharge ET ¼ 10 min
Chicken eggs Salmonella enteritidis HVACP V ¼ 85 kV, f ¼ 60 Hz, ET ¼ 15 min Up to 5.53 log cfu/egg reduction Wan et al. (2017)
Corn Aflatoxins HVACP V ¼ 90 kV, f ¼ 50 Hz, RH ¼ 40%, Degradation of aflatoxin reached 82% Shi, Ileleji, Stroshine,
ET ¼ 10 min Keener, and Jensen
(2017)
Lamb meat Brochothrix thermosphacta DBD V ¼ 80 kV, f ¼ 50 Hz, ET ¼ 5 min 2 log cycle reduction Patange et al. (2017)
Radish sprouts Salmonella typhimurium Microwave P ¼ 900 W, PL ¼ 667 Pa, ET ¼ 20 min Up to 2.6 ± 0.4 log CFU/g reduction Oh et al. (2017)
Discharge
Egg shells Salmonella APP jet V ¼ 2e3 kV, f ¼ 1 MHz, ET ¼ 5 min Reduction factor ranging between 0.22 Moritz, Wiacek, Koethe,
Enteritidis and 2.27 log CFU/egg and Braun (2017)
Romaine Escherichia coli O157:H7 DBD V ¼ 42.6 kV, RH ¼ 22%, d ¼ 5.0 cm, 0.4e0.8 log CFU/g decrease in the number Min et al. (2017)
lettuce ET ¼ 10 min, of E.coli
Onion Powder Bacillus cereus, Aspergillus Microwave P ¼ 400 W, d ¼ 24 cm, ET ¼ 40 min 2.1 log spores/cm2, 1.6 log spores/cm2, and Kim et al. (2017)
brasiliensis, Escherichia coli discharge 1.9 CFU/cm2 reduction, respectively
Egg shell Salmonella enterica DBD V ¼ 25e30 kV, RH ¼ 80%, f ¼ 10 Population reduction to below the Georgescu, Apostol, and
e12 kHz, ET ¼ 10 min and 25 min detection limit (102 cells per egg) Gherendi (2017)
Groundnuts Aspergillus parasiticus, Radiofrequency P ¼ 60 W, RH ¼ 45.3%, 97.9% and 99.3% reduction, respectively Devi et al. (2017)
Aspergillus flavus plasma f ¼ 13.56 MHz
Dried squid Aerobic bacteria, marine Corona V ¼ 20 kV, f ¼ 58 kHz, d ¼ 25 mm, Inactivated by 2.0, 1.6, and 0.9 log units, Choi et al. (2017)
shreds bacteria, Staphylococcus Discharges ET ¼ 3 min respectively
aureus
Vacuum Staphylococcus aureus, DBD f ¼ 9 kHz, d ¼ 2 cm, P ¼ 29.9 W
2 log reduction Bauer et al. (2017)
packaged Listeria monocytogenes,
beef loin Escherichia coli

Note: HVACP ¼ High voltage atmospheric cold plasma, APP ¼ Atmospheric pressure plasma, DBD ¼ Dielectric barrier discharge, P ¼ Power, V ¼ Voltage, RH ¼ Relative
humidity, d ¼ distance, f ¼ frequency, ET ¼ exposure time.
 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
following exposure to CP (Wang, Zhuang, Hinton, & Zhang, 2016).
In shell eggs where discoloration occurs in yolk due to oxidation of
carotenoids, no significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed after
HVACP treatment (Wan, Chen, Pankaj, & Keener, 2017). When
microwave-induced CP was exercised against E. coli O157:H7 on
lettuce, approximately 90% inactivation efficiency was reported,
and no noticeable changes to organoleptic and quality features such
as color, weight loss, ascorbic acid concentration, and antioxidant
activity were observed (Song et al., 2015). Similar trait was noted for
antioxidant ability of radish (Oh, Song, & Min, 2017). However,
proper selection of gas alongside electric power is crucial for
obtaining desired results. Nonetheless, CP holds a remarkable po-
tential as a promising tool for postharvest sterilization. Optimiza-
tion and scale-up to commercial viability will require a thorough
understanding of the chemical processes involved and mechanism
of microbial inactivation.
3.2. Modification of the functionality of food materials
3.2.1. Food components
Food components, such as starch (comprising of amylose and
amylopectin molecules) is one the principal ingredient found in
most food products and expansively utilized in other
manufacturing sectors. For native starch, considering its limitations
(low solubility in cold temperatures, high viscosity and retrogra-
dation control), certain enzymatic, physical and chemical tech-
niques are used to modify its functionality, in order to broaden its
applications. Some studies suggest that plasma processing can
induce desirable changes in native ingredients (Thirumdas, Kadam,
& Annapure, 2017a, Thirumdas, Trimukhe, Deshmukh, & Annapure,
2017b; Wongsagonsup et al., 2014; Wu, Sun, & Chau, 2017; Zhu,
2017). Precisely, active species produced by CP alter the configu-
ration of starch molecules, leading to transformation in swelling
power, pasting characteristics, water absorption, enzyme suscep-
tibility, solubility and changes in compositional, structural and
thermal properties (Thirumdas et al., 2017a,b; Wu et al., 2017).
Typically, these modifications are initiated via increase in surface
energy, incorporation of functional groups, cross linking, depoly-
merization and change in hydrophilic nature (Thirumdas et al.,
2017a,b). CP may also induce modification via molecular degrada-
tion and granular corrosion/etching. Wu et al. (2017) employed
reactive species generated from corona electrical discharge to
modify the techno-functionalities of banana starch in a time frame
of 3 min. The study revealed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in
pasting temperatures (88.8e92.1  C) and a decrease in peak vis-
cosity due to higher crystallinity of starch and increase in swelling
resistance. In addition, CED treatment remarkably increased gela-
tinization temperature from 57  C to 66.0  C and 66.5  C at 40 kV/
cm and 50 kV/cm, respectively, although morphological studies
indicated a dose-dependent surface distortion due to plasma
etching (Wu et al., 2017). Although, results may vary with plasma
source and composition, method of generation, treatment time and
nature of starch.
Furthermore, CP technology was evidenced to be capable of
modifying protein rich isolates from grain pea (Pisum sativum)
(Bußler, Steins, Ehlbeck, & Schlüter, 2015). The authors found a
191% and 113% rise in solubility and water uptake ability in the
protein isolates. Conformational transformation of proteins
particularly tryptophan, was confirmed using fluorescence emis-
sion intensity, varying from 328 nm to 355 nm with increase in
treatment time. Also, the treatment induced a reduction in pH of
the pea protein isolates to 3.4 in a time dependent manner. This
may be attributed to acidification due to generation of nitric and
nitrous acid from NO via NO2 (Sakiyama & Graves, 2009). Corre-
spondingly, as shown in Fig. 3, a significant increase in the
51
concentration of free sulfhydryl groups to 7.554 mmol/g (p < 0.05)
after 7 min was observed alongside a rise in solubility when zein
powder was subjected to DBD plasma treatment (Dong, Gao, Xu, &
Chen, 2016). In addition, the investigation revealed an increase in
tensile strength to a maximum of 25.80 ± 1.94 MPa while contact
angle value for all the treated samples was lower than control; this
implies that zein hydrophilicity increased. The deduction made was
that active species (O2, O2þ, H3Oþ) interacted with the surface of
zein, leading to increase in polarity (Dong et al., 2016). Table 2
provides a summary of recent findings on tailored functionalities
of food materials using cold plasma.
3.2.2. Grains and derivative products
In addition to the surface modification effect of plasma on starch
and other food components, non-equilibrium plasma can also
decrease cooking time, enhance cooking properties and positively
influence the surface characteristics of grains. A detailed investi-
gation was recently provided by Sarangapani, Yamuna Devi, et al.
(2017b) to show the aftereffect of low pressure plasma on the
physiochemical characteristics of black gram. A significant reduc-
tion in cooking time from 30.25 to 20.45 min and a decrease in
hardness values from 22.50 to 12.36 N were observed. In addition,
the water absorption capacity increased with plasma dosage after
4 h of soaking due to formation of simple sugars, such as glucose,
maltose, dextrin, etc., while contact angle fell from 85.4 to 59.7.
Plasma etching and surface depolymerization can also aggrandize
a-amylase activity (up to 1.21 folds) and water absorption in brown
rice (Lee et al., 2016).
Furthermore, an equally significant aspect would be plasma-
assisted processing of intermediate products from grains e.g.
flour, pellets etc. For example, the water holding capacity of basmati
rice flour increases with increase in plasma power and exposure
time (Thirumdas, Deshmukh, & Annapure, 2016a,). Additionally,
the authors found a significant increase (p < 0.05) in solubility and
swelling power alongside a decrement in pasting viscosity from
692 to 591 BU, which corresponds to a fall in peak temperatures. In
agreement, Sarangapani, Thirumdas, et al. (2016b) concluded that
amylose content of parboiled rice flour decreased from 30.34 to
27.89% with an improvement in flour hydration properties and
liberation of phenolic contents after plasma treatment. They also
mentioned that the endothermic enthalpies and percentage of
crystallinity of the flour declined from 7.90 to 7.47 and 28.25 to
24.36, respectively. A common trend in the aforementioned studies
was minimal changes to the proximate composition of grains and
significant increase in lightness values, which implies CP do not
induce major changes to the sensorial and nutritional profile of
food materials. Regardless, there may be need to thoroughly exploit
the sensory impact and perception by consumers as well as prac-
ticability in real food systems, i.e. integrating plasma treated grains
or their derivatives into existing or new food products.
3.3. Degradation of agrochemical residues
Pesticides are a group of chemical compounds widely used in
contemporary agriculture to control crop infestation and weeds.
The routine application of pesticides prevents crop losses and in-
creases production output. Characteristically, pesticides are
considered potentially toxic to other living organisms including
humans and as a result, it is important that utmost precautionary
measures are in place during application. Nonetheless, for decades,
food safety concerns resulting from unintentional consumption of
pesticides residues associated with minimally processed products
or unwashed fresh produce, have persistently been a global chal-
lenge. According to reports from the EU Pesticide Action Network,
approximately 209 varieties of pesticides have been identified in
52 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58

Fig. 3. a) Concentrations of soluble zein in neutral and acidic water solutions after CP treatment b) Free sulfhydryl group concentration and pH of DBD plasma-treated zein in 80%
alcohol solution (Dong et al., 2016).

Table 2
Summary of recent findings on tailored functionality of food materials using cold plasma.

Matrix Power source Feed Treatment Main Findings References

Gas parameters

Banana Corona electrical Air P ¼ 50 kV/cm, A significant (p < 0.05) increase in pasting temperatures and decrease in Wu et al. (2017)
starch discharge T ¼ 3 min peak viscosity
Rice starch DBD Air P ¼ 60 W, Decrease in retrogradation tendency of starch gels and increase in pasting Thirumdas, Kadam, et al.
T ¼ 10 min and final viscosities (2017a)
Zein DBD Air P ¼ 75 V, Significant improvement in solubility and reinforcement of the tensile Dong et al. (2016)
T ¼ 10 min strength and surface hydrophilicity
Pea protein DBD Air P ¼ 8.8 kV, Increased water and fat binding capacities and solubility to 113, 116 and Bubler et al. (2015)
isolate T ¼ 10 min 119%, respectively
Parboiled Radiofrequency Air P ¼ 50 W, Decrease in hardness and stickiness, likewise endothermic enthalpy and Sarangapani, Misra, et al.
rice flour T ¼ 15 min crystallinity (2016a)
Basmati rice Radiofrequency Air P ¼ 40 W, Increase in gel and flour hydration properties Thirumdas, Deshmukh, et al.
flour T ¼ 10 min (2016a)
Brown rice DBD Air P ¼ 250 W, Significant increase in a-amylase activity (p < 0.05), while significant Lee et al. (2016)
T ¼ 20 min decline in hardness (p < 0.05)
Brown rice Radiofrequency Air P ¼ 50 W, Reduction of cooking time from 29.1 to 21.1 min and increase in water Thirumdas, Deshmukh, et al.
T ¼ 10 min uptake (2016a)
Parboiled Radiofrequency Air P ¼ 50 W, Amplification in water absorption capacity and reduction in cooking time (Sarangapani et al., 2015)
rice T ¼ 5 min and hardness
Basmati rice Radiofrequency Air P ¼ 40 W, Decline in cooking time, contact angle and increase in water uptake Thirumdas, Deshmukh, and
10 ¼ 5 min Annapure (2015)

Note: DBD ¼ Dielectric barrier discharge, P ¼ Power, T ¼ exposure time.

various food products, manufactured in several countries within
the EU, with over 2% surpassing their maximum residue levels.
Moreover, pesticides have the potential to contaminate drinking
water supplies, by finding their way into ground or surface water
systems as runoff from crops. Even when present at low concen-
trations, toxicity may still be an issue of concern, due to bio-
accumulation over time and the possibility of long-term adverse
effects. For example, in humans, a prolonged exposure to
dichlorvos causes a disturbance in glucose metabolism and may
induce hyperglycemia (Romero-Navarro, Lopez-Aceves, Rojas-
Ochoa, & Mejia, 2006). While dimethoate can cause oxidative stress
and DNA damage in rainbow trout (Dogan et al., 2011). These health
scares have necessitated the development of various measures for
the degradation of residual pesticides in food products, especially
fresh produce and drinking water. Such treatment procedures
include photocatalysis (Oancea & Oncescu, 2008), Fenton oxidation
(Li et al., 2009), hydrogen peroxide oxidation (Qiu, He, Liu, & Yu,
2005), ultrasonication (Cheng, Vecitis, Park, Mader, & Hoffmann,
2008), adsorption (Gupta & Ali, 2008), and membrane technology
(Banasiak, Van der Bruggen, & Scha €fer, 2011), however some of
these treatment methods have been linked with incomplete
degradation and the generation of unwanted end-products.
In pursuit of new preventive measures, non-thermal plasma
can alternatively be used for the degradation of residual pesticides
in food products. Although predominantly used for inactivating
microorganisms, there are currently a few studies in literature
that confirms its dissipation efficacy. A recent investigation con-
ducted by Sarangapani, O'Toole, et al. (2017a) indicated that DBD
generated cold plasma could significantly degrade imidacloprid
and boscalid in blueberries by 75.62% and 80.18%, respectively,
after treatment at 80 kV for 5 min. Meanwhile, visual observation
of the sample showed no changes in color or signs of physical
damage. However the firmness decreased during storage due to
surface softening and collapse of internal structures. In the same
vein, the pesticide removal potency of high voltage atmospheric
cold plasma (HVACP) treatment in water samples has been vali-
dated. Notably, as represented in Fig. 4, increase in process pa-
rameters such as voltage and treatment time enhances
degradation efficiency. Up to 57.71, 69.62 and 78.98% dissipation
efficiencies were observed for endosulfan, malathion and
dichlorvos, respectively, after treatment at 80 kV for 8 min
(Sarangapani, Misra et al., 2016a). These results were in agreement
with a 45e71% removal efficiency obtained in another study,
aiming at decontaminating strawberries containing fludioxonil,
 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
Fig. 4. Degradation of three pesticides (a) dichlorvos, (b) malathion and (c) endosulfan (Sarangapani, Misra et al., 2016a, Sarangapani, Thirumdas et al., 2016b).
azoxystrobin, pyriproxyfen and cyprodinil (Misra, Moiseev et al.,
2014a, Misra, Pankaj et al., 2014b).
Furthermore, from preliminary investigations, Zhu, Wang, Xi,
and Pu (2010) demonstrated the efficacy of He/O2 induced
plasma on malathion. The mechanism of action deduced was that
the P¼S bond present in malathion undergoes oxidation by oxygen
species in plasma into P¼O, to form diethyl-2-
(dimethoxyphosphorylthio) maleate (malaoxon). Likewise, dicho-
lorvos coated on glass sides was successfully degraded upon
exposure to an inductively coupled plasma source. However an
increase in applied power had insignificant effect on the dissipation
efficiency (Bai, Chen, Yang, Guo, & Zhang, 2010). In contrast, no
effect was observed when strawberries containing boscalid, pyr-
imethanil and iprodione were exposed to plasma treatment (Misra
et al., 2013). This implies that although CP may be able to eliminate
a myriad of pesticides, its effectiveness largely depends on the
composition of plasma gas and the nature/structure of the target
pesticide. Other compelling studies validate CP as a promising
technique for pesticide degradation including 17b-Estradiol (Gao,
Sun, Wan, Yu, & Li, 2013), endosulfan (Manoj Kumar Reddy,
Mahammadunnisa, & Subrahmanyam, 2014), organophosphate
(Hu, Bai, Yu, Zhang, & Chen, 2013) and dichlorvos/omethoate (Bai,
Chen, Mu, Zhang, & Li, 2009). At this junction, studies focused on
elucidation of mechanical pathway and end-product identification
are urgently required to ensure that the process is safe and do not
compromise food quality. Although some studies have reported the
absence of non-toxic end-products following CP treatment (Boehm,
Heslin, Cullen, & Bourke, 2016; Gao et al., 2013; Sarangapani, Misra
et al., 2016a).
3.4. Food packaging material processing
CP technology can be utilized for surface treatments of pack-
aging material to achieve improved functionalization, etching or
cleaning, and deposition. Surface functionalization entails addition
of distinct functional groups or turnable surface energies to the
packaging material surface in order to impact antimicrobial prop-
erties and enhance mechanical properties (glazing, adhesion,
sealability, wettability, dye-up-take, etc.) (Contini et al., 2014;
53
Pankaj et al., 2014; Sen & Mutlu, 2013). As an illustration, the ef-
fect of CP application on edible film made from defatted soybean
meal (DSM) for covering smoked salmon was recently investigated
by Oh et al. (2016). The DSM-based film subjected to argon induced
CP at 400 W for 15 min showed a 24.4%, 13.4% and 6.8% increase in
moisture barrier property, elongation and tensile strength,
respectively. Also, lipid oxidation was reduced during storage at
4  C. Likewise, the inactivating effect of plasma jet operating at
50 W against biofilms of E coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium and L.
monocytogenes present on selected food container materials
(collagen casing, polypropylene and polyethylene terephthalate)
portrayed a 3e4 log CFU/cm2 reduction in the biofilms after 10 min
(Kim et al., 2015). CP is also capable of maintaining the sealing
properties of polymer foils or laminates (Heise, Neff, Franken,
Muranyi, & Wunderlich, 2004). Alternately, the technique may be
used to deposit coatings on the surface of polymers by employing
layers of deposition barrier. As a result, the permeation of gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide) into packaging material could be
reduced and undesirable contaminants removed without leaving
residues. Although these technological breakthroughs of CP for
packaging material processing cannot be discounted (especially
improvements in physical and mechanical properties), the weak
penetration power associated with plasma species calls for more
investigations.
4. Future application trends of cold plasma in the food
industry
4.1. Hydrogenation of edible oils (trans-free)
Hydrogenation is an oleochemical process, which involves the
conversion of liquid oil into solid fat, by the modification of
chemical structures. Typically, the process is executed in the pres-
ence of a catalyst (nickel powder) at high temperature and pressure
and hydrogen gas is incorporated into the hot liquid oil to act on
unsaturated fatty acids, thereby yielding partially hydrogenated oil
(PHO). The reaction is principally dependent on the adsorption
affinity of the catalyst to hydrogen atoms and the double bonds
contained in the unsaturated fatty acid, while saturated fatty acids
54 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
are unaffected since they are completely filled with hydrogen
atoms. Hydrogenation improves the keeping quality of oils and
changes the physical functionality of oils into solid fat called
margarine, which closely resembles butter or lard. However, a
major con associated with the traditional procedure is the resultant
trans-fatty acids, since characteristically the process involves re-
actions between polyunsaturated carbon chains of fatty acids and
hydrogen molecules, that generates positional trans-isomers
(Dijkstra, 2006), causing a major health concern (trans-fats pre-
dispose individuals to cardiovascular diseases). In an effort to
obtain desirable oil characteristics, novel technologies are being
tapped to maneuver lipid chemistry.
Recently, Yepez and Keener (2016) investigated HVACP as an
alternative pathway for producing trans-free POHs. In this study,
soybean oil directly exposed to HVACP showed a decrease in iodine
value from 131 to 92 after 12 h and a 32.3% rise in saturated fatty
acids. A fall in polyunsaturated fatty acids was also noted, without
the formation of trans-fats. Specifically, a-linolenic acid and linoleic
acid was reduced from 9.5 to 3.7% and from 48.2 to 36%, respec-
tively. Plasma was shown to alter the chemical structure of sub-
strates by deposition, cross linking, and etching, and the energy
levels of hydrogen species increased over time (Yepez & Keener,
2016). Conversely, to reduce iodine value from 130 to 90, soybean
oil will have to be hydrogenated for 1e4 h under pressure levels of
1e3 atm at a temperature range of 150e235  C, in the presence of
0.01e0.08% nickel catalyst (List & King, 2016). The expediency of
HVACP over conventional hydrogenation processes lies in its
operating conditions i.e., ambient temperature, atmospheric pres-
sure and absence of catalyst.
4.2. Mitigation of food allergens and anti-nutritional factors
Food allergy is a major health concern, which occurs due to
abnormal immunological response when certain foods are
consumed. Attempt to produce hypoallergenic food and hasten the
development of oral tolerance remains a subject of interest for food
processors and researchers. Presumably, since food allergens are
primarily proteins, CP may enhance certain reactions that modify
its linear epitopes and influences allergenic properties. Although
the specific mechanical pathway involved is still unclear, various
mechanisms may be responsible for changes in food allergenicity
upon exposure to CP. Firstly, the loss of protein solubility leads to
formation of insoluble aggregates or crosslinking of proteins,
thereby modifying conformational isotopes, while linear epitopes
are altered by fragmentation. It is also possible that the intrinsic
species, e.g., hydroxyl radicals present in plasma gas can break
peptide bonds, oxidize side chains and may resultantly cause
fragmentation (Surowsky, Fischer, Schlueter, & Knorr, 2013). Plau-
sibly, disulfide bonds, which occur within a peptide, can cleave as a
result of the inclusion of a hydroxyl radical to yield RSH and RSO$ at
the point of cleavage. Moreover, ROS such as nitrogen species
(NOS), atomic oxygen or hydroxyl radicals attack oxidation-prone
amino acids, leading to the destruction of antibodies binding sites
(Meinlschmidt et al., 2016).
Meinlschmidt et al. (2016) subjected two major soy allergens,
i.e., b-conglycinin (Gly m5) and glycinin (Gly m6), to both direct and
remote CP. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electro-
phoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis revealed that protein bands corre-
sponding to these two proteins became less conspicuous after
plasma treatment, followed by formation of new bands at 50 kDa.
Since no soluble aggregates were observed at the top of the gel, it
was conceivable that the formation of insoluble aggregates led to
the disappearance of protein bands in SDS-PAGE. In addition, up to
100 and 89% change in soy protein immunoreactivity was observed
for direct and remote CP, respectively. Conversely, no noticeable
changes in the IgE binding values and gel band intensities was
observed for milk allergens (casein, b-lactoglobulin and a-lactal-
bumin) exposed to a remote plasma source (Tammineedi,
Choudhary, Perez-Alvarado, & Watson, 2013).
Furthermore, it is well-known that food materials especially
those originating from plants containing naturally-occurring
compounds (ANFs), impede the utilization of nutrients by form-
ing complexes, and as a result reduce nutrient absorption by the
digestive tract. Examples of ANFs include cyanogenic glycosides,
lectins, tannins, enzyme inhibitors (e.g., trypsin inhibitor, amylase
inhibitor, and montbretin A), oxalates, and saponins. Most ANFs
influence the digestive system and overall body metabolism via
various pathways: for example, tannins reduce protein digestibility
by forming complexes with proteins while lectins are known to
deter hydrolysis and transportation occurring within the intestinal
absorptive cells (Krupa, 2008). Therefore, it is important that def-
inite technical steps are implemented during food processing to
eliminate or reduce ANFs to non-toxic levels. This can be achieved
using thermal treatment, soaking, sprouting, fermentation, irradi-
ation, etc. However, high temperature treatment at prolonged du-
rations induces objectionable changes to physicochemical
characteristics of proteins and causes loss of heat labile compounds.
On the other hand, non-thermal technologies such as non-
equilibrium plasma could well-nigh or completely inactivate
ANFs in food matrices. For example, a time-dependent decline in
the activities of soybean trypsin inhibitor (STI) present in soymilk
have been reported (Fig. 5) (Li et al., 2017). Substantial inactivation
(96.1%) of soybean kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor (SKTI) against
bovine trypsin was also noted and credited to oxidative alterations
and conformational changes induced by the reactive species.
Additionally, results from SDS-PAGE assay indicated non-
occurrence of cross-linked proteins bands with higher molecular
weight or fragments with low molecular weight (Li et al., 2017).
These investigations pioneered CP technology as a replacement
to thermal methods for the control of allergens and inactivation of
ANFs in foods. Therefore, generalizations cannot be established at
this stage until further studies are conducted to elucidate specific
mechanism and examine its post-treatment effects on nutritional
and organoleptic profile. Imperatively, the technique should be
exploited on other allergenic proteins or ANFs and information
regarding safety should be deduced before adoption by the food
industry.
4.3. Modification of seed germination performance
Globally, the cultivation of seeds is faced with multiple challenges
like drought, water logging, high salinity and extreme temperatures.
These intrinsic and extrinsic factors adversely influence the germi-
nation of seeds and as a consequence, diminish production yield.
Besides, low seed survivability owing to microbial contamination
and longer germination duration are also additional constraints
confronted by farmers. Some scientist proposed that CP can posi-
tively influence seed viability with peculiar advantages such as
uniform treatment, non-destruction of seeds and environmental
benigness (Ling et al., 2014; Mitra et al., 2014; Park et al., 2016;
Puligundla, Kim, & Mok, 2017; Su, Lan, Pritchard, Xue, & Wang,
2016). Plasma is said to increase the water imbibition capacity of
seeds (via etching, introduction of functional groups and coating
with exotic materials), leading to an enhanced germination process,
inhibition of microbial growth and improvement in other growth
parameters (Randeniya & de Groot, 2015). Hence, the technique was
successfully used to ameliorate the growth of soybean sprouts using
argon plasma at 22.1 kV for 12 s, evidenced by up-regulation in
demethylation levels of target of rapamycin, adenosine triphosphate
and growth-regulating factors (Zhang et al., 2017).
 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
Fig. 5. Residual STI activities of soymilk after DBD plasma treatment (A) at 51.4 W for different time intervals and (B) or at various input power for 90 s (Li et al., 2017).
Similarly, a DBD PAW was employed to modulate the germina-
tion of selected seeds. The result showed that after 15 min exposure
to PAW, stem elongation was promoted by 60% for tomatoes and
pepper while up to 80% increase in germination rate was recorded
for radish, in contrast to control (Sivachandiran & Khacef, 2017). In
agreement, an attempt was made to comprehend the influence of
CP over germination rate in mung bean seeds at different power
levels and exposure durations of plasma. The study (Sadhu,
Thirumdas, Deshmukh, & Annapure, 2017) revealed an increase
in radical root, conductivity of seeds and germination rate by 36.2,
20 and 102%, respectively, and an increment in the activity of hy-
drolytic enzymes, i.e., amylase, protease and phytase, thereby
confirming the eminent ability of CP to momentously accelerate
moisture uptake and promote the survival ability of seeds during
extreme conditions or stresses.
4.4. Effluent and waste water management
Water is essential in most food unit operations. It is utilized
during equipment cleaning, raw material processing, steam gen-
eration, etc. Waste water proceeding from food processing plants
contains high organic loads, which cannot be completely oxidized
or decontaminated using biological procedures or traditional
physiochemical methods. As a result, it is paramount that
adequate methods are developed for treatment of waste discharge
from the food industry. Oxidizing species of ROS have been re-
ported to induce decomposition or degradation of pollutants,
when diffused into liquid waste. Mohamed et al. (2016) demon-
strated the usefulness of CP for the treatment of effluents derived
from a fruit and vegetable processing plant. In this study, a plasma
jet operating at 25 kV was employed with results indicating that
for the date and tomatoes processing plant, efficient decontami-
nation of waste water was achieved after 120 and 150 s, respec-
tively. Whilst for blackberry and beetroot wastewater, total
bacterial count was decreased by 0.41 and 2.24 logs, respectively,
after 180 s of exposure. Mohamed et al. (2016) also noted that
Escherichia coli was the most susceptible bacterial species and up
to 90.22% of endotoxins were removed. Likewise, CP from GAD
was used to completely remove AG25 dye from water in 10 min,
against 20 min required by conventional coagulation with a salt
(FeCl3,6H2O) (Benidris, Ghezzar, Ma, Ouddane, & Addou, 2017).
The mechanical pathways for CP activity have been ascribed to
diffusion of hydroxyl radicals or other reactive species, the
photolytic activity of UV light during degradation of organic
compounds, and the induction of shockwave, which causes py-
rolytic and chemical reactions through electrohydraulic cavitation
in an indirect manner (Jiang et al., 2014).
55
5. Safety consideration and limitations of cold plasma
So far, relatively few studies have been focused on safety out-
comes or possible production of toxic compounds upon interaction
of ROS with food components. Notwithstanding, an investigation
was recently conducted to examine the oral toxicity of edible films
subjected to cold plasma (Han, Suh, Hong, Kim, & Min, 2016b). In
this study, male and female SpragueeDawley (SD) rats adminis-
tered with 5000 mg/kg or 1000 mg/kg/day of edible film treated
with CP showed no signs of acute toxicity after 14 days. Although
the authors noticed alterations in blood level of hemoglobin, he-
matocrit, bilirubin, creatinine, and aspartate aminotransferase, but
they were still within normal physiological ranges. Additionally,
macroscopic analysis manifested no visible changes in appearance
or texture of their representative liver sections (Han, Suh et al.,
2016b). It could therefore be inferred that CP treatment of food
products did not induce the production of toxic compounds.
Equivalently, the suitability of CP for the treatment of fatty foods
and other sensitive food products alongside the possibility of
inducing chemical changes has been questioned. For instance, a
surge in peroxide value was recorded for nuts subjected to CP at
prolonged exposure time and high power (Thirumdas, Sarangapani,
& Annapure, 2014) due to the fact that high fat products are most
likely to be affected by oxidation leading to the formation of short-
chain fatty acids, aldehydes, hydroxyl acids, keto acids, etc., causing
off-flavors and odors. Moreover, other food constituents such as
antioxidants may influence the decontamination efficiency of CP;
therefore optimization studies for plasma treatment ought to be
tailored specifically for each product. Other limitations of plasma
may include decline in the firmness of fruit and vegetables,
discoloration, and heightened acidity. In addition, the efficiency of
plasma treatment is largely influenced by the surface topography of
the sample (Fernandez et al., 2013). Future research should be
focused an exhaustive detailing of CP interactions with food com-
ponents and the effect on food quality. It is also important that
thorough cost analysis for large scale applications of CP should be
provided. Though, this is mainly determined by the amount of
electricity and the choice of feed gas.
6. Conclusions
In the past decade, CP treatment of food products has experi-
enced increased popularity due to its potential contribution to non-
thermal food processing. Several experimental investigations have
been conducted thus far on known applications while others
explored new pathways for exploitation of non-thermal plasma for
the food industry. Thus, this review is a collation of recent studies
56 F.-G. Chizoba Ekezie et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 69 (2017) 46e58
focused on the applications of cold plasma in the food industry
including microbial decontamination of food products, packaging
material processing, modification of food components, seed
germination performance and degradation of agrochemical resi-
dues. The review also highlights other trajectories for CP employ-
ment in the food industry such as hydrogenation of oils, mitigation
of food allergens and anti-nutritional factors and effluent man-
agement. In consideration of the foregoing, it should be safe to
conclude that CP technology holds potential significance for the
food industry.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the International S&T Cooperation
Program of China (2015DFA71150) for its support. This research was
also supported by the Collaborative Innovation Major Special Pro-
jects of Guangzhou City (201508020097, 201604020007,
201604020057), the Guangdong Provincial Science and Technology
Plan Projects (2015A020209016, 2016A040403040), the Key Pro-
jects of Administration of Ocean and Fisheries of Guangdong
Province (A201401C04), the National Key Technologies R&D Pro-
gram (2015BAD19B03), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation
(2017M612672), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities (2017MS067), the International and Hong Kong-
Macau-Taiwan Collaborative Innovation Platform of Guangdong
Province on Intelligent Food Quality Control and Process Technol-
ogy & Equipment (2015KGJHZ001), the Guangdong Provincial R &
D Centre for the Modern Agricultural Industry on Non-destructive
Detection and Intensive Processing of Agricultural Products, the
Common Technical Innovation Team of Guangdong Province on
Preservation and Logistics of Agricultural Products (2016LM2154),
and the Innovation Centre of Guangdong Province for Modern
Agricultural Science and Technology on Intelligent Sensing and
Precision Control of Agricultural Product Qualities. Flora-Glad
Chizoba Ekezie is in receipt of financial support from China Schol-
arship Council (CSC No: 2016GXZ300) for her PhD study.
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