Pieremertsiei “The forces of attraction are the forces that exist within molecules , ‘or between molecules. These are described as intramolecular and intermolecular forces of attraction. Intramolecular forces are forces of attraction within molecules. These forces are strong and areas aresult of chemical bonds. Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction between molecules and are weak forces. Fig. 2.1 below summarizes the forces of attraction. a ' : ee ~ Fig, 2.1 Covalent tonic Metallic Iydrogen | Van de Waals Forces of attraction 7 1 eg. Cu, Na boa = forces e.g. Br. | The physical state of matter depends on the strength of the forces ofattraction in and between the particles. Solids have strong forces of attraction while liquids have moderate forces of attraction and. gases have weak forces of attraction. Physical properties such as / boiling point, melting point and solubility depend on the type of » forces of attraction present in compounds. Table 2.1 Pl erties of different types of comp wsical Electrical Bonding mp/bp. Solubili Conductor in molte onic Soli high or aquicous stat Giant covalen strong) Solid high ; Insoluble » (except graphitey ‘ e.. diamond 3 ‘Simple molecular ] Solid, Usually sotuble in { (weak van de liguid or | tow Non-conductor ar or non-polar 4 Waals force as. q i Rae Soli an ee Dissolve in other (except Hay metals to form alloys yp ="6, CCl OC COC O'S CSRMelting involves breaking the lattice and overcoming the forces’ of attraction. The energy required to melt an ionic compound is, high as it must overcome strong electrostatic forces of attraction in the lattice. For example, sodium chloride melts at approximately 800°C. + In simple covalent compounds, the molecules are held together by weak van der Waals forces and therefore the melting point is lower than ionic compounds., Metallic structures are held together by strong metallic bonds. The energy required to break the metallic lattice is relatively high when compared to ionic and covalently bonded compounds. CHEMICAL BONDING ‘A bond is defined as a force of attraction that holds two or more atoms, ions or molecules together. This attraction is established between particles carrying positive and negative charges or between the positively charged nucleus and electrons. In 1916, Kossel and Lewis observed that like the noble gases (except He), many elements were most stable when they contained ight clecirons in their valence shell. They proposed that elements with less than eight valence electrons either gain, lose or share clectrons to achieve a stable electronic configuration similar to that of the next higher or lower noble gas in the periodic table. As a result, chemical bonds were formed from the interaction of the electrons of one atom with the other. While some of their predictions have since been proven incorrect, for example many of the transition metal ions do not have an electronic structure like a noble gas, their work has established the basis of the theory of chemical bonding 7 IONIC BONDING Tonic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from a metal atom to a non-metal atom until the outer shells of the resulting ions are similar to those of a noble gas: The metals lose electrons and form cations, while the non-metals accept the electrons lost from the metals and form anions. The oppositely charged cations and anions are attracted to each other by what is called the’ electrostatic force of attraction which is a strong force that holds the ionic compound together. Ionic bonds are typically formed between metals with one, two or three electrons in their outer shells and non-metals with five, six or seven electrons in theirFig. 2.2. Formation of sodinm chloride 3 Fig.2.3 Formation of : magnesium fluoride outer shells. The dot and cross diagrams below shows how ionic bonds are formed in sodium chloride, magnesium fluoride and lithium oxide. Sodium chloride In the formation of sodium chloride, each sodium atom donates its one outer shell electron to a chlorine atom forming Na‘ and 2) © ©] |G Magnesium fluoride Magnesium atom loses its two outer shell electrons to form Mg” ion while each fluorine atom gains one electron to form F ions. OO AOILithium oxide Each lithium atom loses its one outer shell electron to form Li ions while oxygen gains two electrons to form O* ion, BN u jy ° u 0 ui Properties of ionic compounds 2 They are usually crystalline solids; Their regular arrangement of ions results in electrostatic attraction throughout the lattice imparting rigidity and strength to the structure. 2 They have high melting points, boiling points, heats, of fusion and heats of vaporization. A large amount of energy is required to break the solid structure that is held together by strong electrostatic attraction. 2 ‘They are hard and brittle, When a force is applied, the charges repel each other which results in the erystal being shattered. 2 They conduct electricity when molten or dissolved, in water! The ions are free to move therefore mobile charge carriers are present to conduct electricity. They do not conduct electricity in the solid state because the ions have restricted motion and are not free to move. 2 They are usually soluble in water. They have charges and will have solute-solvent interactions with polar water molecules. Factors influencing formation of ionic compounds ; Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions. Thus the ionization ; energy and the electron affinity can be used as measurements of i the ease with which ions are formed. In addition, there is also an "