Unit five cont--

In the equation the volume of 6CO2 used is equal to produced 6CO2. This is basis for how respirometers
work.(fig 5.16 page161). For every molecule of O2 the organism uses, a molecule of CO2 will be
produced, but the CO2 will be absorbed by the potassium hydroxide(KOH) over time CO2 reduced in
volume inside the respirometer. At this water will enter the pipette in volume equal to the volume of O2
being used. From this the rate of respiration measured based on how much O2 is used in a set period of
time and we write a rate in per minute.

What happens in the an aerobic pathway?

If no O2 the final rxn of oxidative phosphorylation electrons and protons react with O2 to form water
can not take place and the electron transport chain comes to halt, then no protons are pumped and the
action of ATP synthase enzyme also stops. If the electron transport chain does not function there is a
further “Knock-on effort”. This results in NAD is not regenerated from reduced NAD and FAD is also not
regenerated from reduced FAD. From this very quickly Krebs cycle and Link rxns come to halt as both
NAD and FAD are required in their oxidized forms for the Krebs cycle to function.

Glycolysis can continue requires NAD. This is b/e reduced NAD formed during glycolysis when
regenerated under anaerobic conditions by converting the pyruvate in to another product in a reduction
rxn. Redced NAD supplies the hydrogen ions for reduction reaction and oxidized itself. From this it
regenerated and can be used again in glycolsis. Diff. Organisms produce diff. Fermentation and produce
products. Eg- Animals produce lactate (Lactic acid) when ferment glucose.

Yeast cells produce ethanol (ethyl alcohol) but both are produce two mol’s of ATP per molecule of
glucose. ( Read the summary from fig 5.22 page 164)

What substances can be used as energy sources?

The source of energy Are---A/ The respiration and fermentation of glucose.

B/ Using lipids and proteins as respiratory substrate. The metabolism of proteins, lipids and CHO’s
converges on the Krebs cycle reaction.

5.2 How do plants harness light energy in photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis- Uses light energy in a series of rxn’s that lead to the synthesis of a range of
organic mol’s. It form chemical energy. When energy changed from on form to another that we
say it has been transducted. Photosynthesis is the light dependent rxn w/c take place when
energy absorbed by special photosensitive pigments called chlorophyll in the chloroplast
membrane in the thylakoids. The site of chloroplast in w/c light –independent rxn’s take place is
fluid stroma where CHO’s are synthesized. Such chemical rxn’s take place most effectively in
solutions rather than were fixed in membranes.
How the structures of chloroplast suited to its functions?

In the chloroplast there are chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigment mol’s are arranged in
special photo systems w/c are linked to electron transport chain (ETCs). The mol’s of the photo
systems and electron transport chains are fixed in the membrane of the thylakiods w/c make
the process efficient than they floating around in a solution. There are two types of photo
systems w/c are sensitive to light of a diff. Wave length and liked to diff. ETCs . They are Photo
system I and II. (fig.5.29)

What is the structure of a photo system?

A photo system consists of a number of pigmented mol’s all clustered around one particular chlorophyll
molecule called the reaction center complex( an antenna complex). When rxn center mol’s positioned
next to ETC, the energy absorbed by other molecule in the photo system is transferred to the rxn center
molecule and light –dependent rxn begin. The diff. Pigmented mol’s in the antenna complex can
absorbed diff. Wave length of light this make the whole system more efficient. These pigments are-

A/ chlorophyll a B/ chlorophyll b C/ Caratenoids

The reaction center mol’s is always chlorophyll a. The range of wave lengths that each molecule absorb
is its absorption spectrum (fig 5.31 page 172). The action spectrum for diff. Wave length shows how
effective photosynthesis is at each wave length. The wave length of visible light most absorbed by
plants, but green visible light with 500 to 600nm wave length are reflected from plant w/c make them
green. The action of spectrum is diff. For diff. Wave length of light. It is dip in green region of the
spectrum.

What happens in the light –dependent reaction?

The light- dependent rxn’s u se light energy to drive the synthesis of two mol’s that will in turn
drive light- independent rxn’s. These mol’s are –1/ ATP mol’s provide energy for the rxn’s (light
dependent and in dependent rxn’s).

2/ The reduced NADP mol’s –provide the for a key reduction rxn. NADP is very similar to NAD
mol’s that is used in respiration and the same function w/c is transporting hydrogen ions.
(fig-5.32 page 173 summary of light –dependent rxn’’’s)

Photo system I and II

In photo system II electrons in chlorophyll mol’s are excited by the energy in photon of light and
they become more energetic, b/e of this extra energy the mol’s escape from chlorophyll and
accepted by electrons w/c are primary E’s acceptor. There are the first molecule to accept the
exited electron displaced from a chlorophyll molecule. In the chloroplast the rxn those occur
are 2H2O___O2+4H+4e-. This is light –dependent splitting of water is called as photolysis.
During this rxn the E’s lost from chlorophyll molecule are replaced. The primary electron
acceptor mol’s pass E’s to the next molecule in an electron transport chain (plastoquinone or
Pq). Then they pass along series of cytochromes and finally to plasto cyanin(Pc) w/c is the last
The one molecule in the cytochrome complex is a proton(H ion) pump. The E’s those lose
power moved by the pump w/c moves protons from the stroma of the chloroplast to the space
inside the thylakoid, this leads an accumulation of protons inside the thylakoid w/c drives the
chemiosmoitic syntheisi of ATP.

E’s in the chlorophyll mol’s in photo system I are excited and absorbed by protons of light and
escape from the molecule replaced the electrons that have passed down the electron transport
chain from photo system II. In the second electron transport chain involving ferredoxin (Fd) and
NADP reductase. At the end of the stroma of chloroplast to form reduced NADP.

A photo synthetic unit- is a unit of pigment, E’s carrier and ATP synthase that is capable of
caring out all the rxn’s in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis. The ATP formation in
this way is described as non-cyclic photo phosphrylation w/c is because of-

A/ The phosphorylation (ATP formation) is light-dependent.

B/ The E’s lost from the chlorophyll are not recycled in any way.

Plants sometimes generate ATP by cyclic phosphorylation rxn. This is because of –

1/ Phosphorylaion used only photo system I.

2/ NO, oxygen and reduced NADP are formed.

3/ E’s lost from the chlorophyll molecule are returned to it. From this the name cyclic is given.
In both cyclic and non-cyclic phosphorylation ATP is produced because of –

A/ There is an accumulation of protons in the inner of a thylakoid.

B/ An accumulation create concentration gradie.nt b/n the thylakoid interior and stroma of the
chloroplast.

C/ Protons move down the concentration gradient through ATP synthase w/c causing rotor to
spin in the mitochondria during respiration.
How is CHO synthesized in the light-independent reaction?

The light-independent rxn of photosynthesis take place in the stroma of chloroplast. This rxns
comprise a complex cycle of rxn that involves the addition of CO2 to preexisting 5C molecule
with in the chloroplast. This mol’s are regenerate the original molecule and at the same time
synthesizing glucose occur. The sequence was discovered by Milvin Calvin an American
biologist. From his work light- independent rxn referred as Calvin cycle. In 1950s he
experimented with unicellular algae called Chlorella be exposing to redioactive CO2. After
period of the time te algae killed and the chemical contained in the algae have radioactive
carbon identified by using two dimensional chromatography. He refining the experiment using
shorter and shorter interval identified compounds containing three carbon atoms called
glycerate phosphate(GP)

What is the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis?

Its effect was explained in three stages. The effect is measured by the production of oxygenin
the process by using graph.( Fig-5.39 page 178) The stages are-

A/ When very high light intensities- respiration still occurring and it take in oxygen faster than
photosynthesis produced in low light intensity.

B/ When medium light intensities- Ph.syn. produce more oxygen than respiration uses, the rate of ph.
Syn. Increasing with increasing light intensity.

C/ When very low light intensities- the rate of ph. Syn. Is beginning to level out, even though the light
independent is still increasing (the rate also increases) but some other factor is probably limiting the
rate.

What is the effect of the concentration of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis?

Also we use graph to show its effect that –

A/ when very low concentration of carbon dioxide little ph. Syn. Take place and respiration still
using oxygen .

B/ When the conc. Increase also the rate of ph.syn. increases and begins to level off at higher
conc. But some other factors or due to saturation of Rubisco and the rate could be affected.
How dose Temperature affect the rate of ph. Syn.?

Many rxns of light –dependent and light – independent are controlled by enzymes w/c are
affected by temperature. That means when temperature exceeds the optimum decreases
rapidly.

How can all the factors interacts to influence the rate of ph.syn .?

Increasing light intensity should increase the rate at w/c ATP and reduced NAD are produced in
the light dependent rxns. This as result increase the rate of the calvin cycle can take place. In
turn the rate of Calvin cycle could be limited by-

A/ High temperature (Limiting the rate at w/c enzyme denature and such as Rubisco can
operate)

B/ A low concentration of carbon dioxide. These two factors also limit the rate at w/c reduced
NADP and ATP can be used w/cc in turn limits the amount of NADP and ADP+P1 that can be
used in light- independent rxns. From this whole process are limited, even though light
–intensity continues ( Fig-5.42 page179 and read the note below the graph and take your own
note).

Are there any other ways of ph. Synthesis?

C3 photosynthesis and photo respiration.

C3 photosynthesis is the method of ph. Syn. w/c take place in plants those are found in Europe.
This is b/e of the first compound formed in the light independent rxns of the Calvin cycle is GP
w/c contain C3 atoms. C3 plants have leaves are adapted to the method of C3 ph.syn. They are
generally broad leaves that enable them to catch as much sun light as possible. The leave cell
that contain most chloroplasts (Palisade cells) are nearest the upper surface of the leaf(w/c
make broad). The stomata are manly on the lower surface to minimize water loss. During day
time it open for most of time to allow the entry of carbon dioxide, but they can be closed if
water loss is too great at hot day. The spongy mesophyll layer has air space to allow easy
diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen b/n a palisade layer and stomata.
(fig- 5.45 page 181 show the leaf structure of a C3 plants)

Tropic plants at very hot time they close leaves stomata to minimize water loss, but in a C3
plants do this have problem that carbon dioxide concentration in the leaves falls and the
enzyme Rubisco starts to behave in an unusual way. In low co2 cocnc., RUBP bind to oxygen not
to CO2 w/c means it oxidized to one molecule of GP and a molecule of phosphoglycolate and
CO2 is produced photo respiration. The process is called as photo respiration b/e its involves
oxidation of carbon.
Ribbulose bisphosphate + oxygen_Ribisco______________GP+ phosphoglycolate.

The one molecule of GP formed in photo respiration can re- enter the Calvin cycle but the
phospho glycolate must be converted in to GP for use in Calvin cycle by complex series of the
rxns. These rxns involving in a chloroplast an organelle called a peroxisome and a mitochondria.
( fig-5.4 the rxns of photo respiration page181)

Its name was given from its production and break down of hydrogen peroxide during the
reaction. The two phases of photo respiration are-

1/ Rubisco catalyses a rxn b/n oxygen and RuBP to form one molecule of GP and one molecule
of phosphoglycolate.

2/ The phosphoglycolate is converted to GP in rxns in the chloroplst, peroxisome and

mitochondrion.

The reasons that photo respiration reduces the efficiency of ph. Syn. Includes-

A/ The carbon is oxidized w/c is the reverse of ph.syn. results the reduction of carbon and CHO.

B/ The Rublose bisphosphate must be re-synthesized and the phosphoglycolate removed.

C/ ATP is used in the re-synthesis of RUBP.

C4 photosynthesis

Is the method of ph.syn.in tropical plants such as found in Ethiopia, Maise, Carbgrass, Sorghum
and Sugar can to overcome that photo respiration reducing the efficiency of pho. Syn. Its name
is given from first formed compound in light-independent rxn is C4 but not GP or C3 compound.
The diff. b/n C3 and C4 compounds is that how glucose is synthesized in the light-independent
rxns.( see leaf structure of C4 plants in fig-5.47 page 182). In leaf structure diff. b/n C3 and C4
plants is the cells of the bundle sheath contains chloroplasts don’t in C3 plants and no
thylakoids, means that the light-dependent rxns cannot occur. So oxygen is not produced in
their chloroplasts.

This help them to prevent photo respiration and allows Calvin cycle to take place in these cells.
The light-dependent rxn in C4 plants pathway also involve a set of rxns not found in C3 plants.
These rxns take place in the mesophyll cells w/c have chloroplasts with thylakoids and can
carryout the light-dependent rxns. They have no enzyme to catalyze the rxns of the Calvin cycle
but the following rxns take place are ---

1/ CO2 reacts with a C3 compound called PEP to form the C4 compound oxalo acetate. These is
Catalyzed by enzyme PEP carboxylase.

2/ Oxaloacetate converted in to another C4 compound w/c is malate w/c pass from mesophyll
cell in to a bundle sheath cell.

3/ In the bundle sheath cells malate is converted to pyruvate with release molecule of CO2 w/c
starts the rxn of Calvin cycle by binding with RUBP.

4/ The pyruvate is conveted bake to to PEP, this rxn requires ATP. The rxn is summarized on
fig-5.48 page 183. C4 ph. Syn. Is most efficient in conditions of---

A/ Low CO2 conc. b/e they grow very close together.

B/ High light intensity.

C/ High temperature.

Table 5.2- a comparison of C3 and C4 plants ph.syn. on page 185 read carefully and take your
own note.

THE END.