DRDO MONOGRAPH SERIES NO.

INTRODUCTION
TO
TORPEDO TECHNOLOGY

Rear Adm (Retd) NK Ramanarasaiah, VSM

DEFENCE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, GOVT OF INDIA
NEW DELHI·ll0 011
1993
DRDO MONOGRAPH SERIES NO. J

INTRODUCTION
TO
TORPEDO TECHNOLOGY

Rear Adm (Retd) NK Ramanarasaiah. VSM

Former Director
Naval Science & Technological Laboratory
Visakhapatnam

DEFENCE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, GOVT OF INDIA
NEW DELHI·IIO 011

1993
© 1993, Defence Scientific Infonnation & Documentation Centre (DESIDOC),
Delhi·ItO 054

Cover Photograph (Taken by the author) : The firing of CJ practice torpedo from a
Kamorta class ship.

Designed, typesct and printed at DESIDOC. Metcalfe House. Delhi·ll0 054.

Author recelvmg the 'Scientist of the Year' award from the then Prime Minister
Sm!. Indira Gandhi - 1984.
Author with Shri R Venkataraman. the then Defence Minister
when he visited NSTL in the early eightees.
 FOREWORD

Oceans have always fascinated man and he has, from early days of
civilisation, turned to them for adventure and exploration. Indeed, they
have been his 'main highways' for extending his 'empire' and 'trade'. Over
the last century, he has been exploiting the waters of the ocean for
resources-living and nonliving-and to fill his unsatiating need for energy.
With such a role to play, oceans have been the arena where man has been
waging wars to protect his sovereignty over the resources and to subjugate
his enemies resulting in 'Ann adas'-from Spanish wars to the present. It
would not be an overstatement to declare that the 'sea power' to a large
extent dictated the outcome of many wars upto and including the World
War II

The most potent weapon the seagoing ships of this century have been
carrying is the 'torpedo' , be it for antiship warfare or antisubmarine warfare .
the latter being dominant since the World War II. Though , of late , other
long-range weapons have broken-in in the arena, torpedoes sill remain one
of the main weapons carried by ships and submarines. Design and
development of torpedoes is a multidisciplinary activity involving acoustics
for homing heads, mechanical engineering and hy{jrodynamics for shell
desian, chemical technology for warheads and explosives, power sources
and batteries for propulsicn and electronics and software for guidance and
control. It can weU be said that the raison d'erre for Naval Science and
Technological Laboratory (NSTL) at Visakhapatnam is to establish a centre
of exceUence in this complex torpedo technology. Over the las\ couple of
decades NSTL has been deeply involved in establishing such a technology
besides other activities in ship design and related bydrodynamic facilities.
Notwithstanding its work in ship design, fire control systems and simulators,
torpedoes remain the sine qua DOD of NS11...
 It is then appropriate that the first book to come out of NSTL should
be on torpedoes and the first book to be written on torpedoes in India
should come from NSTL. It is also appropriate that this book be written
by the man who himself was at the centre of torpedo technology by being
a scientist at the developmental stage, a project leader and finally the
Director of NSTL.

Rear Admiral N .K . Ramanarasaiah spent over two decades in \ defence

research and development involving himself with various phases of the
developmental work on underwater weapon systems at NSTL and then
building NSTL to its present status. It Is rather unfortunate that this book
on science and technology of torpedoes could not be published during his
life time. Due to the sad and sudden demise of Adm. Ramanarasaiah , this
book is being published posthumously.
This book does not provide any mathematical analysis of the algorithms
used in the design of a torpedo or provide a cook book for the design . On
the other hand, the intent is to provide a resource book to the new entrants
of R&D and the Services by providing an overview on the various aspects
of the weapon system itself. I do believe that this book admirably fills this
crying need. The' editing of this book has received immeasurable help from
DESIDOC and NSTL , especially from Shri Kondal Rao of NSTL.

I do hope that this book would give as great a pleasure to a reader as

I have had in writing this foreword to the book by a very close colleague
Adm. Ramanarasaiah.

VK Aatre
New Delhi Chief Controller(R&D)
17 November 1993 Defence R&D Organisation
 PREFACE

During a span of more than three decades and more of teaching and
research in the Indian Navy and the Defence Research and Development
Organisation, I had often felt the need for an introductory book on the
most important tactical weapon of underwater warfare, the Torpedo. I was
given the privilege of working in this field and often it was found that
knowledge of a new entrant to DRDO, posted to the establishment
concerned, was practically nil in thi5 area. There are no books of references
or text books for a Sub-Lieutenent undergoing preliminary training to get
at least a basic knowledge of torpedoes before venturing into the subtleties
of underwater warfare .
This boOK has been written with the very specific aim of catering to
this need apart from being an information source for the other Services as
well as for the general public. I have deliberately avoided mathematical
approach for 'a beginner tends to shy away from hand texts. It is proposed,
however, to cover this gap in a separate volume.

Bangalore NK Ramanarasiah
22 November 1992
 DEDICATED

TO

Smt. LsHtbs RBlDaDlJrBSBisb

 CONTENTS

Foreword

Preface

1. The War at Sea 1

2. The Sea 4

3. Radiated Noise 11

4. The Beginni ng 17
5. The Design 19

6. The Prime Mover: Thermal Engine 24

7. Electric Propulsion 30
8. Stability, Equilibrium and Manoeuvrability 39
of Torpedoes
9. Controlling Torpedo in Depth and Azimuth 45

10. Acoustic Transducers 52

1 1. Homing 64
12. Torpedo Fuzes 71
13. Fire Control Systems 7S
14. Practice Torpedoes 78
15. Torpedo as a System 86
Epilogue 92
Bibliography 93
 CHAPTER 1

THE WAR AT SEA

From time immemorial the sea has been the gateway as well as a
barrier for the invading forces of any nation with coastline . The destinies
of many a nation have been shaped by invading forces from across the sea.
The primary role of a nation's Navy is to safeguard it from invasions .
Depending on the geopolitical environment and the length of the coastline
a nation has, the size of its Navy may vary fr('m a few small frigates to an
armada consisting of hundreds of warships ranging from aircraft carriers
to minesweepers and missile boats.
The warfare at sea, which effectively means the projection of an
offensive capability of the Nation out at Sea, can be broadly described as
a battle between groups of sUliace crafts or between aircrafts and surface
crafts or between submarine and surface crafts. Hence it is said that the
Navy operates in '3 dimensions'.
There has been a tremendous influence on the design and functioning
of naval crafts as a result of very rapid scientific and technological progress,
especially in electronics and materials science . The operational capabilities
and effective deployment of these crafts have been very greatly influenced
by the advent of satellites, exotic communication systems, longer ranges
of weapons and sensors.
Surprise is an important and essential ingredient in any warfare and
the sting of this element seems to have been somewhat blunted as a result
of incredible technological advancements in detecting the presence of the
enemy, whether it is from a satellite or from a long-range sensing device.
The strategy and the tactics, apart from the design of more modem
sea-going crafts, have bad to undergo a vast change compared to what was
adopted during World War I I . Emergence of powerful computers and
realistic simulations have in no small measure influenced the
decision-making process in the higher commands of the Navy .
As stated earlier, satellites with multiple kinds of sensors which are
impervious to atmospheric conditions and with extremely high-resolution
viewing devices have made the atmosphere totally transparent. This, in
effect, nullifies the advantages that the surface forces have had in countering
the enemy. Light or any form of electomagnetic radiation has a very high
attenuation rate in sea-water. It was thought, with the perfection of laser
devices, that the window in the blue-green region would make the ocean
transparent to the surveillance by a satellite. But, even in this window the
attenuation is fairly high and is not effective at distances or depths greater
than tOO m. As the technology stands today, the ocean, being opaque to
many kinds of devices, is still able to contribute, to a large extent, the
element of surprise and stealth to the submarines, which have thus become
the most potent offensive crafts for war at sea.
The deployment of a weapon depends on the characteristics of the
weapon and the tactics adopted. The tactical doctrines that are employed
are governed to a large extent by the parameters of the weapons and
sensors. For example, the tactics by which a long-range weapon is deployed
will be at total variance with that of a shorter-range weapon. The parameters
of the weapon and the tactics that are adopted in deploying them are highJy
interdependent. It will be interesting to see how the concept and design
of any weapon originate. The user, based on the emerging threat perception
of the future , feels the necessity of a weapon which can either be an
offensive or of a defensive type. The initial qualitative requirement which
arises out of this necessity defines broadly the required capabilities of the
futuristic weapon, methodology of deploying the weapons and the types
of platforms that are likely to exist when these weapons come into service ,
are all taken into account . The feasibility of designing and also ensuring
production of the weapon that has met the qualitative requirement of the
user, should be commensurate with a large number of technological factors
that are at that time in vogue and the capability of the industries to meet
the requirements of these newer technologies. Much can be written about
the requirements that are to be met, as per the requirement of the three
Services vis-a-vis the technological capability of the design department and
the industrial infrastructure of the country. What is important to remember
is that inducting a new weapon system in the Services is both complex and
challenging.

2
 In order to ensure optimal use of the sea-going craft's ability to wage
a war at sea, especially in deploying underwater weapons, a large number
of parameters have to be considered in its design.This can be illustrated
by a typical example of a country with a shallow sea along its coast . The
operational depth of the weapon, the type of homing system incorporated
in the weapon, and weapon's ability to manoeuvre in the vertical plane
would all be very different from a weapon that is to operate in deep waters.
Similarly, if the nation is not aspiring to project its power beyond its
territorial waters, the design of the submarines itself would be vastly
different from that of a nation which decides to have a 'blue-water navy'.
A very clear perception is. therefore. needed at a higher political level. to
foresee the requirements of the future, based on its foreign policies and
geopolitical conditions. Various contingencies and options may have to be
fully analysed before committing the nation to large sums of money before
embarking on the design , development and induction of a weapon system
into the Services.
Apart from such policy decisions relating to in the design of a weapon
or a sensor system. complex knowledge of the medium in which the weapon
is to operate, the type of platform to launch this weapon. the type and
characteristics of the targets against which these weapons are likely to be
deployed are all to be taken into account by a design agency.
Design . development and induction of a weapon or sensor system after
extensive evaulation and generating the required tactical doctrines to
exploit the capabilities of the weapon fully . is a highly interactive process
between the user, designer and the maintainer of these systems. A weapon
or sensor system cannot be looked at in isolation. but as an integral part
of the launching platform, be it a ship, submarine or an aircraft.
Also to be taken into account are such factors as storage. potential
for upgrading. ease of preparation of the weapon. and adequate spares.

3
 CHAPTER 1

THE SEA

'Mysterious and dark' is a familiar expression for describing the large

mass of water surrounding the land. The maritime nations, the world over,
spend considerable amount of money in funding research to understand
the mysterious sea. The gentle lapping of the waves on a sandy beach
which is so tranquil to the mind beguiles the pent-up energy and the dynamic
forces operating on this vast mass of water. The design of the sea-going
crafts operating on this ever-changing medium would have to take into
account every possible parameter of the sea to make them sea- worthy.
The dynamic nature, is due to the fact that the sea or ocean interacts with
a number of external factors like atmosphere , gravitational pull of the sun
and moon , seasons and sun's heating effect . It is therefore essential that
a full knowledge of the characteristics of the sea be understood to effectively
design a sea-going craft especially because these fundamental aspects affect
the design of underwater weapons a great deal more .
The important parameters that are directly involved and are of interest
are the sea state, salinity, depth, nature of sea bottom, thermal layers,
seasonal variations of these parameters, corrosion of materials, resistance
offered by the medium to a moving body and many others.
PROPAGATION IN SEA
The electromagnetic radiations ranging from the visible to the high
frequency end , experiences a great deal of attenuation in the sea-water.
The extent of attenuation varies from one end of the spectrum to the other.
Depending on the suspended material the penetration of the visible part
of the spectrum may not be more than 30 m of depth. There are exceptions,
for example, the Mediterranean Sea , where the water being very clear
there is a considerable amount of illumination even to depths of 40 m. At

4
very low frequency (VLF) that is (up to and around 20 kHz) the penetration
of the waves may be no more than 10 m, undergoing very rapid attenuation.
Experiments have shown that in a very narrow band of the visible part of
the spectrum the output of a blue-green laser is capable of propagating up
to about 100 m. Hence an object which is submerged even in a shallow
depth of 50 m cannot be detected by the electromagnetic radiation, as is
done by a radar.

In contrast, even with low power outputs electromagnetic energy can

propagate to great distances in the atmosphere. This unique property of
the ocean of being opaque to electromagnetic waves makes a submarine
less vulnerable to detection by such means.

However, the acoustic energy, especially at the low frequency end, is

able to propagate to very long distances in water. Large scale deploymet
of submarines in World War II proved a stimulus to research work in at
perfecting systems based on propagation of acoustic energy for detection
of submerged submarines. Also, this encouraged research world over, to
fully understand the propagation characteristics of acoustic energy in
sea-water, its dependence on various factors like salinity, internal waves,
effect of sea-bottom, propagation in shallow water, effect of thermal layers,
etc.

The concentration of dissolved salts in sea-water is to the extent of

30 thousand parts per million on an average. Experiments, carried out
even in the early part of this century, revealed that though the concentration
is very small compared to sodium chloride, magnesium sulphate plays a
dominant role in the attenuation of the acoustic energy. Lower frequencies
are able to propagate to a large distance than higher frequencies since
attenuation decreases with decrease in frequency.

The propagation loss includes of the loss due to attenuation and the
loss that occurs because of the energy spreading. as the' distance increases
from the source. The spreading loss is directly proportional to the square
of the distance and the attenuation loss to the square of the frequency of
the acoustic energy.

Depending on the depth of water the spreading loss may foUow a

spherical or cylindrical law 10 D log r where r is the range in yards. In
general, the spreading loss can be expressed in this form where n can vary
between 1 and 2.
The propagation of acoustic waves also depends on the chemical nature

5
(clayey and sandy) of the sea bottom .
AMBIENT NOISE
Contrary to a poet's conception , the sea is far from being quiet. In
fact, if a wide band hydrophone is lowered in the ocean, one can hear a
lot of noise from a very low frequency till much beYQnd the audible range .
This noise is known as the ambient noise of the sea, a factor which plays
an important role in the detection of submerged objects and in the design
of the sensor system . The ambient noise varies from place to place , from
season to season , from time to time during the day; it also depends on the
nature of the sea bottom . The ambient noise is due to the movement of
water, surf, marine organisms, shipping noise and noise that can propagate
over long distances especially at lower frequencies from land (man made).
The distribution of the noise in the spectra of Qur interest is shown in
Fig. 1. The ambient noise is of relevance to our understanding because if
a sensor device is put under-water in order that a source radiating acoustic
energy is to be detected at long distances , the energy received at the sensor
from this source should be more than the ambient noise at the location of

+t0

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Figure I. Average deep-water a",bienl-noise spectrum.

6
the sensor. The ambient noise may therefore be compared to the electrical
noise one encounters in radio receivers and radar systems.
To sum up, an object to be detected has either to emit some form of
energy by itself or has to reflect a measurable quantity of energy if
illuminated from any other source. As science and technology stand today,
detection of an object under water at long ranges can be done only by
acoustic energy. The entire philosophy of underwater warfare hinges on
this factor.
The dynamic nature of these parameters, adds to the unpredictability
of an underwater encounter at sea.

THERMOCLINES
An important factor that affects the propagation conditions of an
acoustic wave travelling under water is the temperature profile of the water
with respect to depth. The sea receives a vast amount of radiant heat from
the sun, and owing to the movement of water and the effect of atmospheric
conditions, the temperature profile does not remain constant. One would
tend to think that as the depth increases the temperature would decrease ,
but this is never so. In order to understand the effect of temperature on
the propagation of the acoustic waves, it is essential to know a few of the
terms one would come across normally in anti-submarine warfare (ASW).
If the temperature remains constant as the depth increases, isothermal
conditions are said to exist. If the temperature decreases with depth, a
negative gradient region is said to exist . A positive gradient region is one ,
where when the depth increases the temperature increases.

As the density of water varies with temperature, the velocity of

propagation also varies. An acoustic ray propagating through water from
one of the above-mentioned regions to another·encounters a change in the
velocity of propagation, and therefore a condition exists for refraction of
the ray, as in the case of light passing from one medium to another. Snell's
law is therefore applicable. Let us examine the effect of this as shown in
Fig. 2. An acoustic source situated at a depth dl sends out energy in all
directions. The ray of sound towards a sensor situated at a depth dz receives
this energy. If the densities in these two regions are different , the ray of
sound propagating from the source to the receiver will bend instead of
propagating in a straight line. As is well known in the case of light , if a
ray of light propagates from a denser to a rarer medium, a total internal

7
 d, I

SOURCE

c1

I
I
I
I

1 RECEIVER
Figure 2. Snells law.

reflection occurs at certain angles of incidence. Similarly, a ray of sound

also undergoes total internal reflection under certain conditions.
If an object to be detected is in the region where density is different
from that of the region in which the sensor is located, detection of the
object depends on this effect of refraction. It is therefore essential that the
temperature profiles with respect to depth be known in order to predict
detection distances. The device used for recording the temperature with
respect to depth is called a bathythermograph . From the information
obtained from a bathythermograph , the velocity of propagation can be
computed. Bathythermographs normally used in the sea are of two types.
The conventional type is the one in which the sensors plots a graph showing
the relationship between depth and temperature on a slide, when the device
is lowered from the ship. To use the bathy it is necessary to slow down
the ship. Very often this may not be possible and hence a disposable type
of the device is used nowa days. This consists essentially of a small
streamlined body containing the sensors for depth and temperature. This
body is projected out into the sea by means of a suitable mec.hanism and
as it descends in water, a trailing wire is in communication with an electronic
unit on board the ship. The information on the temperature and depth is
received and plotted by the electronic unit. This unit can be linked to a
computing device to get a plot of velocity of propagation versus depth.
Figure 3 shows the effect of the thermoclines on the detection
capabilities of a sonar.
Thus, in addition to the uncertainities due to propagation conditions,
the effect of temperature profile also seriously affects the detection
capability out at sea. Moreover the temperature profiles never remain the

8
 TEMPERATURE O(
1S 20 O� ������r-���
o
____

20
e
1.0

( a) ( b)
(a) Thffmociine (b) path, of typlCa\ sound ruys

Figure 3. Errect or thermoclines on the detection capabilitie� or a sonar: (a) thermoclint and
(b) paths or typical sound rayS.

same, but change even within a few hours. A son ar operating to its fullest
efficiency may be able to detect a submarine at long distances in the early
hours of the day and one may find that the detection distances dro p very
drastically a few hours later, or in a slightly different area. The estimated
sonar range (ESR) has therefore got to be computed often in otder to
deploy ships in an ASW scenario for efficient exploitation .

REFLECTION AT SEA SURFACE AND SEA BOTTOM

If the sea is perfectly calm, a ray of sound originating from a certain

depth can get totally reflected. In reality, it is extremely rare to see the
sea acting as a perfect mirror owing to the ever-present disturbanc.es
its surface. A ray of sound can also get scattered at the surface. There is
a certain amount of loss when the reflection occurs, t�ough this is extremely
small. If the sea is rough , the reflection loss is greater. The reflection can
cause fluctuations in the intensity of the sound received at a certain point ,
owing to sea surface changing constantly. As in the case of light. the
reflected sound can cause interference at a certain point along the Iirie of
propagation with the direct ray. Depending on the phase difference. the
intensity can vary from almost zero to nearly twice the value of direct ray.
The sea-bottom acts, as mentioned earlier, as a reflector of sound
rays. The extent of the reflection and the loss that occurs as a result of

9
reflection depend on the nature of the sea bottom. The reflection loss also
depends on the frequency of the sound . In the case of sandy soil, the loss
for a frequency of 4 kHz can be as much as 14 dB and for a rock it can
be as low as 5 dB . The loss due to reflection from the sea bottom decreases
as thf. frequency decreases. There can be a difference of as much as 20 dB
between the loss at 25 kHz and that at 1 00 Hz.
Sound originating at a certain depth has therefore to travel between
the sea surface and the sea bottom . Under certain conditions. the sound
gets trapped between these two boundaries and owing to multiple
reflections, propagation can occur over long distances.
Depth and salinity also affect the velocity of propagation . The extent
to which the velocity changes with depth is far less than the change in
velocity due to variation in temperature .
Deep sound channels exist at depths of 300-400 m. A certain proportion
of radiated power from a source is able to travel very long distances. Such
sound channels are formed when a negative gradient is followed by a
positive gradient. The deep-sound channels are called SOFAR channels.
The acoustic energy in such channels will be able to travel distances in the
region of hundreds of kilometers. In shallow waters. as in waveguides used
in radar. sound gets rapidly attenuated as the frequency becomes less and
less, and there is a cut-off ftequency depending on the depth below which
propagation gets limited.
A detailed knowledge of the propagation characteristics of acoustic
waves in sea-water is essential to"predict sonar ranges. Underwater weapons
make use of the acoustic energy for homing towards a target and for
detecting the presence of a target.
The ranges involved are far less than those encountered in the design
and operation of sonar systems. However. the initial detection of an enemy
target underwater and deployment of an underwater weapon against this
target will have to be looked at in totality and the importance of
understanding the medium fully cannot be over-emphasised.

10
 CHAPI'ER 3

RADIATED NOISE

The presence of a ship or submarine or an underwater craft is indicated

by the noise it radiates . The radiated noise covers a wide band of spectrum
from very low frequencies to frequencies of 50 to 60 kHz. The radiated
noise enables the enemy submarines or a weapon to track the target and
obtain information on their position. In fact , in the case of a submarine,
when it is fully submerged , only by passive listening is the submariner able
to monitor its surroundings. By using high-directional sensors the bearings
are determined .and by continuous tracking, and using appropriate
algorithms, the target vector , namely the direction of the movement,
distance as well as velocity of the target , can be determined . In the case
of a torpedo, the homing device is able to track the target and to home
onto it. In the case of sea-mines, the acoustic sensor picks up the radiated
noise from a ship or submarine for initiating the explosive chain. It is
therefore important to understand the characteristics of the radiated noise
and the causes for the radiation of the acoustic energy from ships and other
crafts. The radiated noise is indicated as source level (SL), expressed in
decibels; source level indicates the intensity of sound at a distance of 1
yard/metre in 1 Hz band with reference to a standard level. The source
levels in a 1 Hz band is termed the spectrum level.
Broad-band noise has a continuous spectrum compared to a
line-component spectrum. The radiated noise consists of both line and
broad band spectra. A typical noise spectrum of a ship whose propellers
are revolving at variou's
vary with the speed of the craft.
Sources of the radiated noise from a sea-going craft can be broadly
classified under 3 categories : Machinery noise , Propeller noise. and
Hydrodynamic noise.

11
..0
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�� !50 100 200 300 1000 2. !5

FREqUENq Hz..
Figure 4. Noise spectrum at various speeds (rpm).

Machinery Noise
The propulsion machinery of a ship or submarine or torpedo
contributes much to the radiated noise·. In addition, there are a number
of auxiliary machinery like generators and pumps which also contribute to
the radiated noise. Even though very great care is taken to mount these
machineries on the hull with acoustic isolators (mount), the vibration of
the machinery is transmitted to the hull, which in its tum radiates energy
into the sea. The machinery Doise is present predominantly at the lower
end of the spectrum . A great deal of research work is being done to reduce
the machinery-hull interaction.
PropeUer Noise
The energy from the prime mover (main propulsion engine) is
transmitted to the propellers by a shaft to produce the required reaction
to propel the ship. When the blades of the propeller rotate, a phenomenon
known as cavitation can occur at certain speeds. At the onset of cavitation,
the radiated noise increases. The increase is due to the voids created by
cavitation, collapsing and, in the process, emitting acoustic energy. The
onset of cavitation depends on the depth and speed of the propeller.

When the propeller is turning there are pressure fluctuations in and

around it, which interact with the hull to cause radiation of the acoustic
energy.

12
Hydro.dynamic Noise
When a body is moving in water the flow of water aroulld the body
can produce a certain amount of I]oise due to eddies. In addition , plates
appendages on the hull can generate noise due to the flow of water. A
submarine , for example, even in its ultra-quiet state, can radiate a certain
amount of energy, owing to the streamline of flow being disturbed as a
result of the shape of the conning tower and other appendages.
It will thus be seen that arty craft moving on the sea at any depth,
transmits into the water acoustic energy over a broad band of frequencies.
The detection by passive methods of a craft at sea is based on the radiated
acoustic energy. With the rapid advancements in electronics, it has become
possible to detect the presence of a ship or a submarine at long distances
by using advanced signal-processing techniques. Shipbuilders strive to
reduce the radiated noise on the basis of R&D . It is relevant to stress that
the low frequency components of the radiated noise can travel long distances
as the attenuation loss is far less than that at higher frequencies . A q u i e te r
sea-going craft is therefore less prone to detection by enemy passive
systems.

SCATTERING OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY IN THE SEA

It is a common experience that when car headlights are switched on
in an intense fog or when it is raining heavily, it looks as if the entire light
is reflected back at us in a diffused condition. A simi lar condition may
arise when acoustic energy is projected from a source in the sea. When a
high-power acoustic pulse is transmitted from a projector, owing to the
inhomogeneities in the sea the energy gets back-scattered In an active
.

detection system, a pulse of acoustic energy is transmitted for a shorr

duration and the system reverts to a receiving mode later. An object in
the path of the acoustic energy reflects part of the energy which is received.
and its presence is indicated in a suitable manner on a display. This is a
simplistic description of an active sonar syste m . It i s apparent that the
receiver would be receiving I;>ack-scattered energy, and if the reflected
energy from a nearby target is less than the back-scattered energy, t he
detection of the target becomes extremely difficult. The energy that is
back-scattered is termed as reverheration .
The reverberation can he broadly classified as 'volume reverberation'
and 'surface reverberation'. Volume reverberation is mainly due to the
reflection from suspended particles, biological m a tte r di scont i nui tie s
, .

13
turbulences, wake of ships, etc. The surface reverberation, which varies
to some extent with angle and wind speed on the surface, is due to roughness
of the sea, entrapped air bubbles and scattering due to sea bottom. The
duration of the total reverberatio[l would depend on the power of the
transmitted pulse and also on whether the source is in shallow waters or
deep waters. Under certain conditions, therefore, detection of an object
can be limited not by the ambient noise of the sea but by the extent of
reverberation. If the receiver uses a directional sensor, the energy received
due to reverberation is less. Similarly, if the duration of the transmitted
pulse is less the extent of reverberation is also less.
The amplitude of the reverberation depends on the factors mentioned
earlier. The frequency of back-scattered energy, as seen by the receiving
system, may also vary depending on th� motion of the -platform having the
transmitter and the receiver. This is due to the doppler effect. In an
underwater weapon like a torpedo in an active mode, in shallow waters
the reverberation poses a serious limitation to the homing capability of the
weapon.

SELF NOISE
The transducer of the recelvmg system of a sonar or the homing
sub-assembly of a torpedo is sensitive to the noise due to the movement
of the platform itself. The noise induced in this manner is known as self
noise. The self noise of the receiver imposes a limitation on the sensitivity
of the total system. It is therefore important to understand the causes for
the self induced noise.

As in the case of the radiated noise. self noise is contributed by the

on-board machineries and auxiliaries, flow noise and the noise generated
by propellers. In addition, in shallow waters the radiated noise of the
platform can get reflected from the sea bottom and is picked up by the
receiver hydrophone. Self noise varies with the speed of the craft and the
directional property of the transducers or the hydrophone. Like radiated
noise, self noise is spread over a wide spectrum. The typical self noise of
ships at various speeds is shown in Fig. 5.
SUMMARY
A brief resume of the various factors that play an important part in
the detection capability of a system using acoustic energy has been made.
Continuous efforts are being made to mitigate the factors that restrict the
range of operation of the detection systems.

14
 Iz
.l. ". 0
..Iv
en �_
.......
��
.:20
��
�
0-
a: 411-
..... JO
,.

if'
o.
en"
- �
A

��r
c

D
�-- A.
..
.... --A-
-
� r
o 5 10 15 20 25 30

SPEED KNOTS

Figure S. Self·noise of ships.

The previous chapters dealt with the role played by the medium.
namely the sea. in the design and deployment of underwater weapons .
Another important factor that i s t o be stressed i s the stringent
requirements in the choice of materials for underwater use . The medium
is a highly corrosive one and therefore the choice of material becomes
restricted and in turn imposes design contraints. Yet another important
factor. which is of not much relevance, in the design of weapons that are
to be used in air, is the effect of external pressure on the devices deployed
underwater. Approximately for every 10 m of increase of water depth the
ambient pressure increases by almost one atmosphere . Hence. a weapon
like a sea-mine, which is to be deployed at a depth of 50 m. has to be
designed to withstand a pressure of 5 bars. A torpedo which is to be
operational at a depth of 500 m has to be designed such that the casing
can withstand a pressure of 50· atm (test pressure being 75 atm). This
increases the weight of the system. It will be seen later that the dynamic
equilibrium of a running torpedo depends on weight, buoyancy and running

15
speed. If a torpedo is to be carried by a helicopter the weight of the total
torpedo becomes an important factor. Hence. search is always on for lighter
materials which can be used in the fabrication of the shel1s to withstand
the high external pressures.
The effect of the various parameters of the medium and their role in
the design of the weapon itself have been dealt with. To give an example.
the sub-assembly whicD controls the depth of running of a torpedo has to
take into account the effect of the sea state and the height of the waves.
etc. especial1y when it is set to run shal1ow.

16
 CHAPTER 4

THE BEGINNING

The scene! The Atlantic in the early 40's: a Merchant-Man of large

proportion, serenely hurrying across, carrying men and materials to the
European coast. A brief appearance of a snort followed by a tremendous
explosion within a few minutes, breaking the ship into two pieces, giving
no chance for anyone to survive the sea swallowing the remanants before
anyone could realise what has happened. The scenario often repeated
during the Atlantic war. demonstrating the awesome power of a torpedo
exploding and breaking the keel of a ship.
The Annual Book of Inventions : 1926 defines the torpedo as a
cigar-shaped body. propelled at a given depth by its own engine , carrying
a blasting charge in the nose , which upon hitting the target is detonated
by means of a special device.
If one goes back in time to the year 1 86 8: A cool December morning
on the shores of the Adriatic Sea , when the very first torpedo similar to
what we see today was test fired by the genius of an engineer and an
inventor. Robert Whitehead. Although the test appeared to be a fairly
successful one. the turned out well , the torpedo achieving a speed of
6 knots. it was lost and not recovered (the first loss of a torpedo in the
world) . Whitehead. an Englishman by birth. was working as a technical
manager in an engineering factory in Italy. From the experimental work
done by Luppi and realising its limitations, Whitehead designed what he
called an 'automobile mine'. The depth engine he had designed using a
'hydrostatic piston . and a pendulum device is part of even a modern torpedo,
in one form or the other. By 1 877 more than 10 countries had acquired an
interest in this remarkable invention of great potential for war at sea. The
torpedo appears to be the most devastating weapon of naval warfare until

17
the explosion of the atomic bomb in 1945 and the advent of missiles. In
fact. the torpedo had established itself sb well that some countries
experimenting on missiles in its early stages called them 'flying torpedoes'.
Whitehead is also credited with the use of a hot engine for propulsion to
increase the range more effectively than cold two-cylinder engines which
use compressed air .,

The torpedo technology has come a long way since the early torpedoes
of World Wars I and II. The late stages of World War II saw the
incorporation of a refinement by way of a homing system which enabled
the torpedo to absorb many errors during its run and also to take care of
manoeuvring targets.

A tactical weapon of great importance even today, the torpedo is the

main arsenal of a submarine. The 60's saw the emergence of
surface-to-surface missiles and it was believed that the role of a torpedo
in naval warfare would wane. But the ability of a torpedo to carry almost
half a ton of explosives and the element of surprise that was inherent in
launching it from a submarine at great depths made the torpedo hold its
own. In addition, when a missile is fired from a submerged submarine the
watchful eye of an observation satellite can pinpoint the position of the
submarine leading to its hunt and destruction by the enemy forces. Yet, a
submarine firing the torpedo from a long distance with appropriate 'angles'
set on it cannot be located with respect to the point of explosion, because
of the long ranges attainable by a modern torpedo in excess of 30 km.
Underwater explosion has two advantages: one, a kind of concentrating
effect of the sea of the explosive energy and two the target is hit below
the water-line thereby compounding the ability of the hydrostatic pressure
of water to do the rest.

Advancements in electronics, materials, fuels and, in the case of

electricaUy propelled torpedo. advances in large capllcity batteries have all
made the modern torpedo a tactical weapon of supreme importance, not
only for submarines and ships but also for the naval air arm of any navy
to counter the deadly threat of a modem submarine.
A modern torpedo is a complex system demanding precision in design and
a high degree of quality assurance in production with adequate built-in
safety both in storage and deployment.

18
 CHAPTER 5

THE DESIGN

For over 50 years after it was first fired , the torpedo-remained basically
a weapon fired from a surface ship against another. Special crafts, called
torpedo boats, were designed, specifically to deploy this weapon. These
were fast and highly manoeuvrable with a very low profile and were able
to approach the enemy ships to fairly close quarters to launch the torpedo
and escape. Later, the torpedoes were fitted on destroyers, including
cruisers.
The potential of the submarine began to be realised just before the
World War I and the incorporation of a diesel engine and high-capacity
storage batteries proved to be an ideal launch platform for torpedoes.
Before examining the various parameters of a torpedo which are often
conflicting in nature , it will be worthwhile to get an idea of the various
kinds of torpedoes that have come to be used in the naval warfare. Figure
6 shows the details of to the two basic classes of torpedoes, namely the
heavy-weight and light-weight torpedoes. Figure 7 also shows that
depending on the speed requirements, the heavy weight torpedoes, can be
further divided under thermal propulsion and electrical propulsion . The
requirements to be met from light-weight torpedoes are vastly different
from those of the heavy-weight ones.
Let us examine the basic requirements to be met by a torpedo:
1. The weapon should have a long endurance and fast enough to overtake
and attack a highly manoeuvring target. The endurance involves range
and speed for a certain stored amount of propulsive energy; if the
speed of the torpedo normally is increased , the range may decrease
and viceversa. The speed of the torpedo normally has to be at least
one and half times that of the target to enable it to catch up with the

19
 LIGHT-WEICJHT T ORPEDO

'�
l �-

1----------- e TO 8 MEn"s

HEAVY-WEIGHT TORPEDO

Figure 6. Light-weight and heavy-weight torpedoes.

TO RPEDOES

LIGHT WEIGHT HEA)lY WEIGHT

AIRLAU NCHED SHIPLA�CHEO ELECTRICAL THERMAL

PROPULSION PROPULSION

FJaun 7. CI_IOcatlon oI lorpedoes.

target even from stern bearings. There are a number of errors that
occur during the run of the torpedo apart from the errors that are
present in estimating the target speed, target course and other
launching errors. The running errors may be contributed by the errors
in the course-keeping ability of the torpedo, any slight asymmetry. in
the configuration of the fins, the contra-rotating propellers with respect
to the axis of the torpedo, as also fluctuations in the thrust produced
by the propulsion system. Some of these errors are cumulative with

20
 time, and hence the longer the range of the torpedo, the larger is the
total error. Incorporation of self-correcting devices for these errors
may be possible only in certain cases or by the addition of some
complex sub-assemblies.
If a target is attacked from a long distance, the escape volume for the
target also becomes larger if the enemy craft surmises that a torpedo
has been launched. In such a situation, the torpedo's terminal homing
capability should also be more refined and acurate.
The relationship between power needed and the speed follows a cubic
law (i.e if the speed is to be doubled, the power has to be increased
eight times). Considering the volume and space available in a torpedo.
specially in the case of a light-weight torpedo. propulsion system poses
the greatest constraint to the designer. Figure 8 shows the relationship
between the speed of a heavy weight torpedo and power needed.
2. The torpedo must be capable of operating at depths greater than
500 m, for a modern submarine is capable of diving in excess of 500 m .
The effect of this operational depth are two-fold : the shell of the
SPE E D C E l L I Ni
700

(l.
600
t
t.4 0 N O P R O P E L L A N TS
I SOO

I
CD
a:
I&J
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o
(l. TH E R M A L PRO PU LS ION S'tST E t.4
z

� ]0 CE I L I N 6
WI
-'
::>
� 2oo
a: C E I L I N Ci
IL

100-

10 20 30 '0 SO 60
T O R P E D O S PE ED K N OTS

Figure 8. Relationship between torpedo propulsion speed and power.

21
 torpedo has to withstand the enormous hydrostatic pressure and if a
thermal engine is used for propulsion , the back pressure to the exhaust
gases .reduces the efficiency of the engine.

3. If the speed of the torpedo increases, commensurate with the higher

power of the engine, the contribution towards self-noise increases at
a very rapid rate owing to the increased contribution of the flow-noise
as the speed increases. The overall increase of self-noise imposes a
limitation on the homing capability of the torpedo. Furthermore , an
increase in speed also increases the radiated noise, thereby increasing
the detectability of the torpedo by the enemy crafts, which would
enable them to take evasive action or possibly deploy
counter-measures.
4. Another give-away to an observant enemy craft is the wake generated
by the torpedo propulsion system . The exhaust gases from a thermally
propelled torpedo leaves a very strong wake which can be detected .
Care must therefore be taken in the choice o f the fuel and the design
of the propulsion system to reduce the wake.
5. A s the speed o f the torpedo increases, very severe constraints come
in the way of controllability of a torpedo both in the vertical and in
the horizontal planes. The rudder elevators of a torpedo control the
torpedo in these two planes. The extent of deflection controls the
manoeuvring characteristics of the torpedo. At higher speeds the
forces that act on the control surfaces become enormous. Even a very
small deflection can result in a very considerable change in the attitude
of the torpedo . In closed-loop servo system the sensors have all to be
very accurate and sensitive. The mechanical linkages have to be rigid
and strong enough without any backlash to achieve the stable
manoeuvring characteristics of a torpedo.
6. The Shape
The energy needed to propel a torpedo should overcome the drag
and the skin-friction when water flows around the weapon. For
maximum efficiency the flow of water should be laminar withi n the
boundary layer or in other words, a streamlined condition should
exist. At the rear of the torpedo, the flow along the boundary layer
should be gathered in by the propulsor for achieving maximum
propulsion efficiency. As a result of the mechanical work done by the
propulsor, the water js ejected from the stem to give the required

22
 thrust. Experiments done in test tanks show that the an ideal ratio of
length to diameter of a torpedo is 7 : 1 . Universally, the heavy-weight
torpedo has a diameter of 53 cm and to meet the ideal shape , the
torpedo's length should be of the order of about 3 . 5 m. However, the
normal length is anywhere between 6 and 7 . 5 m. Though the designer
would like to keep the length near about the. ideal length , it is
impractical to do so as the major sub-assemblies like the warhead,
propulsion system, and guidance, have to be accommodated . The
requirement of space becomes more stringent as the range increases ,
owing to increased capacity needed for storing the fuel, oxidant, etc .
In the case of light-weight torpedo, the diameter is around 3 5 . 2 cm
and the length around 4 m. The shape of the torpedo itself is a
compromise and far from the ideal. This in practical terms means a
reduction in the total propulsion efficiency of the torpedo. This aspect
will be dealt with in detail in a subsequent chapter.
7. Warhead
In order to effect a damage that can cripple a ship or sink it, high
explosives in excess of 200 kg are needed, for detonation under the
keel of the ship. In the case of a light-weight torpedo used against a
submarine, the explosive carried is only of the order of about 40 kg
because of space constraints.
I n conclusion, the design of a torpedo involves trade-offs between the
various requirements. More powerful fuels, more compact electronic
sub-assemblies, vast technological improvements in the materials used and
more innovative approaches would reduce the gap between the ideal and
the practicable .

23
 CHAPTER 6

THE PRIME MOVER : THERMAL ENGINE

The drag imposed by sea-water on a torpedo, compared with that on

a missile flying through the atmosphere, is greater by an order of 3. As
has been indicated earlier, the power and speed are related by a cubic
function. Compared to the first torpedo which ran on compressed air with
its engine developing about 3 hp, the modem torpedo like MK 48 has an
engine which develops in excess of 400 hp to propel the torpedo at speeds
in excess of 60 knots. As explained in the previous chapter, owing to
constant improvements in propulsion package of both surface ships and
submarines the demand for greater speeds for torpedoes is an inevitable
consequence.
Figure 9 shows the various approaches adopted for designing a thermal
engine for propelling torpedoes.
When a fuel-air mixture is ignited, the expansion of the gas does work
by moving a piston. If the combustion takes place in the cylinder where
the piston is moving, the system is termed internal combustion engine. If
the combustion takes place in a separate chamber and the hot gases are
allowed to expand inside the cylinder containing the piston, the system is
called an external combustion engine. Right from the beginning, i.e. , the
hot engine of Whitehead, external combustion is alone resorted to in the
design of torpedo engines. No other separate sub-system is needed for
initiating the ignition in every cycle as would be necessary in the case of
an internal combustion engine (spArk plug', glow plug, etc.). In an external
combustion engine, hot gases are admitted and exhausted from the cylinder
by a system of valves. Another advantage of an external combustion system
is the possibility of using lower-grade fuels like kerosene and shale oil. The
torpedoes designed, manufacutured in operation during the World War II

24
 THERMAL ENGINES
F O R TO RPEDO ES

I J
S T l R L l N G ENGINE
C L OSED CYCLE
T H E R M A L E NGINE

C ON V E N T I O N A L
I C ENGINE

Figun 9 . Approaches ror designing a thermal engine ror propelling torpedoes.

and earlier were all powered either by shale oil or kerosene . Table 1 gives
the calorific values of some of the normally used fuels.
Table I. CaloriOc values of fuels

kJlkg

Methyl alcohol 20, 1 40

Ethyl alcohol 27,4}()
Kerosene 42,900
Hydrogen peroxide 1 ,5 1 0
Shale oil 4 1 ,870

In order that the combustion of the fuel takes place , it is necessary to

supply oxygen from · a separate source-. The oxygen is obtained from
compressed air stored in a cylinder. The nitrogen content of the air becomes
an embarrassing component which contributes to the density of the wake
apart from other combustion products. Attempts have been therefore made
to usc: pure oxygen as a liquid stored in an insulated cyl inder, or by using
hydrogen peroxide. As a result of extensive research , it is now possible to

25
use mono-propellent liquids, thereby eliminating the need for a separate
storage facility for oxygen. The mono-propellent fuels contain oxygen
within themselves. The Otto fuel used by the US Navy in their MK 48,
MK 46, e tc . is an example of·such a mono-propellent, basically a nitrate
ester. The Royal Navy used the same in their Mono-propellent beefed up
by adding hydroxylammonium perchlorate . The Swedish Navy used
hydrogen peroxide which when decomposed by a catalyst gives out the
required amount of oxygen .
Attempts have also been made t o use metals like sodium and lithium
to react with water to produce steam and heat for actuating the pistons or
turbines. The latest in this direction is the new generation of the light-weight
torpedo designed for the US Navy, with a prime mover in which lithium
reacting with sulphur hexaflouride produces the required amount of energy.
This is an e xample of stored chemical energy power system (SeEPS).

Let us now briefly discuss the various sub-assemblies of a thermal

engine. Figure 10 gives the basic set-up of a thermal engine. A thermal
engine consists broadly of four parts : ( 1 ) sub-assemblies for reducing the
pressure of the oxidant, fuel and injecting them into combustion chamber,
(2) combustion chamber, (3) engine and (4) exhaust system.

WATER

ENGINE

- - - � - -

I
CONTRA
ROTATING
PROPEL�
FUEL
GEAR
CMlUSIION CYLINDERS
TR A I N
____ DEV ICE
"""-4

/ O XYG€.N
PJt:SSURED
AIR

FIpre I•. 1IIIdl .....-- ol lorpedo thermal e......

In a typical thermal engine system of the older torpedoes, the oxidant ,

namely , air is kept at a pressure of about 200 atm and when the torpedo
leaves the discharge tube, a mechanical arrangement releases the oxidant
under pressure, through a system of reducing valves, to let out the air at
a pressure ranging from 10 to 30 kglcm2• Part of the air also exerts a
pressure on the top of the fuel tanks making the fuel flow into the
combustion chamber. When kerosene or such other fuel bums, the

26
temperature inside the combustion chamber may be in excess of 1200 °C.
To reduce the temperature, water stored in a separate cylinder also
pressurized by the air coming from the reduction valves is injected into
the combustion chamber. Both the fuel and water are atomised and sprayed
into the combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber consists of a closed sytstem, made of a
material that can withstand high temf>eratures, sometimes coated inside
with a ceramic material . The nozzles for air, water and fuel are positioned
appropriately inside this chamber. The discharge of the torpedo from the
launching tube, initiates a mechanical system into firing and ignitor. The
ignitor bums for a certain time The atomised fuel and air get ignited by
the flame from the ignitor, and, once ignited, the combustion is
self-sustaining. The spray of water brings down the temperature of the
working mass to the operating temperature and the hot gas enters the inlet
of the engine. Spraying of water contributes, apart from. reducing the
temperature , to increase the working mass for the engine. As a result of
steam generation , these torpedoes ate known as 'steam-gas torpedoes' .
The mechanical assemblies associated with initiating and sustaining the
combustion pressure are of a precision nature and fairly complex .
There are two types of engines in vogue today : the reciprocating type
and the turbine.
Many of the older torpedoes, which are still operational , had typically
two cylinders driving thn�ugh a crankshaft, a gearing system to give
contra-rotation. The hot working mass coming from the combustion
chamber in expanding actuates these pistons, delivering power to the
propellers through the gear box. In addition , there may be auxiliary
sub-assemblies getting actuated as a result of the engine turning. A
lubricating pump is an example of a sub-system being driven from the main
engine. The lub-oil is pumped to various parts of the rotating engine under
pressure . A system of valves is also actuated by the turning of the main
engine to control the inlet and outlet of the gases. Since the engine is
normally situated in a flooded compartment to prevent corrosion , it is
made of a non-corrosive material like bronze . Typically, the speed (rpm)
of the engine would be around 5000 and depending on the required speed
the propeller rpm ranges from 1000 to 2000.

In a system, such as has been described above , the speed of the eng.ne
would depend on the flow rate and pressure of the working mass. This is

27
controUed by controlling tbe fuel flowrate by varying the nozzle diameter
,
of the fuel injection system Ind also by controlling the pressure. The speed
of torpedoes is set by a mechanical su�system, accessi ble from o�ide,
prior to the launch of torpedo. The exhaust gases are allowed to flow out
through the hollow propeller inner shaft.

The gear box not only reduces the rpm but also is designed to give
the contra-rotating output. The torque developed is taken to the propellers
by two concentrically placed propellers' shafts (outer and inner). The two
propellers tum in opposite directions , the thrust being in the same direction.
TI.is is done to prevent the torpedo from spinning along its longitudinal axis.

Another approach in the design of the engines for propulsion of the

torpedo is the multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders (usually 7) being placed
radially . The connecting rods working in these cylinders bear upon either
a swash-plate or a sinusoidal double elevation cam. Initially such an engine
was developed in the US for propelling their MK 48 torpedo. The Swedish
Navy has also adapted such a system for use in their torpedoes where
hydrogen peroxide is used as the oxidant. These engines ar� extremely
compact with a total length of 100 cm and with less than the diameter of
the torpedo . They are able to dovelop extremely high power of the order
of 500 hp or more. These engines have been re-adapted by the US Navy
for incorporating them in their light-weight torpedo MK 46.

A third approach is using turbine for propulsion. Under the programme

sponsored by the Royal Navy, a futuristic torpedo, Spearfish , makes use
of such a turbine propelling the torpedo to speeds in excess of 70 knots .
The fuel used is Otto fuel and hydroxy ammonium perchlorate. The turbine
is of two stages followed by a gear box to reduce the rpm. The engines
using turbines of the order of 30,000 rpm drive the propellers through a
reduction gear box, or alternatively tbe propulsor is a pump-jet. The two
types of propulsors will be compared later.

The fourth approach is the use of stored chemical energy .

A new generation of the ligh�-weight torpedo of the US Navy follows

this approach. Here molten lithium is made to come in contact with sulphur
hexafluoride. Because of the chemical reaction an enonnous amount of
heat is generated which is used for generating steam at high pressure . The
steam drives a tul'bine and is condensed back through a heat exchanger
for re-use. The product of combustion is stored within the torpedo . A
close-cycle engine, such as this, would therefore have no limitations with

28
respect to depth and would leave no wake. Design and manufacture of
such an engine is extremely complex demanding the use of new materials
and production approaches. Lithium has thrice the energy density of OUo
fuel.

CONCLUSION

To propel a heavy-weight torpedo at speeds necessary to combat very

fast submarines, a high degree of requirement is placed on the propulsion
engines. The trend is towards using better fuels, more compact thermal
engines and efficient propellers. The requirements that are to be met by
the fuels used are :
1. A fuel should be capable of giving very high thermat outputs.
2. It should not leave any toxic exhaust in the tubes of a submarine .
after discharge, when these torpedoes are used in a submarine.
3. It should be extremely stable and safe to handle.
4. It should be a mono-propellant .
5. After combustion the fuel should have preferably a n exhaust which
is soluble in water to lessen the wake.
Attempts to design torpedoes with a small nuclear reactor were also
made , but were given owing to the problems of size and weight .
Short-range rocket propulsion underwater is also being tried but
problems arise in controlling the torpedo.
Thermal engines, which were 1he exclasive preserve of heavy-weight
torpedoes, have come into the design of light-weight torpedoes as well
owing to the rapid progress in technology and to meet the combat
requirements against very fast submarines, especially from fixed-wing
aircrafts and helicopters.

29
 CHAPTER 7

ELECTRIC PROPULSION

By the end of World War I torpedoes powered by thermal engines

were able to generate nearly 250 hp, carrying an explosive of about 200 kg,
and had a range of 3000 yards. There were only marginal improvements
in the total design of the torpedoes.
The first important innovation was made by Germans early in World
War II in the form of an electricaJly propelled G7e torpedo. HMS
Royal-Oak was sunk in Scapa-Flow in October 1 939 by the German U-boat
U-47. Pieces of a new weapon picked up showed that the German torpedo
was driven by an electric motor, powered by a lead-acid storage battery.
I n 1 941 the German submarine U-570 was captured by the US Navy and
which recovered a fuJI G7e torpedo. As a result , there was an intense
'
developmental activity. The Westing House Electric Company is believed
to have delivered a MK- 1 8 torpedo to the US Navy within 15 weeks of
recovering the G7e torpedo. This marked the beginning of extensive
developmental activities towards improvement in electric propulsion of
torpedoes.
A n electricaJly propeJled torpedo does not leave any wake and has no
problems with respect to the hydrostatic back-pressure. The production of
an electric propulsion system demanded only 70% of the effort in making
a thermal engine . The Germans were once again in the lead in incorporating
a homing system which makes the torpedo seek the target from the noise
generated by its propeJlers . The electrical propulsion was ideaJly suited for
incorporation of a homing system for the noise generated by an electric
motor was far less than by a thermal engine . Even today, electric propulsion
has been the choice in developing torpedoes which are to be air-launched .
With the end of World War II and intense activity that foJlowed in pe rfecting

30
missiles and other r�pid technological advancements in electronics,
materials sciences, etc . , the design of torpedoes sa... many changes.

TJIE ELECTRIC MOTOR

The electric motor used for torpedo propulsion had to be compact
and had to operate from a dc source supplied by the storage batteries. The
motors were series-wound in order to obtain the initial large torque. The
electric motors used in the design of torpedoes manufactured dunng the
post-World War I I were conventional in the sense that the output was from
a single shaft (armature shaft). This was coupled to a gear box to obtain
the contra-rotating outputs to the two propellers. The designer of the motor
had one advantage in designing them to be oompact; these motors were
not to operate continuously, as in the case of normal industrial motors. A
good amount of trade-off could be done by way of heat dissipation , etc.
for short-tinre operation . Extremely compact motors have been made which
can deliver up to 100 hp .
The last decade has seen the emergence of what are now called
wntra-rotating motors, in which the field also rotates. The rotations of the
field and armature are in Of'posite directions. Such a design enables the
outputs to be taken directly to the propellers using concentric propeller
shafts. The design has naturally to incorporate a system of brushes to carry
the current to the rotating field coils also. Elimination of the gear-box by
using this innovative method reduced not only the overall weight but also,
more important , the noise generated by the gear trains as well.

With rapid advancements in solid-state devices the new generation of

electric motors may be of the brushless type or of an ac type , the ac voltage
being obtained from solid-state invertors. Elimination of the conventional
commutator and brush brings down the electrcal noise generated by the
motor. One of the biggest problems in an electrically driven torpedo is the
suppression of the electrical noise since in a modern torpedo digital
electronics is used very extensively and the spikes of voltage due to the
commutation can travel throughout the torpedo along many paths. The
designer has to take care of this problem and the maintainer of the weapon
has to keep this in mind while overhauling a modern torpedo. A brushless
dc motor may help a great deal in suppressing electromagnetic interference .

From the moment the torpedo is lau nched from a ship or submarine ,
the electric motor should be capable of generating full power within a few
seconds. As in any conventional dc motor the fu l l back emf is produced

31
only when the motor reaches its designed rpm . The motor draws a very
large current as soon as it is connected to the power source. This, in tum,
can lead to some problems for the operation of the rest of the electronics,
especially the electronics of the control systems which has to stabilise the
torpedo quickly after launch. These factors are taken into account in the
overall design.
Since these motors are designed for short duration operation, they
cannot be operated continuously or without proper loading while testing
in the depots. Depending on the design they have to be overhauled after
a certain number of runs in the case of a practice weapon.
Electric propulsion from all engines would be ideal for the propulsion
of a torpedo. However, the limitations of the power source, namely the
storage batteries, come in the way of designing electrical propolsion systems
for long endurance and high speeds.

ELECTRICAL BATTERIES FOR TORPEDO PROPULSION

The electrochemistry and the technology of stored electrochemical
energy in relation to batteries have progressed in leaps and bounds since
the time the simple galvanic cell twitchoo the frog's leg . A number of
electrochemcial systems have proliferated greatly with the increase in the
number of applications for this kind of stored energy. The stored
electrochemical energy is a very attractive option to supply the required
power for propelling a torpedo. A number of countries have centred their
torpedo design on electrical propulsion. It is therefore essential to study
somewhat in detail the batteries used for torpedoes.
Batteries used in the torpedoes should satisfy certain basic
requirements. These are :
1. Operational readiness must be ensured without elaborate
maintenance after the torpedoes have been on board the ships or
submarines for a considerable time. The user would prefer to have
a system which does not need on-board maintenance . Wht!n we talk
of shipboard environment, we must take into account the constant
vibration , the heat absorbed by the torpedoes inside the tubes which
are on the deck (due to sun's radiations) , extremes of cold, etc. It is
essential to take into account the time within which a stored battery
in the depot can be readied for preparing a torpedo and supplying
them to the ships and submarines.

32
2. A s stated earlier, a very high transient electrical and dynamic load
is imposed when the torpedo starts up, which the battery must be
capable of absorbing.
3. The fire control calculations assume a constant velocity for the
torpedo during its run . To obtain this, it is essential for the battery
to give a constant output voltage at a high current density for the
duration of run of the torpedo, thereby ensuring a constant rpm of
the motor.
4. The battery must be capable of supplying the auxiliary loads also in
addition to the main motor load .
5. During battery operation , there should be n o emission of explosive
gases within the torpedo shell; means must be provided to mitigate
emission.
6. In a typical heavy-weight torpedo running at a speed of 30 knots
plus. the discharge current may be of the order of 800- 1000 amp.
Hence a substantial quantity of heat will be generated within the
battery which must be capable of absorbing or dissipating the heat
and maintain the energy level .
7. The battery must have inherent safety to the personnel on board the
ship or submarine.
In the case of the torpedo , unlike missiles, a number of launches may
be carried out during fleet exercises, test runs, proofing, etc. The battery
must therefore be capable of giving at least 6 to 10 cycles of charge and
discharge .
It is becoming increasingly the practice to use two types of batteries
for a torpedo: (i) secondary type , and (ii) primary type . The first type is
capable of being charged and discharged , whereas the primary battery
when discharged cannot be used again . Hence , a primary battery can be
used in a war-shot as a one-time application. The secondary battery can
be used for practice run . proof-running. etc.

As stated earlier, the number and types of batteries are many but
there are only a few which can meet the exacting demands for use in a
torpedo . These are briefly dealt with in the following paragraphs :
LEAD-ACID BATTERY
This is a fa111 i 1ar type of battery used extensively in automobiles,
fork-lifts and other industrial applications where electrical energy is to be

33
stored and used. These were the first batteries to be used in torpedo
propulsion towards the end of World War II and subsequently for about
two decades. The weight and volume of these batteries are very much more
compared to their energy capacity. Nearly 30% of the weight and volume
of a torpedo is accounted for by the propulsion system. If the batteries
have a small power-to-weight or power-to-volume ratio, the system
becomes inefficient. For lack of suitable alternatives, the lead-acid batteries
continued to be in service. Apart from the very low ratios, the maintenance
of these batteries required a considerable amount of effort on the part of
the users. The span· of active life after they had been commissioned was
also not very favourable. It is necessary to return the torpedoes to the
depot to recycle the batteries after being on board hardly for a month or
two. As a consequence there are a number of attendant problems. Another
serious problem is the evolution of hydrogen during the discharge which
must be vented or contained properly in order that it may not cause an
explosion due to various auxiliary systems producing electrical sparks. The
only factor in favour of lead-acid battery is its low cost . These batteries
are incapable of giving higher speeds and endurance to the torpedo because
of the limitations mentioned above . Many countries are making efforts to
make them more efficient.

SILVEROXIDE-ZINC
The electrical energy produced due to the chemical reaction of
silveroxide with zinc placed in an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide is an
extremely good candidate for powering a torpedo. A great deal of
developmental work for perfecting these batteries has gone in during the
2
last decade . Energy density is very high, to the tune of 250 mAlcm • Unlike
in the lead-acid battery the output voltage is maintained at a constant value
till almost the cell is completely discharge d . Thes e batteries can be made
both in the primary and secondary versions . When properly designed ,
emanation of gases during discharge is also far less.

The primary type used in the war-shot stores the electrolyte in a

separate compartment and when the torpedo is launched the electrolyte is
forced into the pre-charged empty cells of the battery either by a system
actuated by compressed air or an explosive charge The secondary batteries
are conventional in commissioning and chargmg. The cost is many- fold
compared to that of lead-acid batteries as silveroxide is used. When the
life of a secondary battery is over the silver can be recovered partially, by

34
reduceing the cost of replacement. Typically such a battery powering a
heavy-weight torpedo may cost anywhere from Rs 12 to l1 1akh for each set .
Originally the battery was made by using a number o f cells which have
a rectangular cross-section. These cells were connected in series to obtain
the required voltage. The capacity of each cell has to be such that the
system will deliver the required high current. The cells, so grouped , are
positioned in .a container which is slipped into the mid-section of a torpedo
and fastened in place. It will be apparent that a considerable amount of
volume will be un-utilised owing to the fact that the torpedo is cylindrical
and the cell assembly is prismatic. The next significant .development,
therefore, was to utilise the full volume by constructing the cell in what is
known as pile configuration. Here the cell electrodes are made circular
and piled one over the other with an inter-connecting busbar to achieve
the required voltage. Separators are used between the electrodes to
configure the individual cells. When the electrolyte is admitted into the
cells, they start giving the electrochemical ene �gy powering the torpedo.
In such a configuration power density increases for the same volume and
wei�ht. Such batteries are used in the war-shot configuration of the
torpedoes.
Another important type of battery that is used especially in torpedoes
to be launched from air is the sea-water activated battery . Here the cells
are made of silver chloride and magnesium electrodes. The sea-water acts
as the electrolyte. When the torpedo is launched from air, and after it
enter the water, it starts travelling forward due to its momentum of launch .
During this phase , sea-water is allowed to enter the battery section of the
torpedo and energises the battery. The activation of the battery. occurs
within a few seconds of the torpedo entering ·the water. Theoretically .
energy density of the order of 0.42 kW/kg is possible though in practice
only 0.077 kW/kg has been realised . There are a number of problems
associated with these batteries, the most important one being the formation
of the sludge during the chemical reaction which impedes the now of fresh
electrolyte (sea-water) into the system. Methods have been de vise d for
pumping the sea-water under pressure to overcome the resistance to the
flow of the sea- water, thereby marginally increasing the power output .
One great advantage of such a battery is that the weight of the e lectrolyte
to be carried by the torpedo is eliminate d .
Newer alloys o f magnesium (e.g. Melmag) are being used in order to
further increase the power output. The storage life under ideal conditions

35
of these batteries kept in their own container can he in excess of five years.
The most recent advance in battery technology for use in the torpedoes
is the silveroxide-aluminium battery , with sea-water as the electrolyte. On
launch, a thermal battery is activated to drive a motor and pump so that
water picked up by the scoop is delivered to the electrolyte reservoir at a
constant rate. Caustic soda is also used as an electrolyte in these hatteries.
The system is more complex than the sea-water activated hattery.
Sub..assemblies like gas separators, thermostatic valves, and heat'
exchangers have to be incorporated to optimise the output. The power
delivered is far higher, than by the normal sea-water activated batteries.
Such a battery has been perfected hy Mis Saft of France and is being used
in the French naval light-weight torpedo Murene.
Extensive research is going on the world over particularly in the USA ,
for exploring the possibilities of using Iithium-silveroxide, lithium bromide
trifluoride , etc. Silveroxide-aluminium batteries are capable of delivering
power several orders higher than the .silveroxide-magnesium batteries and
hold a great deal of promise to power light-weight torpedoes.
The output of propulsion batteries depends on the ambient
temperature . If the torpedo is kept in the launching tub� s on the deck of
a ship, heating elements built into tubes must be switched on to keep them
warm prior to launch in very cold weather. Once the current starts flowing
the battery is able to generate enough heat by itself. This is applicable
where the ambient temperatures are very low , of the order of 5 °C or less.
In torpedoes using electrical propulsion, provision is made for
re-grouping the cells to get lower voltage so as to reduce the speed of the
torpedo. The lower speed enables the torpedo to have a better 'listening'
capability while searching for a target. The main battery may also have a
tapping to power the electronic and control circuitry.

HANDLING TORPEDO BATTERIES

These batteries have been crafted with a very high degree of quality
assurance and involving high-tech concepts . This is so because in an
extremely compact form , they have to deliver several 1 00 kW of power to
propel the torpedoes at the required speed . The user and the maintainer
are expected to follow meticulously the routines that are laid down for the
torpedoes that are on board as well as at depots. Strict adherence to the
procedures laid down for commissioning these batteries · is also vital to
ensure the designed perfonnance of the batteries. Care has to be taken to

36
store the batteries as laid down in manuals to ensure readiness when needed.
While handling these batteries, which are of very low impedence, extreme
care has to be taken to avoid electrical shock since even an electrical shock
of about 100 V from such a source can be lethal. In pr�ctice \'ersions, if
the range is set at less than the maximum range, there may be a tremendous
amount of energy still left in the battery when the torpedoes are recovered .
Though precautions like a bleeder resister being put across the tiattery are
taken, still extreme care is needed when unloading them. Use of electrical
gloves and insulated tools are recommended when working with these
batteries. As it is often said, the air vessel of a torpedo or a fully charged
silver-zmc battery used in heavy-weight torpedoes are virtually equivalent
to a medium- sized bomb.

The search is always on for newer type of electrochemical cells which

can deliver higher power with lesser weight aAd volume. The propulsion
system is the most critical major sub- system of a modem torpedo.

AUXILIARY POWER SOURCES

A modem torpedo is a complex system consisting of a number of
interactive sub-assemblies. Whether the torpedo is propelled by.::a thermal
engine or an electrical power, the various sub- assemblies need electrical
power for their functioning. These are listed in Table 2.
The electrical power requirements, as can be seen from the Table ,
vary but are exacting. In an electrical torpedo, the power can be obtained
from a tapping on the main battery. However, it will be seen that since
the battery powers a very high horse power dc motor, the impedance of
the battery can carry the electrical noise , spikes, transients, etc. and these
can also get into the auxiliary power source. The transients and spikes can
cause a multitude of problems, especially, a modem torpedo in which
extensive use is made of digital electronics (microprocessor and other VLSI
devices) . In order that these may be isolated or eliminated, the power
required for electronics is derived from a de-to-dc converter which can give
a total immunity , even enabling the ground returns to be isolated from the
main propulsion circuit . The various voltages listed 'in Table 2 can be
obtained from the output of the de-to-dc converter using voltage regulators
and invertors when alternating current sources are needed. It will thus be
seen that a number of power sources operate inside the torpedo and extreme
care is needed in the layout, grounding, terminations, etc. The maintenance

37
staff must be fully conversant with the precautions that have been built
into the design to avoid electromagnetic interference .

In a thennal torpedo the electrical power is normally obtained with

an a alternator or a dc generator which is coupled to the main engine
through an appropriate gear train. The electrical output.so derived is further
conditioned to suit the requirements of various sub-assemblies.
When the torpedo is in the tube, the internal power source is naturally
off before launch. But, requirement does exist for setting various
parameters in the various sub-assemblies and also to start the gyros. In
such a case, the power and the data that are to be set are fed into the
torpedo through an umbilical cord , which either is retracted or severed
when the torpedo is launched. After launch the internal power supplies
take over.
In addition to these power sources, an important source of power for
the functioning of the actuators which operate the control surfaces is
obtained from a hydraulic power-pack . The details of the total hydraulic
system are dealt with elsewhere. Suffice to mention here that the hydraulic
pump which gives the required pressure is once again driven through a
gear train from the main propulsion engine .
Apart from these po�er sources, thermal batteries and other small
storage batteries may. also be used in some torpedoes for initiating the
functioning of sub-assemblies like locating devices, for initiating the filling
of electrolyte in the main battery , etc.

Table 2. Typical electrical power requirement

27 V dcJ l 2 V de Relays. solenoid valves. etc.

+ 5 V de + /- 1 5 V de Electronics. homing. control.

+/- 1 5 V de etc.

40 V ac 500/400 Hz, 3 phase Gyros/proximity fuse

50 to l OO V de Transmitter circuit in active homing

Dry cell s . thermal batteries For initiating recovery aids. i . e .

sub·assemblies for buoyancy at t he end of
the run. ligh�smoke marker. etc.

38
 CHAPTER S

STABILITY, EQUlLmRIUM AND

MANOEUVRABILITY OF TORPEDOES

The ultimate aim of any weapon is to ensure a hit on the target. A

torpedo travelling in water has six degrees of freedom and therefore should
have the required stability in all directions while running. During the run
of the torpedo, owing external perturbances, forces may be acting on the
torpedo to deviate it from its equilibrium condition. The torpedo must be
capable of cou,ntering these forces to ensure its stability and equilibrium .
The design of a torpedo is very complex to achieve the required equilibrium .
Theoretical studies, extensive simulation on computers and a numbe.r of
tests using a model in hydrodynamic test facilities are essential before the
basic configuration of the torpedo emerges. This is a very complex subject
involving a great deal of mathematics aRd hence an attempt is made only
to acquaint the reader with the problems pertaining to the stability and
equHibrium of a running torpedo. The user and the maintainer should have
an adequate knowledge in order to intelligently interpret the readings
obtained from a recorder incorporated in a practice version of a torpedo .
These recorders give � n indication o f how well the torpedo has carried out
its run and also how successful the attack has been.
A few basic physical principles relating to submerged bodies are in
order : A body is said to be in equilibrium when the weight of the body
acting vertically downwards through the centre of gravity and the buoyancy
force is acting vertically through the centre Of buoyancy. If the centre of
buoyancy and the centre of gravity are along the same line, static stability
is obtained if CG is below CB . The distance between these two points is
called metacentric height. If the body is slightly displaced or rotated through
CB , a couple is generated which restores the body to its equilibrium

39
position. In order that the torpedo is in a stable condition, the CG is made
to be as far below as possible from CB . Whenever the torpedo heels the
restoring couple will bring the torpedo to its stable position. When the
torpedo takes a turn the centrifugal force acts and tends to heel the torpedo.
By virtue of its moment of inertia about the longitudinal axis through
the centre of gravity,a torpedo has a natural period of oscillation. which
depends only on the radius of gyration and the metacentric height . Owing
to the disposition of various sub·assemblies inside the torpedo at various
places, the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravi�y may not be in the
same vertical line. This plays an important role in the stability of the
torpedo.
If the weight of the torpedo is more than the buoyancy. which is
normally the case in a thermal torpedo, the torpedo is termed negatively
buoyant and will therefore sink if released in the water without the engine
running. If the buoyancy is more than the weight of the torpedo. it is
tenned positively buoyant.
I f . due to the thrust of the propellers, the torpedo is moving when its
longitudinal axis is horizontal , a negatively buoyant torpedo, apart from
travelling forward , will simultaneously start slowly sinking from its released
depth. Similarly, a positively buoyant torpedo, apart from moving forward ,
wil l have a tendency to rise to the surface . as it is travelling forward .

It will therefore be seen that some more conditions are to be satisfied

in order to ensure that the torpedo keeps its depth i rrespective of whether
it is positively or negatively buoyant. This dynamic force which is created
during the running of the torpedo i s known as a lift . The two conditions
are illustrated in Fig. 1 1 .
Studies in a water tank, as in the case of a wind tunnel for an aircraft ,
show that if the torpedo is travelling horizontally the pressure distribution
is symmetrical all round. However, if the torpedo is made to run, with its
head slightly up, i . e . the axis of the torpedo being inclined to the direction
of motion . the pressure distribution is no more symmetrical and a net
resultant lift force is created. The pressure distribution when the body is
moving horizontally is shown in Fig. 12.

Hence, when a negatively buoyant torpedo is made to run with its

head up. the lift force created can overcome the effect of the greater weight
of the torpedo over the buoyancy. This angle between the longitudinal axis
of the torpedo and the line of travelling is called angle of attack. The angle

40
 B _p

(a)

w
(b)

W := W E I GH T O F THE TOR PE DO C B = C E NTRE OF B UOYANCY

B = BUOYAN T FORC E AC TI N G W-8 > 0 PO S I TI V ELY
THROUGH C · B BUOYAN'T TO RPEDO
e TO R PE DO P ITC H A N GLE
W - B < 0 N E GAT I V ELY
=

.G = A N GLE OF A TTAC K
B U OYA N T TO R PE DO
P : LI FT F O R C E
,, : TOR PEDO V EL O C ITY
I"'� R U DD E R D EFLECTION
T ;: THRUST F I R E
C · G c C ENTRE OF GRAVITY

figure I I . (a) POIiltively buoyant torpedo, having nost-ilown altllud�, and (b) Mgathely
buoyant torpedo having nost-up altitude.

41
 UT
..--

•
•
•
..
•
•
•
...
..
..

(al

(b)

f'IIure I l . (a) Viscous ftuid OowiPa past a torpedo aad (b ) dlstribalioD of fl uid nlodty bel
bydrodynamk 'JIRSSUre along the buH of torpedo.

of attack is positive when the head is up and is negative when the head is
inclined downwards.

Inclining the torpedo creates a moment which tends to increase the

inclination which has to be counteracted in some manner by a moment in
the opposi t e dir�ction. This is done by giving a certain angle to the
horizontal rudder and is tenned as free angle.

What has been discussed so far concerns the stability of the torpedo
in the vertical plane. When the torpedo is turning while it is executing a
manOtJuvre to go towards the target, the motion can be both in the vertical

42
and in the-azimuth plane . As stated above , when the torpedo tends to turn
in the azimuth , the centrifugal force tends to act on th� torpedo and the
torpedo heels.
Depending on the length , diameter and the speed, the thrust generated
by the propellers has to overcome the hydrodynamic resistance offered hy
the medium to the movement of the torpedo. This force of resistance varies
directly as the sq1lare of the speed of the torpedo . Inclining the torpedo
to obtain the required lift also increases the resistance to the moveme nt·
of the torpedo. During the design of a torpedo , all such prob i ems are taken
into account to optimize the configuration of the torpedo .

The pressure di st rib ut i on around the torpedo when it is mn ning is

such that i t n ecessitates a shifting of the centre of pressure forward . This
is done by incorporating the fins on the aft section of the body of the
torpedo. Though incre a si ng the size of the fins may increase the stability
of the t orpe do, it wi-ll a ffec t manoeuvrability. In fact , parameters pertaining
to stability and manoeu v rab i lity are of a conflicting nature . A high
m an oeuvri ng torpedo to attack a fast submarine cannot be designed to be
extremely stable and vice versa.

CONCLUSION
The forces that act on a torpedo i n
motion are varied and complex.
Th e torpedo h as to be stable under
l conditions. i n order thClt a torpedo
al

may run with stability whether it is negatively or positively buoyant, a

dynamic force has to be created to ensure that the torpedo runs at a certain
depth without either sinking or trying to come up.

I f a torpedo is in motion with its head up , due to the asymmetrical

distribution of pressure over the surface of the torpedo , a lift-force is
created, !"hich can be resolved into two components, along the directions
'Of motion and at right angles to it .

The greater the inclination �f the torpedo the greater is the lift-force .
However, increased iAclination in cre ases the drag.
When the torpedg iii inclined du ri a g its motion , a couple is generated
which tends to increase the inclination . This is counteracted by an opposite
couple generated owing a set-angle on t he rudder.

The running angle of a given torpedo would depend on speed .

buoyancy, trim, and form of the torpedo.

43
 The stability of the torpedo depends on form of the torpedo, amount
and distribution of weights and buoyancy , and speed .
Fins are added to the body of the torpedo to ensure that the centre
of pressure of the resultant force on the hull is brought back to the end .
A torpedo which is highly stable during running may not have a very
high manoeuvrability.

44
 CHAPTER 9

CONTROLLING OF TORPEDO IN DEPTH AND AZIMUTH

I n the previous chapter we saw the effect of various forces and the
conditions necessary for obtaining an equilibrium during the run of a
torpedo. I n practice, a torpedo has to be fired either from a surface ship
or a submarine, or dropped from an aircraft or a helicopter. Depending
on the depth of submarine or the depth below the water line of a target
ship at which the torpedo has to hit, it is essential that prior to launch the
depth has to be set on the torpedo. The torpedo has to maintain this depth
during its run if it is a non-homing torpedo and hit the target accurately
at the set depth. If it is a homing torpedo, the torpedo will run at the
preset depth till a homing contact is made of the target , after which the
homing system takes over. It is, therefore, essential that a system should
be incorporated inside the torpedo which will make it run at the required
depth after it is launched.
The previous chapters indicated the w �y the torpedo will behave in
its equilibrium condition when it is released at a certain depth with its
engine on. First of all , the torpedo has to reach and settle at the required
depth and also should have provisions for correcting itself at the running
depth from external perturbing forces during its run. Hence a depth-gear
is incorporated in a t orpedo In its simplest form, the depth-gear consists
.

of a diaphragm which is linked mechanically to the horizonal rudder. The

water pressure acting on the diaphragm flexes the diaphragm and the
mechanical movement is transmitted to the rudder. Depending on the
change The diaphragm is
.

water pressure, the rudder angIe will .

mechanically attached to a calibrated spring also. Before launch the spring

is·extended or compressed depending on the system used in the depth-gear.
As the torpedo dives, the Oexure of the diaphragm overcomes the effect

4S
 5
o
TO CONTAOL SURFACES

D: DIAPHRAGM
P: PENDULAM
S : SPRING

Flpn 13. Depth aDd plkh control system.

0' the spring at a certain depth and the torpedo starts travelling at that
depth, where the two forces, i .e . force due to the spring and external force
due to the water pressure, are balanced. If the- system is made of only the
diaphwigm and the spring, the torped.o will have a tendency to oscillate
about the mean depth . To counteract this, a pendulum is also made part
of this lever system as shown in lii g . 1 3 . When.. t he torpedo has a tendency
to climb up or down owing to any external force, the pendulum swings
from its vertical position. This movement of the pendulum is appropriately
added (summed) to the movement of the lever system and makes the
rudder respond immediately in such a direction as to counter tbe effect of
the external distumance . This approach prevents the torpedo from
oscillating about the mean or set depth. The pendulum , in effect , amounts
to a rate feedback. Some of the first few torpedoes produced nearly a
century ago used this measure to ensure the depth-keeping of a torpedo.
With the availability of more sensitive electronic devices and sensor units
like pendulum potentiometer, vertical gyros and pressure transducers, more
complex and sophisticated systems are used in modem torpedoes to ensure
accurate depth-keeping.

46
 Plate I. Abti-ship heavy-weight torpedo (NST-S8).

Plate 2. Medium-weight air launched torpedu: practice version i n assembly shop.

 Plate 3. Fully assembled ground mine.

/.
UJL
Plate 4. High pressure hydraulic test facility to simulate depths upto 4 00 m.
Plate S. Explosive sample under test i n t h e shock tank.

Plate 6. Torpedo launch and recovery vessel.

Plate 7. H-ydr-odynamic test facility high-speed towing tank- i nside view for
torp�o/ship model stlfdies.

Plate 8. Medium-weight torpedo being recovered after trial.

Plale 9. Heavy-weighl lorpedo: praclice version: buOy1lncy chttks.

Plale 10. Recovery aid:smoke marker unllergoing laflOralory Irials.

Plate I I . Triple tube launcher undergoing firing trials to ascertain launch velocity .

Plate 12. Triple tube launcher for light-weight torpedoes fitted on board ship.
 Plate 13. Medium-weight practice torpedo floating in water after trial.

Plate ·14. Medium-weight iorpedo being lowered into water for buoyancy check.
Plate IS. Practice firing i n the channel t o clear the tube.

Plate 16. Channel firing in the channel to clear the tube.

 The depth-gear is an important sub-assembly of a torpedo as it ensures
the correct depth-keeping ability of a torpedo. The depth-gear, the rudder
and the movement of the torpedo iD the vertical plane form a servo system.
The movement of the lever due to the diaphragm and pendulum is
extremely small and hence a pneumatic or electrical actuator system has
to be used in between the depth-gear and the rudder so that the required
power is available to move the rudders, against the very high forces acting
on their surfaces due to the flow of water .
The depth sensor is normally located at a place where the dynamic
pressure due to the running of the torpedo, at an incline, does not exist,
since only the actual depth of running has to be sensed and this value
should not be corrupted by the action of dynamic pressure or suction .

In practice, one more deptfr-sensor is incorporated in the recorder

which is used for recording the running parameters of a torpedo during
the practice run

CONTROL OF A TORPEDO AZIMUTH

Just as it is necessary to control a torpedo in a vertical plane through
the depth-keeping gear , it is essential to control the torpedo in the horizontal
plane to ensure that the torpedo travels in the required direction and the
control system must correct any deviation that can occur during the run
of the torpedo to any external perturbing force. The system should also
have provision to 'angle' the torpedo, so that the ship or the submarine
can fire the torpedo with the required angle set on it even though the target
may nat be in line with the launching tubes . The torpedo then travels a
certain distance through the set angle and heads towards the target. In
addition , a non- homing torpedo is made to run initially on a straight line
and then allowed to zig-zag to increase the probabifity of hitting a target
especially, when a number of targets are present as in a convoy. In the
case of a homing torpedo, the azimuth control system initially takes the
torpedo towards the target untill the homing system takes over . If the
homing wntact is lost, there must be provision for making the torpedo
'remember' the original course of travel, so that the torpedo can steer back
to its original course and do a 'Iost�contact' search .

For controlling the course of a torpedo , a directional gyro is used.

Gyros used in torpedoes may be pneumatic or electrical. In the case of a
pneumatic gyro , high-pressure air stored in the cylinder is reduced in

47
pressure and sustains the speed of the rotor of the gyro, like the operation
of a turbine wheel. Initially, when the torpedo is launched, a blast of
high-pressure air starts the gyro to spin . An electrical gyro is initially started
pneumatically and is sustained by elect�cal power. These gyros operate
from a three-phase supply, specially generated for this purpose . Where
pneumatic power is not available , electrical .8Yro has to be started prior to
launch to enable it to reach the operating speed.
Gyros should have the following characteristicli :
1. They should be capable of attaining the full speed of rotation in as
short a time as possible , so that the rigid or reference axis is created
in the shortest time before the torpedo leaves the tube .
2. They should have as Iow a drift rate as possible .
3. Provision must b e made t o unlock the gyro after the rotor i s started
up and before the torpedo leaves the tube .
4. Mechanical or electromechanical interface is provided to set any
'angle' needed.
Provision also should be available for making the torpedo remember
the original course.
5. When the torpedo climbs o r dives, the gyro should not topple.
6. Gyros should be rugged enough to operate in the weapon .
The rigid axis of a gyro becomes the reference axis, and , if the axis
of a torpedo makes an angle with this reference axis due to any change in
the direction of the motion of the torpedo, an error signal is produced
which is amplified either by a pneumatic or an electronic device and a
control signal is created to control the vertical rudders to bring the torpedo
back to its original course.
The gyro apd the control surfaces along with an amplification device
incorporated in between becomes a servo-system.
Apart from the gyros, a combination of gyros and accelerometers can
form an inertial reference system to control the torpedo both in the vertical
and in horizontal directions. Such an inertial system, known as
strapped-down system, has a microprocessor-based computing system
generating the required voltages, which in turn control$ the horizontal and
the vertical rudders. The system gives the required output for stabilising
the torpedo for roll as well as pitch . Considering the ranges involved and
the homing capability of torpedoes, such an inertial system may not be

48
necessary and use of directional gyros, depth-sensors and a separate roll
gyro for controlling the roll of the torpedo is more than adequate and the
cost is also low.
For recording the behaviour of a practice torpedo in the azimuth plane,
a separate gyro may be used in the recorder system to enable the plotting
of the trajectory after the torpedo is recovered.
With the advancement in electronics and lasers, incorporation of a
laser gyro , which is extremely accurate , becomes a distinct possibility in a
futuristic torpedo.

CONTROL ALONG THE ROLL AXIS

The axis of roll of a torpedo is along the longitudinal axis and any
external disturbance makes the torpedo roll at its natural frequency of
oscilla tion . The period of oscillation depends on the metacentric height
and the radius of gyration. If the distribution of weight of various
sub-assemblies is done in such a manner as to make the position of the
CG as low as possible , the restoring couple becomes more and the torpedo
will try to right itself if it heels.
Normally, a non-homing torpedo does not need an internal control
system for stabilising in the roll plane. Any disturbance during running
will be taken care of by the righting couple .
In a homing torpedo , the acoustic beam which searches the target i s
so designed a s t o have a certain horizontal beam-width a s well a s a vertical
beam-width in order to search and attack the target. If the torpedo rolls ,
the spatial orientation of these two beams will get disturbed and in certain
conditions the target echo may be lost. So it is very essential to have roll
stablisation for a homing torpedo . Torpedoes which are designed as
anti-submarine weapons have the homing capability both in the horizontal
and in vertical planes, whereas heavy-weight torpedos used against surface
targets have capability to horne only in the horizontal plane.
Roll stabilisation is achieved by having a roll sensor associated with
power amplifier devices (pneumatidelectrical) and trimming-tabs or
ailerons. The roll sensor can be a gyro or in its simplest form a pendulum
pote n tiometer. A roll-rate gyro is also used in modem torpedoes to improve
roll stabilisation accuracy. The voltage obtained from the sensors, when
the torpedo rolls, is made use of to actuate the trimming-tabs to bring the
torpedo to its normal position .

49
 B

A . RU DDE RS
B· A I LE RONS

When the torpedo manoeuvres in the horizontal plane, i . e . makes a

tum, the torpedo has a tendency to heel. This heel also needs to be corrected
to stabilize the two acoustic beams. Otherwise there is a distinct possibility
of the torpedo lQsing the contact especially when manoeuvring towards the
target .

so
 The trimming-tabs are actuated by a pneumatic or electrical device,
based on the sensor output , and are situated as a continuation of the
horizontal rudder as shown in Fig. 14. Sometimes the two halves of tile
vertical rudder are deflected in opposite directions in order to produce the
required tuffting moment to bring the torpedo to an even keel . The vertical
rudders will operate as one entity whenever a change in the direction is to
be effected. It is also possible to achieve the same by operating the two
halves of the horizontal rudder in a like manner. With a roU-stabilisng
system operative, the allowable roll limits are of the order of +1-1 to 2° .

Ensuring the correct functioning of these three important

sub-assemblies ensures the accuracy of run of the torpedo. Elaborate test
equipment are used for checking, calibrating and testing the components
of sub-assemblies and this is an important and exacting t�sk at the
preparation of the torpedo.

In a modem and complex test system, the entire torpedo is mounted

on a sYt'ivelling platform, which is computer controlled , and the entire
system can be tested by simulating the various conditions which the torpedo
encounters during its run and in trying to attack the target. The output of
the computer gives a complete record of the functioning of the various
control sub-assemblies.

51
 CHAPTER 10

ACOUSTIC TRANSDUCERS
The acoustic energy radiating from a target propagates under water
as variations in pressure, along the direction of propagation. It is essential
to have some device to convert the pressure variations into electrical
voltage. This will 'enable amplification and further 'Processing of the signal
to make it observable. Similarly, if acoustic energy is to be generated under
water, electronic circuitry generates the required power at the desired
frequency and this voltage is applied to a transducer, which converts the
electrical energy into acoustic energy.
Some crystilliine materials like tourmalline, quartz and lead zirconate
titanate, when sliced in certain well defined axes , exhibit piezoelectric
property. When pressure is applied along a specified axis, a voltage is
generated across the two faces and conversely if voltage is applied, a stress
is produced. By applying an alternating voltage the crystal vibrates and as
a result of the vibration, compression and rarefactions are created.
Some substances like nickel placed in a l1'\.agnetic field experience a
small change in their dimensions, and conversely a change in the magnetic
field surrounding it is observed when the substance is stressed . This
phenomenon is known as magneto-striction.
Generation and reception of acoustic energy underwater is based on
these two principles. A transducer which converts sound energy into
electrical energy is termed as a receiver or hydrophone , and one that
converts electrical energy into acbustic energy is called a transmitter or
projector.
A single element of 8 transducer in the form of a sphere when excited
by electrical energy generates acoustic energy which is radiated equally in
all directions, and the energy propagates ia the form of an expanding
sphere with time . TItis is denoted as a spherical wavefront. Similarly, such

52
a transducer or hydrophone will be able to receive the acoustic energy
equally well from all directions and convert it to electrical energy. Such a
transducer is known as an omni-directional transducer. A directional
transducer transmits or receiv�s energy pnly within a certain angle about
the axis of the transducer.
A torpedo transducer is a directional transducer with certain beam
angles in the horizontal and vertical directions. This enables the transmitted
power to be concentrated in a particular sector of search and insonify a
certain volume of water about the axis of a torpedo. Any object that reflects
the acoustic energy is intercepted by the transducer during the
receiver-mode and processed. During reception the transducer elements
are so configured as to generate a number of narrow beams in the horizontal
plane and more often two beams in the vertical plane . as shown in Fig. 15.
The reflected energy will enter any of these beams depending on the
direction of the target with respect to the axis of the torpedo. Similarly.
the energy will be received either by the top or bottom beam depending
on whether the target is up or down with respect to the axis of lhe torpedo.
Use of directional beams, therefore, helps (i) concentrate the energy.
(ii) obtain the direction of the target position . and (iii) restrict external
noise from the surrounding sea and other sources . Further processing of
the signal enables the control system to tum the torpedo towards the target.
The desired directional property can be achieved using transducer
elements in arrays and exciting them suitably. Figure 1 6 depicts various
possibilities to achieve the desired patterns .
By increasing the number of elements. transducers can he made more
sensitive and the beams sharper. Either the distances between the elements
can be changed or each element can be excited with voltages that are
shifted in phase in order to change the beam pattern or the direction of
the beam axis.
Beam formation, for both transmission and reception, is an important
system requirelTl&nt of the torpedo's overall design to meet the total
performance characteristics of the torpedo.
The torpedo transducers for passive homing are configured , sometimes
using magnetostrictive elements also
By appropriately controlling the delay circuits, it is possible to scan a
volume of water during the search phase of the run of the torpedo. As
soon as a target echo is received, and if it satisfies the criteria for validation,

53
 ,\
�
I \
I \
I \
,

BEAM PAT TERN FOR I Wo COVERA G E I� A ZI M U T H

FlgurY I S . Two beams in vertical and numbel'" ol"lrarrow beams in hOl'"lzontal plane.

(a) (b) (e)

FllIUrY 16. Radiation/reception patler9s o f a S·element IIrrllY li t different excitations;
(a) uniform, (b) binomial and (e) dolphtehebyseheff.

54
the direction of the position of the target is known from the direction of
the axiS of the beam at that instant. The torpedo then turns towards the
target.
The delay networks to feed the elements can be either activ� . (i.e .
those using operational amplifiers) or passive (i.e. those using inductors
and capacitors) (Fig. 17).
The transducers are periodically calibrated in an acoustic tank using
standard projectors and automatic plotting devices for getting the polar
diagram. The magnetostrictive type oj transducers have to be periodically
'flashed' , that is magnetised slightly, to ensure operation at the frequency
of excitation (otherwise they may produce an acoustic output whose
frequency will be twice that of the exciting voltage) . The flashing process
makes the transducer operate at the correct point on the magnetisation
curve. Sometimes a weak permanent magnet may form part of the assembly
thereby eliminating the need for flashing.

"

cTv " I

TRANSDUCER
ELEMEP'fTS (al
Ftpre 17(a). Delay Mtwork: actJve.

S5
 r - - -,
- - - - -

I
I
2
[CV I

I I
I

I []}2
7

L _ _ - - - - - �

TRANSDU C E R

(b)
E L EMEN T S

Figure 17(b). Delay Detwork: puslve.

CAVITATION
An underwater acoustic transmitter can be excited only up to a certain
level at a certain depth. Beyond this, the integrity of the water in contact
is lost and tiny bubbles enclosing water vapour are formed. These bubbles
absorb the acoustic energy. Hence during the design of the transducer,
this factor has to be taken into account . Onset of cavitation depends on
the area of the transducer, depth and power level.
In the case of a transducer used in a torpedo, efforts are made to
ensure that the front-to-back ratio of the sensitivity is made as bigh as

56
possible to suppress secondary lobes. The high ratio ensures that a passive
torpedo on encountering a towed decoy and turning around it can ignore
the noise of the decoy to a great extent and go towards the propeller of
the target ship.

CONSTRUCTION OF A TYPICAL TORPEDO TRANSDUCER

Depending on the beam widths needed for reception and transmission

and also sensitivity . the required number of elements is chosen. The
elements are mounted on a rigid plate as shown in Fig. IS, and normally
an air gap is made to be there behind this plate to further increase the
front-to-back ratio. The front end of the transducer is covered with
neoprene rubber or polyurethane to make the system watertight .

Unlike i n the design of a sonar transducer the area available at the

front end is severely restricted owing to the fIXed diameter of the torpedo
and imposes restrictions on the designer.

, 2 3 I.
.- -$-
5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 1 1. \5 16

17 18 19 20 21 22

23 21. 25 26 27 28

29 30 31 32
.- ..
Fllure II. Tranlducer array.

57
NATURE OF THE ECHO
The reflected energy from the target as received by the receiver
sub-assembly undergoes apart from attenuation, several other changes.
Depending on the target and its orientation, if the original pulse-width .
for example, is 10 ms, the received echo may have a length greater than
this as a result of the reflection occuring from various points throughout
the length of th� target . In other words, if the. target is end-on when the
energy from the transmitter strikes the target, the nearer end of the target
to the receiver starts reflecting the energy and the various points a.long the
length of the target reflect the energy correspondingly at a slightly later
time interval. Hence the reflected pulse, which originally had a duration
of 10 ms , may get stretched to as much as 15 ms depending on the target
length. In addition, the energy incident on the target may get reflected
back from certain prominent portions of the target (called highlights) and
from pulse to pulse this might vary, giving rise to a certain amount of
fluctuation in the amplitude oflhe echo . If the target has a component of
velocity along the axis of radiation of the energy, there will be a shift in
the frequency of the reflected energy as a result of doppler effect. The
frequency will get shifted to a higher value if there is a closing relative
velocity and may have a lower value if the target is opening out. Apart
from this, as a result of reflection of the energy from the sea-surface and
the sea-bottoM', the energy directly received from the target may undergo
interference , and selective fading can occur . This problem gets C!ccentuated
in shallow water,

The echo under these conditions will have to be detected against the
ever-present background noise due to various factors . If the receiver circuit,
which processes the signal due to the echo, has to indicate that there is an
echo against the background noise, a certain threshold (detection threshold)
has to be set. If the echo is strong enough, it will be we' l above the
'
background noise. If in order to make the receiver more sensitive a low
detection threshold is set (because the echo amplitude is fairly small), there
is a probability that the noise which is of a random nature sometimes may
exceed the set value of the detection threshold and the receiver may give
an output. This is normally termed �s false alarm . The false alarm ma� , if
care is not taken, give a control signal for the torpedo to tum. It will
therefore be seen that setting a low-detection threshold can increase the
probability of false alram and setting a higher value than necessary may

58
reduce the probability of detection of an echo, though the false alann rate
may become less.
To ensure that only real echoes give the steering command for the
torpedo, it is necessary to take a number of measures to validate the echo
before it can generate a control signal. These are :
1. Setting of an optimum detection threshold.
2. Incorporation of width-gate which will ensure that only echoes with
a certain width or more will pass through this gate .
3. Incorporation of a range-gate. The first echo that is received opens
a gate whose width may correspond in range to 100-200 m. The
second echo has to fall within this gate if it is not spurious. This
enables the receiver to ensure that what is being received and crossing
the threshold is really an echo from the target and not a spurious
signal.
4. The receiver circuitry can look for a shift in the doppler frequency
since a moving targ.et will always produce a doppler shift . To observe
only the shift in frequency· due to· the target it is necessary to
incorporate circuitry to-cancel the observed shift in frequency due to
the movement of the torpedo itself. This is called 'own Doppler
nullifier' (ODN).
S. In signal-processing, what is known as auto correlation is used to
enbance the signal-ta-noise ratio. A stored replica of the transmitted
pulse is multiplied in an apgropriate circuit with the received echo.
If there is a high degree of correlation between the stored and the
received energy, the output will be a maximum.
In order to carry out the various measures enumerated above , complex
circuitries are involved. Before the advent of integrated circuits it was
difficult to carry out some of these processes since the volume available
for tbe electronic circuitry in the ·torpedo is very less. A dedicated
bigh-speed microprocessor is now a days used with the homiJlg circuitry
to carry out signal analysis in real-&ime to ensure the detection and validation
of the target echo.
When the target is near, the 'intensity of the received echo is large and
when the target is far, energy received is small. The receiver gain therefore
is made to vary automatically, the gain being bigger when the echoes are
being received from long ranges and the gain being reduced when the
torpedo closes in on the range. This process is normally termed automatic

59
gain control (AGC) . In addition, a time varying gain (lVG) may also be
incorporated where the gain varies with time. As a torpedo closes in on
the range, it is possible to incorporate a circuitry to raise the detection
threshold , thereby decreasing the false alarm.
The noise being random, t� signal energy, being repetitive integration
over a number of transmit-receive cycles, will also enhance the probability
of detection.
Special circuitry to detect the doppler enables the torpedo to validate
an echo from a moving target as compared to stationary objects like rock.
This is especially needed in s,hallow-water qperation of the torpedo. Hence
provision is made in the setting of the torpedo prior to launch, whether it
is to operate in continuous wave (CW) mode or doppler mode.
Sometimes the frequency of operation is varied during the pulse
interval time itself. At the commencement of the pulse , the frequency will
be fo and as the pulse ends it may be fo + delta fo When processed suitably
the sign al to nois e ratio can get enhanced. If the torpedo operates in CW
- -

mode this linear frequency modulation (LFM) is cut out.

To sum up the characteristics and performance of the weapon depend

on the following conditions :

1. As the speed of the torpedo increases, the self noise increases

2. The frequency of operation ranges from 20 to 60 kHz, in view of the
availability of space for the placement of the transducer elements to
get the receiver directivity pattern.
3. If the beam-width of the receiver is made very narrow the
overall sensitivity increases but the volume of the water scanned is
less and hence poses a problem during the search phase. If the beam
is wide, then directivity index becomes less and the quantum of
external noise as seen by the receiver also increases. This includes,
in an active torpedo, the reverberation noise. Hence, once again the
choice of beam-width is a compromise leading to optimum
performance.
The power that cah be radiated from an active torpedo during
transmission gets limited because of cavitation , and also the space
available restricts the designer in using very high- power transmitting
modules.

60
5. Setting of a threshold for detection bas t o be carefully adjusted to
reduce the false alarm.
6. In shallow-water operation the capability of an active homer is
affected owing to the reflection from sea-surface and sea-bottom.
7. As the technology stands today, whether it is an active or 'a passive
torpedo, the maximum range of detection of a submarine will only
be 1 .5 to 2.5 km .

GUIDANCE THROUGH WIRE LINK

In 1872 a torpedo was designed under the name lay torpedo, which
was controlled from shore using two cables. Then followed the
Sims-Eddison torpedo in 1 889. However these torpedoes could not be
perfected.
After the World War I I , guiding of a torpedo from- the launching
platfOlIfll by using trailing wires became a reality. As the speed and the
endurance kept on increasing owing to intense developmental activities, it
was found that the on-board homing system was inadequate especially in
tackling the targets at long ranges. The sonar on board the launching
platform, which detests the target, and the fire control system, which
computes the target vector, could be made use of throughout the run of
the torpedo for guiding it, during its mid-�ourse approach if a communiction
link is estaplished between the launch platform and the torpedo . This is
being done by a wire-guidance . Most of the modern long-range heavy
weight torpedoes have a wire-guidance incorporated in them.
When a torpedo is lal1nched , a fine cable gets unreeled . In order that
no tension may develop on the fine wire , two cahle drums are used , one
on board the launch platform and another inside the torpedo . As the
torpedo travels the cable unreels from both these drums and no tension is
developed on the guidance wire. Normally, a very small water-tight
connector is used to connect the cable that is on board the torpedo to the
cable on board the platform . In addition , in order that during the launch
phase the cable may not get cut owing to protrusion on the launch. vehicle,
a strong outer sheath is used on the cable for 20-30 m .
The cable can be with only a single insulated wire , the sea- water
acting as the return path ; or it can be with two wires both insulated from
each other and also from the sea-water.

61
 Information can be exchanged betweeh the torpedo and a launch
platform using modulator demodulator (MODEMS). Information is
exchanged in a digital form and the frequencies used are low so as to reduce
the attenuatif;>n in the long cable.
The main sonar on the launch platform keeps tracking the target and
the information on the target motion is fed to the fire-control system on
board the launch platform . Information from the torpedo on the various
parameters like speed, heading, depth and acoustic signals, is passed back
to the launch platform to the fire-control system, which then solves the
fire control problem and sends appropriate steering commands to the
torpedo to steer it towards the future position of the target
Torpedoes using wire-guidance can be controlled to distances in excess
of 30-40 km: The probability of hit of a wire-guided torpedo dramatically
rises to 90% and more as-compared to torpedoes which are autonomous
with only 50-60% probability of hit. There are a number of advantages in
using wire-guidance . The main sonar on the launch platform may be better
equipped for discriminating a decoy from the target. It is difficult for the
target being tracked to evade a main sonar beam . Since the guidance can
be given right up to almost the collision point tht: hit probability increases.
Since a modern heavy weight torpedo travels extremely fast the level of
self-noise is very high and therefore its own homing system gets severely
restricted (until it comes very close to the target) . Hence the wire-guidance
becomes a must for long-range high-speed torpedoes .
It is also possible for the torpedo to send back information on the
radiated noise of the target to enable the launch platform to do a better
characterisation of the target.
The fire-control system on board the launch platform which has a
central computer can control the torpedo �uring its attack and the re-attack
phases, if it misses the target. It is also possible for the torpedo to home
on with its own homing device in the final phase of the attack. Provision
also exists fur manual control if needed.
In case of a wire break , circuitries are incorporated inside the torpedo
to pursue its attack with tile information that was available before the wire
parted.
The future rna)! see the use of fibre optic cables instead of electrical
cables for transmitting and receiving information. The very high bapd-width
available with fibre optic cables can even enable the launch platform to

62
visually see the image of the target, enabling very high discrimination
between the target and a decoy. Use of fibre optic cables also eliminates
any problem due to loss. of insulation in the cable due in tum to pin-holes,
etc. But technology is yet to be developed for its use in the wire-guidance
of torpedoes.

63
 CHAPTER 1 1

HOMING

If a target is to be engaged , the essential parameters to be determined

are the target course, target speed and target range . A simple computation
will show that the shell or the weapon has to be fired towards the future
position of the target so that the shell or the weapon during its travel
towards the target at its own speed will meet the target which has also
travelled a-certain distance in the same time . This is illustrated in Fig. 19.

T A R G E T AT I N T E R C E P T

/'.:
�
J L A M I N A R D I S TA N C E

� T ORPEOO A T I N T E R C E P T

T O R P E D O PAT H

A C OUS T I C TORPEDO W I T H

2 T O 1 S P E E D A D VA N T A G E

FIpre .9. Torpedo 1at.erupC ..th at a fu hlft poIIdoa 01 tarwrt.

64
 This is a highly idealised situation. No enemy will be so co operative
in a hostile situatfon. The target win be manoeuvring and taking evasive
measures, and the speed may not remain same during a time t and so on.
The weapon speed may not remain constant. There can be errors in
detennining target course, speed and range. All these get compounded
and at bes.t we can attribute the probability of a shell or a non-homing
weapon being in a certain area around the 'calculated collision point.
In the case of early non-homing torpedoes, slightly different deflection
angles are resorted to, to mitigate the uncertainities and errors. Even so,
an alert target can take action to evade all the torpedoes. Success depends
mainly on surprise and firing from fairly close quarters.
A lQgical approach is to make the torpedo home towards the noise
source, the ships always producing enough and more of radiant acoustic
energy. Full credit goes to Gennans for designing the first ever homing
torpedo which came into operation in the early 1943. The torpedo was
code-named G7e. Simple in design, the torp&does claimed several victims,
especially the escort vessels of the convoys.
As a result of technological advancements in the post-World War II
period the torpedo today stands as a fine-tuned hunter capable of high
speed with sophisticated homing devices and carrying very high quantities
of explosives to long ranges, which are dreaded by all platfonns at sea.
It is a homing torpedo that served as a predecessor to a modem m !ssile.
Broadly, homing torpedoes can be either active type or passive type .

PASSIVE HOMERS
Torpedoes fitted with homing devices that utilise the acoustic energy
radiated by a ship or submarine for generating the required commands to
steer towards and hit the targtt are called passive homers.
Basics of Computing : The bearing angle, i.e. the angle of target with
respect to torpedo fore and aft axis, is achieved by comparing the relative
signals induced in the elements of the array of a transducer. The phase
difference of the signal due to the path difference in the wavefront reaching
different transducers in the array is converted into amplitude difference as
shown in Fig. 20. The amplitude difference gives a measure of the bearing
of the target with respect to the torpedo fore anq aft axis-. After suitable
processing this signal can be used for driving the steering rudder interface
circuitry to steer the torpedo towards the target.

65
 I
.
I

/
,
I
/
/

Validation CriteriIJ : In order that the torpedo may not be detracted from
its normal path by a spurious signal, certain criteria are laid down and only
if they are satisfied with the control unit generate a signal to the actuators
to make the torpedo tum. These criteria are : (i) The signal should persist
at least for a duration of, say, 50 to 150 ms; (ii) the level of the signal
should cross a pre-set threshold; and (iii) the difference between the left
and the right signals must be a certain number of decibels.

Whether any or all of these criteria are incorporated in the design of

the torpedo is left to tl)e designer. This is normally classifitd since a
knowledge of this and frequency band of operation could help the enemy
design a countermeasure .

The rudders are flipped alternately from left to right during the homing
run. This kind of control is termed bang-bang syste m . In contrast, as a

66
torpedo is turning towards the target and as the signal difference keeps
decreasing and becomes zero, a control circuit can be designed such that
the angle of the rudder also keeps decreasing correspondingly and becomes
zero when the torpedo axis coincides with the target line. Such a control
system is known as proportional control.

Features ,' (1) Passive homers art! ideal for deployment against noisy targets
like merchant ships, esco� vessels and in general against surface targets ;
(2) Design is a little simpler than in the case of active homers ; (3) They
can be somewhat easily seduced by countermeasure devices.
(counter-countermeasure (ECCM) circuitry can be incorporated to some
extent); (4) They are silent in that they do not transmit and hence cannot
be detected during approach (especially electric torpedoes) , thereby taking
the target by surprise ; (5) They are not affected to any large extent by
shallow water, fading etc. In fact , they have a decided advantage in
shallow-water operation over active homers.

ACTIVE HOMERS
We have seen that a torpedo depends on the energy radiated by the
target for homing towards it. A submarine is basically. designed to be
noiseless and the acoastic energy, i.e. radiated, due ta the internal
combustion engines and other auxiliary machinery is ako absent when the
submarine is in a dived condition , as it runs on batteries. The factors
contributing to the radiated noise are the noise due to the propeller the
flow noise, and , to some extent, auxiliary systems like pumps, etc. when
in operation. A pasive homer, therefore , may not be very effective against
a silent submarine. The post-World War II period saw the emergence of
specially designed torpedoes with active homing capability to counter the
submarines.
In active homing, the torpedo generates a pulse of electric:al energy
at an appropriate frequency and for a certain pulse duration and radiates
it through its transducers in the form of an intense acoustic pulse. This
energy insonifies a certain volume of the water and if a target is prese nt
it intercepts this energy and reflects it back . A part of the reflected energy
after travelling back the distance between the target and the torpedo is
received by the transducers of the torpedo and converted to electrical
energy which acts as an input to the receiver. Energy radiated from the
torpedo has to travel the distance between the target and the torpedo twice

67
and in addition the amount of reflected energy is solely dependent on the
area of intercept offered by the target . This is quantified as target strength .

. The merit of the system, therefore, depends on the amount of power

transmitted and the sensitivity of the receiver to detect the very small signal
energy against the background noise , self-noise of the torpedo , as also
against any reverberation that may be present. In order to concentrate the
energy in a particular direction , the transducer is made to have a certain
directional pattern , while transmitting. Similarly, in order to decide the
direction in which the target is present, the receiver may have either multiple
beams or a single beam to scan across in azimuth.

The diameter of the torpedo imposes a limita&ion on the size of the

transducers. In an active system, for the same power output and low
operating frequency , greater ranges can be achieved owing to low
propagation losses. If the frequency is low, it is difficult to design a
transducer that fits in the contour, i . e . the front streamlined nose position
of the torpedo.

Shape : The speed and agility of a dolphin has always amazed marine
technologists. Nature seems to have made a near perfect system in creating
the dolphin by way of its efficiency of propulsion and alacrity of manoeuvre .

The shapes of the torpedoes were made more intuitively rather than
by a scientific approach during the early days of developmental work. The
realisation of the complex interaction of the shape of a moving body under
water, with respect to the medium, spurred research to find an ideal body
shape for this most important underwater weapon . Tests done in a wind
tunnel for perfecting the shape of aircrafts paved the way for carryi ng out
similar tests for objects moving under wator, be they submarines or
torpedoes. As in the case of the wind tunnel, the test facilities used in
research are the towing tank, cavitation tunm�1 and manoeuvring basin

Mention has already been made of laminar and turbulant flow of the
water when a torpedo or submarine moves under water. The total
propulsion efficiency of a body moving under water depends on the shape
of the body. Unlike in the case of air, the density and viscosity of water
play an important role. Aspect ratio is the ratio of the length to the diameter
of a body travelling under water. Experiments carried out with a body of
length-to-diameter ratio of 3.3, aptly named dolphin, have shown that the
total hull drag is only 50% of a conventional shape. If therefore the prime
mover, such as a thermal engine or an electrical propulsion system , with

68
an hp of 500-600 is capable of moving a heavy weight torpedo at a speed
of around 50 knots, the same prime mover would be capable of moving
the torpedo of an aspect ratio of 3.3, to speeds in excess of 100 knots. It
has also been found .that a dolphin expends much less energy while moving
at a high speed by reducing the friction due to the flow by possibly a
secretion from its outer skin.
In a conventional heavy weight torpedo, the diameter is 53 cm and
the length around 8 m, giving an aspect ratio of about 16. If a torpedo is
to be designed based on an aspect ratio of 3.3, the designer would end up
possibly with a torpedo which will be 3 m in diameter and to m in length-an
impracticable system for incorporation especially in a submarine. To give
some examples, the aspect ratio of well-known torpedoes like
Tiger-Fish/SUT/AI84 is about to, whereas the torpedo MK 37 which is of
the US Navy and which has undergone several major modifications with
regard to internal sub-systems, has an aspect ratio only of 7 .

The towing tank, one o f the hydrodynamic test facilities, i s made use
of for testing the models of ships, submarines and torpedoes. In the case
of torpedoes, a full scale model is used. A series of tests in the towing tank
gives the designer an idea of the resistance that the shape encounters while
travelling under water at that speed. In additon , several other important
hydrodynamic parameters are obtained during this test. Tests are also
carried out with fins and other appendages that are likely to come on the
body when the real turpedo is fabricated.

As mentioned earlier, the flow of water around the body contributes

to the flow noise. Also, protrusions and propellers contribute to the general
noise by way of cavitation above a certain speed. A cavitation tunnel is
made use of to determine the noise contributed due to the above mentioned
reasons and to optimise propeller design.

Apart from extensive model testing, simulation is also done on

computers to get an idea of the conditions that would exist in real-life
situations.

The shape of the body and the fins decide the manoeuvrability of the
orpedo. Experiments have proved that if the surface is wetted by a
long-chain polymer, there is a reduction of drag to the tune of 30% .
However, it has not been possible to incorporate this in a torpedo because
of practical difficulties.

69
 In manufacturing a torpedo great care is taken to ensure that the
surface roughness'is minimum. The self noise produced depends not only
on the speed of the torpedo but also on the surface finish.

hi sum·, to increase the total propulsion efficiency and control the

noise , the weapon must have a high degree of smooth external finish by
way of protruding bands, screws, etc. The horizontal and vertical tail fins
and control surfaces ( rudders) must be carefully faired so that no vorticies
are generated.

70
 CHAPTER 1 2

TORPEDO FUZES

The ultimate aim of a weapon is to destroy the target when the warhead
of the weapon detonates at an optimum distance or on the target itself.
The propulsion system, the control and the homing system of a torpedo
take the torpedo to the vicinity of the target depending on the total system
accuracy. If the detonation of the warhead occurs at a distance which is
not optimal , the extent of damage to the target would be negligible . As
explained earlier the damage caused to a ship is far greater when the
warhead explodes at a certain distance than when the explosion occurs on
impact with the target.
The torpedo fuzes can be grouped broadly under two headings: impact
(or explosion due to an inertial device) or a proximity fuze .
Torpedoes which are designed prior to World War I I incorporated
basically inertial type of exploders for actuating the wahead . These devices
consisted basically of an inertial mass which when the torpedo hits the
target actuates complex mechanical components to initiate an explosive
chain. The basic principles of construction more or less follo\Yed the famil iar
designs that were originally adopted for other explosive devices like the
gun-shell. In the case of a torpedo, it was soon realised , espec i a l l y after
homing torpedoes came into being, that the effectiveness of a torpedo in
bringing the destruction of the target would be far greater if a proximity
fuze , instead of a inertial type of fuze , is used.
Proximity fuzes can be further grouped under two categories : Active
type and passive type . In the passive type, the fuze depends on the magnetic
field of the target, which is sensed by appropriate devices inside the torpedo.
In the case of active fuzes, which once again can be divided under two
categories namely electro-magnetic and acoustic, the field of energy which

71
is used for detecting the proximity of the target with respect to the torpedo
is generated by the torpedo itself.

ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE
To recapitulate, sea-water, being a highly conductive medium.
attenuates any magnetic field very rapidly and the attenuation depends on
the frequency of the electromagnetic field. In an electromagnetic type of
proximity fuze an alternating magnetic field is created around the torpedo
by a coil suitably placed outside the torpedo shell. The coil is excited by
an alternating current of a low frequency (500- 1500 Hz). The exciting
current is generated by an invertor or an alternator inside the torpedo.
When the coils are energised, an alternating magnetic field surrounds the
torpedo. When the torpedo is very close to a ship made of a conducting
material. the alternating field induces eddy currents in the conducting plates
of the target. The eddy I:Urrents in turn generate a secondary magnetic
field. If a sensor in the form of a coil is placed on the shell of the torpedo .
the secondary magnetic field induces a voltage in the receiver coi l . The
transmitter and the receiving coils are kept at right angles to each other.
This ensures that the receiver coil does not have any voltage induced in it
till such time as a target is encountered. If due to any imbalances present.
a small voltage is induced in the receiver coil . owing. for example. to the
radiation from the transmitter coi l . it is normally balanced by a suitable
circuitry.

The . voltage induced in the receiver coil due to the target has its
characteristics defined by way of its amplitude and phase . The phase of
the voltage will be different with respect to the phase of the current in the
transmitter coi l . This is because the voltage induced in the receiver coil is
the result of the secondary magnetic field due to the target.
In order to validate that the signal . as received by the receiver coil ,
i s only due t o the presence o f a target . certain criteria are t o be met by
way of phase . the rate at which voltage rises and also the frequency. When
the torpedo is running in water. the conducting sea-water itself can
contribute to the noise picked up by the receiving coil . Theoretically as'
well as practically. it bas heen estahlished that maximum voltage is induced
in the receiver coil when the depth of the torpedo below the keel "f the
ship is equal to the fuze base . The fuze base is defined as the distance
hetween the receiving coil and the transmitting coil. Normally the

72
transmitting coil is fixed near the fins of the torpedo and the receiving coil
right in the front portion of the torpedo , i .e. warhead.
The frequency of the electromagnetic field in the design of such a
system is normally in the low frequency region, 500-1500 Hz. The
attenuation in sea-water at low frequency is less and this is one of the
reasons for choosing a frequency within this range. In addition, the
wavelength corresponding to this frequency will be several hundred metres
and hence some approximations like considering transmitting source as a
point and the dimensions of the torpedo as small compared to wavelength
etc. can be made.
When the torpedo is running very shallow and if for some reason it
surfaces, the conditions for inducing an EMF in th6 receiving coil. as if a
target is present , will be satisfied by way of the amplitude of the signal
induced in the receiving coil . The condition for such a situation to arise,
(i .e. the fuse should not activate ) , are brought about by making use of the
information on the phase of the signal induced in the receiving coil . There
is a very small band in the phase regime by which the condition for the
phase of the voltage induced in the receiving coil with respect to the current
in the transmitting coil is allowed in the design of the fuze . It is ensured
that the fuze can activate only when the phase of induced signal falls within
the narrow band. This eliminates the possibility of the warhead exploding
when owing to malfunction the torpedo tries to surface . As stated earlier,
in addition to the phase criteria, a minimum level of amplitude as well as
a certain rate of rise of voltage is also fixed for the fuze to activate.
It is extremely difficult to decoy a torpedo against such active
electromagnetic fuzes. The state of degaussing of the target ship is of no
consequence as far as the fuze is concerned. Most of the modem torpedoes
incorporate only this type of fuze .

MAGNETIC PASSIVE FUZE

The torpedol:s designed and manufactured during the World War II
incorporated such fuzes. These fuzes depend on the state of magnetic field
of the ship. A long rod of a highly permeable magnetic material is kept in
the warhead and several tens of thousands of turns of wire are wound on
the rod . Whenever the torpedo passes beneath a ship the magnetic lines
of force dpe to the ship's magnetism cut the coil and hence induce a voltage .
This voltage is further processed to activate a fuze . There were a lot of

73
uncertainities with regard to the functioning of such a fuze . Incorporation
of such fuzes has been dispened with .

ACTIVE ACOUSTIC FUZE

The basic principles governing such fuzes are the transmission of a
very short-duration acoustic pulse at a high frequency by a suitably designed
transducer, kept in the front end of the torpedo. If a target is present
above, an echo is received . The voltage corresponding to this echo from
the receiving transducer is processed for activating the fuze. A range bracket
is incorporated in the receiving circuitry so that echoes received only within
this bracket will be processed further for activating the fuze . This ensures
that the warhead will explode only when it is at the correct depth below
the target ship. From the design point of view, there are a number of
problems which have to be overcome to design such a fuze. The sea surface
can give reflection at certain angles, and the sea state also plays some role
in reflecting the transmitting pulse as an echo. In addition, in order to
ensure the validity of the received echo, the designer resorts frequently to
using two separate high-frequency pulses to see that the echo received is
only from the target. Incorporation of other validation criteria ensures the
proper functioning of such fuzes.
Semiconductor lasers may play an important part in transmitting a
short burst of an energy, obtaining its reflection for further processing and
activation of the fuzes. This has become a distinct possibility in the recent
past.
In conclusion , a modern torpedo should necessarily have a proximity
fuze of one form or another in addition to an impact fuze to ensure a
greater destructive capability. This is because an explosion at a certain
distance from the target, unde;: water, produces a much greater damage
than an explosion due to impact .

74
 CHAPTER I 3

FIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS

The fire-control system is an integral part of the total weapon systems

in a combat vehicle. The system is interfaced with sensors , weapons and
appropriate processor units. The purpose of the system is mainly to take
data from the sensors with regard to the target (target speed , target course
and range) and work out by algorithms the direction in which the torpedoes
have to be launched as well as the setting to be done on the torpedo prior
to launch .
Broadly, the computational methods would be based on two
approaches. If an active sensor (radar, periscope fitted with the range
finder, active sonar) is used by observing the target motion , it would be
possible to obtain the two important vectors, namely range and bearing,
and calculate the true velocity and course of the target.
Taking into account the speed of the torpedo , the required throw-off
angle can be obtained by a single calculation so that the torpedo reaches
the collision point at a future position of the target.
If, on the other hand, only passive means (passive sonar and ESM)
are employed, then detennination of the target vectors becomes more
complex, and an advanced mathematical approach has to be resorted to
generate th e al gori t h m s to detennine the target speed and t h e course as
well as range, as quickly as possible to do further computation to arrive
at the exact direction in which the torpedo has to be launched.

There are a number of algorithms like Kalman filtering, maximum

likelihood estimation techniques and the like. In addition . it may also
•.

involve a pre·determined manoeuvre of the launch vessel , L e . • submarine,

to make such predictive algorithms converge or to give the required results
in as short a time as possible.

7S
 When passive sensors only are used , as in case of a submarine , when
the target has been classified and a decision for carrying out an attack is
taken, it becomes necessary to keep tracking the target to get the bearing
data at periodical intervals and make use of this only available information
to calculate the range . target speed and target course. On obtaining a
successive number of bearings data at known time intervals, the algorithm
used in the processor 'estimates' what would be the next bearing
information . When the actual determined bearing data from the sensor
and the calculated data are in accord the solution becomes valid. As shown
in the diagram , from the time of initial observation and classification of
the target , a certain amount of time is needed to take a number of bearings
to obtain a valid solution. This is because none of the three quantities
pertaining to the target (target speed, course and range) is known .
Depending on the bearing accuracy of the sensor (basic sonar, ESM) and
the type of the algorithm used, the target tracking may have to be done
for quite some time to obtain a valid solution.

If the sonar operator is able to feed into the system through his
keyboard even an approximate value of the range or an approximate value
of the velocity of the target then the time for convergence and for obtaining
a valid solution becomes naturally less. By listening to the noise of the
beats of the propeller an experienced sonar operator could guess an
approximate value for range as well as the speed of the target.

After the target vectors are determined, the fire control syste!"
computes the direction in which the torpedo has to be launched' in order
to collide with the target by getting additional information of the torpedo
speed .

It will thus be seen that the fire-control system should basically have
a processor unit, a data-acquisition system, and an interactive terminal
apart from the unit which will be located near the torpedo launching tubes
to feed in other parameters before launch.

In a submarine, a number of �nsors are available by which a target

is detected. If the submarine is totally submerged, only a passive sonar can
detect and classify the target before the tracking starts. The passive sonar
can be hull-mounted or for initial detection a towed array. When the
submarine is at periscope depth it can obtain information on a target using
its radar, sonar, ESM and optical range-finders. In the case of a surface
ship, the detection of a submarine is only by means of an active or passive

76
sonar. Sometimes when the target submarine is on the surface and by using
its radar, the ESM equipment on board the ship may indicate the presence
of the target. Now a days surface ships use towed arrays as well for the
detection of submarines.

In the case of a maritime aircraft, the means of detecting a surfaced

submarine , or when it is using its snort, radar and infrared detection
equipment can be made use of for initial detection . But after the submarine
dives, active or passive sonobuoys are the only means by which an aircraft
will be able to track the submarine. Th� sonobuoys would then act as the
sensors by transmitting the information on the submarine that is being
tracked to the aircraft by 8 radio frequency link.

The information to be fed to the torpedo before launch would normally

be the following :

1. Active or passive mode,

2. If active , whether CW or LFM (linear frequency modulation) pulse .

3. Type of search in case of loss of contact (circular expanding spiral
etc . ) ,

4. Initial straight run, and

5. Angle settings that the torpedo has to execute if the direction of

launch is different from the direction in which collision would be
obtained. (ITA-initial tum angle and the dispersion angles in case
of salvo firing) .

77
 CHAPTER 14

PRACTICE TORPEDOES

A great deal of stress is laid on carryin g out periodically realistic and

full-scale exercises during peace time to ensure preparedness for a future
possible war. This also ensures the training of the personnel manning ships
and submarines to the required degree of skill.
In underwater warfare it is all the more essential to carry out such
exercises in various seasons and at various places since a detection of a
target which may be positioned randomly in an area becomes more difficult,
as a result of the variations in the characteristics of the medium, i.e.
sea-water.
After the initial phase of detection, classification and tracking, the
final and most important phase in carrying out an exercise simulating an
underwater warfare is the launching of a torpedo which should, as
realistically as possible, carry out an attack on the designated target.
Normally, in order to ensure the safety of the target certain precautions,
like setting the running depth of the torpedo above that of the submerged
submarine, are taken. In some cases the torpedo is made to steer off as
soon as it reaches a certain distance from the target , thus ensuring the
safety of the submarine which has been designated as a target. In addition
to such fully planned exercises, individual ships and submarines may carry
out practice-launching of torpedoes using acoustic transponders and deep
mobile targets which would simulate the radiated noise of a ship or present
an echo of the required strength equivalent to that of a submarine.
When a missile is fired against a simulated target it is possible to know
the behaviour of the missile by using tracking radars and telemetric links.
In the case of a torpedo it is not possible to adopt easily such methods to
track the running torpedo with respect to the launch platform and a target.

78
 The practice torpedo therefore should possess the following distinct
characteristics as compared to a warshot . which is a one-time system :

1. Th e torpedo must have an elaborate instrumentation system on board

to record various parameters which would enable reconstruction of
the trajectory of the torpedo in three dimensions.

2. It must have the same range and speed as a warshot .

3. At the end of the run the torpedo must be capable of surfacing to

enable its recovery.

ON-BOARD INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

The parameters to be recorded in order to fully analyse the
torpedo-firing exercise are:

1. Instant-to-instant course of the torpedo. (heading; true or reJative to

launch direction).

2. Roll a n d pitch of t h e torpedo.

3. Acoustic level a s seen by the homing head.

4. Time at which any lost contact searches were initiated.

5. The speed (rpm of the propellers) of the torpedo.

6. How close, both in depth and azimuth , the torpedo approached the
target.

In earlier torpedoes, mechanical recorders were used to record only

a few parameters like depth, roll and pitch of the torpedo. As the torpedo
became more complex, attaining greater ranges, it became necessary to
record many more parameters to find if the torpedo has behaved in an
actual running cond ition according to design specificaions and manual
stipulations. Recording of the large number of parameters became possible
with the advent of large-scale integrated circuits and memory devices . A
number of sensors are needed to indicate the status and to record the
corresponding parameters. These are normally reliable pressure guages.
gyros, accelerometers and the like .

In an actual practice torpedo, a number of sensors may be incorporated

in the practice head which replaces the warhead . The elaborate
signal-conditioning and recording system may also be incorporated in the
practice head . A block diagram of such a typical system is shown in Fig. 21.
The data from various sensors , in an analogue form are converted inlo
a digital format . These are time-multiplexed and recorded either on a

79
ROLL *

PITCH

COURSE

R P M DATA R E P L AY
ACa.UISI TION 1-----4 RECORDER SYSTEM
DEPTH
SYSTEM
COMMANDS

CONTROL

A C T I VAT ION
SIGNALS

* OPTICAL/SOLID STAT E MEMORY

compact digital tape-recorder or stored in a solid-state memory device.

When the torpedo is recovered after the practice run the recorded tape or
the capsule containing the solid-state memory is taken out and is analysed
using a re-play system. This system extracts the data recorded and plots
them on a plotter. The re-play system would normally consist of a
microprocessor based system in order to directly plot the trajectory of the
torpedo both in horizontal and in vertical planes. Besides, the various
events by way of the initial detection, lost contact searches that were
initiated and actuation of proximity fuze are also indicated along with time
marks. From the local operations a plot of the ship that launches the
torpedo, it )Vould be possible to reconstruct the total scenario of the
exercise , superimposing one on the other with the right scale factor.
Apart from on-board instrumentation for obtaining the running
parameters of the torpedo , a more sophisticated set-up using acoustic
telemetry is resorted to in tracking a torpedo during its initial design phase
as well as for test running. Such a tracking system may consist of a number
of highly directional passive arrays kept in a certain geometrical
configuration on the sea-bed and these acoustic arrays pick up either the
noise of propeller or a pinger kept on-board the torpedo. The outputs of
these arrays are brought ashore through underwater cables and after
appropriate signal-conditioning can be digitised and fed to a
computer-based system which directly gives the plot of the trajectory of
the torpedo. In another system , three sub- assemblies containing

80
transmitting transducers and recelvmg hydrophones with appropriate
electronics are housed in a container and kept under water above the
sea-bed on the apex of an equilateral triangle (Fig. 22) . One of these units
is called master unit . A synchronised acoustic transmitter is kept on- board
the torpedo and this transmits short acoustic pulses periodically. The
receiver in the master unit is synchronised with the commencement of the
transmitted pulses before the exercise starts. The master buoy has a radio
link to a shore station. Though the three underwater units are suspended
so as to be on the apex of an equilateral triangle. there may be a a=rtain
amount of displacement. owing to underwater current . By a separate
acoustic link, the instant-to-instant distances of the three from each other
are determined and are transmitted to the shore by the radio link. When
the torpedo runs, the pulses transmitted from the acoustic unit in the
torpedo are picked up by the receivers in the three units under water. The
time of reception would vary depending on the position of the torpedo
with respect to each of these buoys since they are at a distance of about

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81
200 m from each other. A computer-based system kept ashore is able to
get through the radio link the time of reception of the three pulses from
the torpedo with respect to the time of transmission of the pulse from the
Torpedo . In addition , instant-to-instant distances of the three buoys are
also received. With these data the computer is able to work out . based on
the time lag, the exact X- Y coordinates of the torpedo with respect to the
master unit. A special depth sensor inside the torpedo senses its depth and
this information is also acoustically sent to the master unit which in turn
transmits this ashore . It will therefore be seen that X, Y and Z coordinates
of the Torpedo at any instant can be computed and plotted in three
dimensions. These ranges are designed to transmit the X- Y-Z coordinates
of a moving target as well.

TERMINAL BUOYANCY
In order that an exercise torpedo may be recovered at the end of its
run, it is essential to ensure that it surfaces from whatever depth it was
running at and floats to enable the torpedo to be picked up. If the torpedo
basically is a positively buoyant type , (most of the electrical torpedoes are)
before its launch,the exact range that it has to run is set on it . At the end
of the run the electrical power to the propulsion motor is cut off and the
torpedo surfaces _ and floats. If the torpedo is negatively buoyant. an
elaborale arrangement is needed to make it positively buoyant at the end
of the run. Usually, corresponding to the weight of the explosive that is
found in the warshot an equivalent weight of water is filled in the exercise
head. This is to ensure that the centre of gravity remains undisturbed. At
the end of the run, the water is ejected rapidly by using compressed air
and ao electrically operated solenoid. When the chamber containing this
baliast water is emptied the torpedo becomes positively buoyant and
surfaces Another method normally resorted to is to dump a certain amount
.

of weight at the end of the run to make the torpedo buoyant .

I t will therefore be seen that fairly complex electrical and mechanical
sub-assemblies are involved in ensuring that a negatively buoyant torpedo
is made to surface at the end of the exercise run . These sub-assemblies
need very careful and skilled maintenance and routines to ensure that the
torpedo is not lost at the end of a practice run .
Since the distances from the launch point t o the end of the run may
be in excess of 10 km and to ensure that the surfaced torpedo is spotted
for the purpose of recovery, a small sub- assembly in the exercise head

82
generates an intense, coloured smoke at the end of the run to enable the
crew of the recovery ship or helicopter to spot the torpedo that has surfaced.
This is all the more important when the sea state index is more than zero .
Modern torpedoes are also fitted with an acoustic pinger or a
noise-maker which comes into operation at the-end of the run. The noise
or the transmitted pings can be received on a sonar set of the ship or
submarine , thereby facilitating easy location of the torpedo.
All these devices incorporated in a practice version of the torpedo
must function effectively to ensure recovery of the torpedo, since a modern
torpedo may cost as much as Rs one crore and valuable data would be lost
if the torpedo is not recovered . Hence , great emphasis is laid on the
pre-launch routines to be carried out on the torpedo. Elaborate
after-recovery routines are also laid down in the manuals.

SIMULATED TARGETS FOR PRACTICF)f;XERCISE FIRING OF

TORPEDOES
Owing to the operational commitments or in order to conserve the
duration of sailing, a sllbmarine may not be always available for ships to
carry out a torpedo-firing exercise . In addition, there may be occasions
when a squadron of ships carrying out independent exercises may include
a torpedo-firing exercise in their programme. In such situations, simulated
targets are used .
In these targets the submarine propeller noise is simulated by an
underwater unit if this is to be used for a passive honring torpedo. If an
active homing torpedo is used , a sonar transponder of right frequency is
used.

PASSIVE SIMULATED TARGETS

These targets consist of llI1 underwater housing a buoy and a radar
reflector mounted on the top of the buoy. Based on the depth at which
the torpedo-firing has to be carried out the underwater housing of the
target is lowered to the required depth by adjusting the length of the rope
by which the underwater housing is slung. The buoy is so designed as to
be capable of being stable, even up to sea-state 3, since no torpedo practice
firing is carried out nonnally beyond sea-states 1 and 2. The underwater
housing which is designed for taking the external water pressure carries a
transmitter and transducers. It operates from an internal battery which is

83
switched on before it is laid. Depending on the frequency and bandwidth
of the homing head of the torpedo, a white noise generator inside the
housing is band-limited, corresponding to the bandwidth of the torpedo
homing head and this signal is amplified by a power amplifier and fed to
the transducers. The strength of the signal transmitted (source level) can
be adjusted. For all practical purposes, when the torpedo is running, it
sees a target as if it is seeing the noise of the propeller of the submarine
and· homes towards it from the designed range of acquisition.
The radar reflector enables the launching ship or the submarine at
periscope depth to locate the. target before launching the torpedo.
Sometimes a sinker is used to prevent the buoy from drifting owing to
surface wind or underwater currents, Depending on the type of batteries
used the endurance of the simulated targets can be in excess of 2 to 3 hours.

SIMULATED TARGETS FOR ACTIVE HOMING TORPEDOES

As in the above case ,the simulated target consists of an underwater
housing a buoy and a radar reflector. The submarines target strength is
normally assumed to be around' 15 dB. The electronics inside the
underwater housing consists of a receiver and a transmitter. The transducer
is used both for reception and for transmission . When the active homing
torpedo transmits an acoustic pulse the transducer picks it up and the
corresponding electrical signal is amplified by the receiver. This pulse is
made use of for triggering the transmitter to transmit a pulse of the required
duration at the same frequency and a slightly longer width . The amplitude
of the transmitted pulse is adjusted so as to simulate the target strength
needed. Simulated targets of this type which produce a constant acoustic
pressure output are simpler in design than units which produce a constant
target strength output.
What has been described above are stationary targets and for purposes
of ASW exercises a mobile target is also used . These targets have the shape
of a torpedo and are launched by surface ships after programming their
underwater run. They are capable of being programmed by an external
unit prior to launch, by feeding in data relating to the complete trajectory ,
both in azjmuth and in depth as well as in speed . In addition , these targets
contain transponders both for the ships sonar frequency and for responding
to the torpedo s frequency of transmission. These targets are very complex
'

in design and run for a duration in excess of an huur depending on the

speed set. They can be made to execute the same type of manoeuvres as

84
a real submarine . At the end of the exercise . the target surfaces and is
recovered . A synchronised acoustic transmitter can also be fitted on them
so that they can be tracked along with the torpedo that is launched against
them. It will thus give a very clear picture of the exercise when analysis is
done with a plot indicating X-Y-Z movement of both the target and the
torpedo.
The simulated targets therefore play an important part in training the
crew for torpedo practice-firing.

85
 CHAPTER IS

TORPEDO AS A SYSTEM

A torpedo consists of a number of sub-systems, which are integrated

as a total system to obtain the required function as expected of an
underwater weapon . The sub-systems may be electrical, electronic.
mechanical or hydraulic. When they are integrated into the system , each
has a designated role to play in conj unction with the other sub-systems .
Even if we assume that the probability of a particular sub-system , during
the run of the torpedo has a 95% probability of functioning correctly and
if we take 4 or 5 of such sub-systems, the effectiveness of a major sub-system
linked to these four sub-systems will have a reliability of only 50% . This
is so because the subsystems function independently.
Furthermore , owing to the extreme constraint both by way of weight
and volume , no redundancy is normally built into any of these sub-systems
and therefore they will have to be designed and maintained to a very high
degree of perfection . One more factor is to be considered. The torpedo
has to travel in a medium whose parameters are highly variable . The
probability of a kill therefore becomes a function of these various factbrs.
To cite but one example, the vertical fin of a torpedo is normally taken
as a reference plane for alignment of all other mechanical and other systems
which are sensitive to direction in which they are to be situated inside the
torpedo. For instance , the plane on which the roll-gyro is fixed will have
to be truly perpendicular to the plane of the vertical fin. Even if there is
a very slight mis-alignment in fixing the vertical plane this error gets
compounded to give a permanent heel to the torpedo when it is running
and the roll correction mechanism may not be able to fully neutralise the
roll that occurs during the run of the torpedo due to external perturbances.
Similarly, any protrusion or mis-alignment of the external mechanical

86
appendages can contribute to the self-noise of the torpedo as a result of
the formation of eddies. If the main propulsion motor has not been serviced
properly, the extra electrical noise may drastically reduce the homing range
as a result of electrical noise picked up by the homing sub-system . If, for
instance , during the handling of the torpedo in the preparation shop any
grease or oil film is left on the nose-cone of the torpedo, water may not
adhere and therefore there will be a certain amount of mis-match leading
to the degradation of the performance. If the ballast water, while being
filled in the practice head, is not filled to the level as stipulated in the
manual, sloshing of water during the run of the torpedo can give rise to a
perturbance in pitch signal, which can, in extreme, result in the torpedo
running with an oscillation about its mean depth.

These are but a few examples to highlight on the fact that this highly
interactive system has to be maintained and prepared prior to the launch
to a very high degree of perfection .

Appreciating that the torpedo consists of these sub-systems does help

to understand its terminal performance and therefore can lead to an
optimum utilisation of the weapon in any tactical situation. For instance ,
the seastate has to be taken into account to appreciate what would be the
degradation pertaining to the homing range. This also leads us to the
important fact that when a qualitative requirement is projected by the user,
an appreciation of the limitations of the various approaches to the design
of sub-assemblies would result in a more practicable projection of the
requirement. For instance , if the speed is stipulated as 50 knots and at the
same time if a restriction is imposed that the operating frequency must be
low, the two factors become incompatible since it is well known that with
the increase in speed, self-noi!ie increases. Similarly , in a certain allowed
weisht and volume, as the technology stands, it would be possible only to
pack a certain amount of energy source to propel the torpedo at a certain
speed taking into account its dimensions.

The designer, maintainer and user all have t�appreciate the sensitive
interactions that exist between the various sub-systems for an optimal
approach to the problem.

Figure 23 illustrates the interdependence of the various parameter.;

starting from the materials chosen to the end effect of obtaining a certain
probability of kill when a typical passive homing torpedo is deployed against
a target.
�

PROXIITY EXPl TYPE Of SPEm & MANOEUYRAIl.ITY I

OSIVE
TO TIE TNI(j(T ptW[R
Of TIE TORPEDO TORPEDO Of TAAraET
I • •
I I H

DD.IWIC£ I L CCIMTROl.
Of TIE TORPEDO
,

SPEED Of THE
TORPEDO

Flpre 23. Sub-systrm 01 • passlVf homlDa lo�o aDd 115 Inlfr-re..lioDShip: probabilil,· of
kill .nd various inlfrdfp'ndfnl pualMlfn.
 Torpedo launchers are complex mechanical systems which have to be
very highly reliable to ensure proper launch of a torpedo. In the case of a
submarine, it has to further satisfy the condition that the launching of a
torpedo should be as noiseless as possible and against even a considerable
amount of cross-flow of water which can occur at the muzzl e .end of the
tube , especially wbeQ the submarine is tinder helm. Apart from this, in
the case of a submarine, if compressed air is used there should not be any
escape of air after the torpedo has left the tube since the air babble may
come up to the surface , indicating the presence of the submarine to the
enemy. It will , therefore , be seen that the design of a submarine launching
tube is extremely complex.
The launchers are generally of four types : those that use (i) compressed
air, (ii) those that use impulse cartridges, (iii) those that use hydrauliclwater
ram, and (iv) swim-out tubes.

SYSTEMS USING IMPULSE CARTJUl)()E

The impulse cartridge consists of :m explosive material which is

designed to bum rather slowly as compared to an explosive device . When
the impulse cartridge is ignited by an electrical fuse its starts burning and
produces a very large volume of gas. The torpedo loaded in a launching
tube has a certain volume of space between the propellers and the rear
end of the launching tube. The gas generate� by the impulse cartridge
builds up in pressure. Inside the tube there are what are known as undulating
rings which effectively seal the escape of the gases in the space between
the tube and the torpedo shell . Hence, when the pressure builds up to a
certain degree , a force starts acting at the rear of the torpedo and generates
the required acceleration . The torpedo starts moving, and picks up the
required velocity by the time the tail end of the torpedo leaves the tube.
The cover photograph, taken by the author in the early 80s from a
helicopter, shows such a firing.
The launcher tube is also fitted with various mechanical and
electromechanical assemblies to enable the pre-launch settings to be set
on the torpedo. Safety devices are also incorporat�d to ensure the required
safety during the launching of the torpedoes. These ar.e listed in mahuals.
The launchers may also be fitted with heater coils if the ships are to operate
under extreme cold conditions. These heaters ensure that the electrical
torpedoes which have batteries for propulsion are at the required operating

89
temperature, since the energy from a battery can be drastically reduced
Under extreme cold conditions.

LAUNCHERS USING COMPRESSED AIR

In order to dischuge the torpedo at the required velocity, cotnpressed
air stored in cylinders at very high pressures at 200 to 300 atm. , is also
used by making use of suitably designed firing valves. When the decision
to launch the torpedo is taken after the pre-launch settings have been fed
to the torpedo, an electrical signal from the fire control system is initiated.
This operates an electrical solenoid valve, which admits the air after it is
reduced in pressure to a pilot valve situated inside the main firing valve.
Before the air is admitted in the main firing valve by the pilot valve, certain
sequential safety operations are also initiated. For instance , the umbilical
cord, which carries electrical signal for pre-setting the torpedo, is
disconnected , and the stops used to hold the torpedo in the launcher tube
are withdrawn . When the pilot valve admits the air to the firing valve , an
enormous thrust is created by the air expanding in the space between the
rear of the torpedo and the rear end of .the launching tube. The build-up
of the pressure in this volume exerts the required force to generate the
acceleration for moving the torpedo. As in the case of the system using
impulse cartridge� the torpedo picks up the required velocity by the time
it leaves the muzzle end of the launcher tube . In the case of a submarine ,
it is essential to trap the air so that it does not bubble up to the surface .

There is a variant to the system mentioned above , where the air

expanding is allowed to escape in a controlled manner over the surface of
the torpedo and the torpedo virtually becomes part of the stream of air
escaping by obtaining a certain amount of lift and leaves the muzzle with
the required velocity. The clearance between the torpedo and the tube in
this case has to be accurately designed whereas in the previous case, the
air or the expanding explosive gases are not allowed to escape and have
to expand within the small volume available at the rear to create the
required thrust.

Such systems are noisy in operation and hence modem submarines

use a different approach for launching the torpedoes.

USING HYDRAULICIWATER RAM

Hydraulic accumulators are made use of to generate a column of water
at high pressure which forces the torpedo from the launching tube with
the required velocity. The system, therefore , consists of a small diameter

90
hydraulic cylinder which, in turn, is mechamcally linked to a large diameter
cylinder which is part of a sY5\em for pressurising the water. When the
piston in the hydraulic cylinder is made to move by the pressure from the
hydraulic accumulators, the larger diameter piston staJ:t$ moving as a result
of which the water admitted pushes the torpedo out of the launcher tube .

One more method that is used is to make use of the propeUers of the
torpedo itself to generate the required acce leration for launching the
tospedo. The tube is fully flooded, including the space in the rear of the
torpedo and when the propulsion motor of the torpedo is switched on , the
propellers start turning thereby propelling the torpedo forward. Such
launcher tubes are called swim�ut tubes.

A submarine makes use of the launcher tUbes Which are situated both
in the forward area and in the rear to launch mines. Normally, two mines
can be loaded instead of one torpedo. The mines are linked to one another
and the launching of one breaks a link with the other and the second one
can be laid in a different position.

Surface-to-surface missile which are to be deployed against a surface

ship from a submarine also make use of the launching tubes in a submarine .
These missiles are loaded in the torpedo launching tubes in a specially
designed cannister. This cannister containing the missile is launched from
the submarine. This may have its own auxiliary propulsion to take the
missile and the cannister almost up to the surface of the sea. At this point ,
missile separates out from the cannister and emerges out of the sea-surface
into the air to follow its normal pre- determined/homing trajectory .

The design , maintenance and repair of launcher tubes, especially in

submarines, is an exacting task involving many disciplines of engineering.
The maintenance of these tubes is aU the more difficult since they are
constantly exposed to the highly corrosive sea-water. These complex
systems incorporate a number of safety devices especially when, for
instance , the rear door of the launching tube in a submarine has to be
opened for re-loading torpedoes. A number of safety ihterlocks are
provided in order to avoid mishaps due to flooding. Associated with the
launching tubes system is also the complex mechanical system for loadmg
the torpedoes into the tube in a submarine .

91
 EPILOGUE

Torpedo is a multi-disciplinary system and is more complex than an

airborne missile. Only a few countries in the world have mastered the
technologies involved in it. The fast obsolescence of components and
techniques makes the torpedo designer's task even more difficult . Added
to this is the ECM capabilities by way of decoys and the designer has to
build-in ECCM capability to counter the effect . That is why perhaps only
a few advanced nations could venture into the R&D as well as production
of torpedoes .
It is most crucial, that no matter how sophisticated the technology is.
or, for that matter, how fail proof the system is, the designer, the user and
the men who maintain the weapon should all be equally familiar with its
functioning, to make it realise its optimum potential in a given situation.

92
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aatre, V.K. Underwater acoustic transducers. ASW Conference ,

lAT, Pune, 1984.
2. Anti-submarine warfare. Navy international, May 1981
3. ASW sensors. International Defence Review, 20(8), 1987.
4. International Defence Review, 18(2), 1985.
5. Kinsler, L.E. & Frey, Austin R. Fundamentals of acoustics. John
Wiley, New York 1962.
6. Military Technology, July 1985 , pp. 28-37.
7. NTIS Publications, Theoretical principles of torpedo weapons. NTIS
Report No. DPRS 67047: 29.3.76.
8. Tolstoy,L. & Clay, C.S. Ocean acoustics : theory and experiments
in underwater sound. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966.

9. Urick, R.J. Principles of underwater sound. McGraw-Hill, New York.

1975.
10. Winder, Alan A. Sonar system technology. IEEE Transactions on
Sonies & WitniSOnies, SU.ll(5) , 1975.

93
About the Author
Born in 1932, Rear Admiral Namakkal
Krishnarao Ramanarasiah obtained his
post-graduate degree in Radar and Communication
from the Annamalai University. He joined the
Indian Navy in 1955 and did a special course in
torPedo anti-submarin'e warfare . Subsequently, he
joined DRDO in 1972 and was the DirectOT, Naval
Science and Technoloical Laboratory (NSTL) , from
1985 to 1989. During his tenure with DRDO , he
was responsible for building up a school of scientists
and engineers to work in underwater w.eapon
technology . .The in-house knowledge developed
under his leadership, guidance and inspiration is
largely responsible for the country attainting
self-sufficiency in torpedo development. Rear
Admiral Ramanarasiah has won several distinctions
including Lt Jain Memorial Gold Medal (1974) ,
Commendation from the Chief of the Naval Staff
(1975) , Vishish't Seva Medal (1978) and Scientist of
the Year Award (1983) . He was a member of the
Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineers and the Board of Studies for Marine
Engineering and Computer Sciences of Andhra
University. He was Chairman of Computer Society
of India (Vizag Chapter) during 1986-87.