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    EARTHQUAKE NOTES

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    Earthquake Notes

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    Time: Three hours exe] 1 | Ol 10] 2) 7] 6] 0] | B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER 2011 Seventh Semester (CE0407 - EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT AND SPECIAL STRUCTURES (For the candidates admitted from the year 2007-2008 onwards) (Use of IS 1893-2002, 1S 13920 — 1993 codes are permitted) ‘Max. Marks: 100 Answer ALL Questions PART — A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks) Define: Free Vibration. What is critical damping? ‘What is ductility based design? State any two general requirements for the design of earthquake resistant shear walls. ‘What are the different lateral systems for concrete buildings? ‘What do you mean by seismic retrofitting? Write any two seismic retrofit strategies for brick masonry. PART —B (5 x 16 = 80 Marks) 112i Explain with neat sketches D’Alembert’s principle. ii, Explain the periodic and non-periodic loading with neat sketches. . Write short notes on the following: (iv) Seismometer (OR) . Explain the lessons learnt from Bhuj earthquake or any recent earthquakes of which you are familiar. Explain how an architectural features (such as size of buildings, horizontal and vertical layout) affect buildings during earthquakes. (OR) Explain the vertical geometric irregularity in buildings and the indirect load path in buildings with set backs. Explain the special detailing provisions in IS 13920-1993 with neat sketches. (oR) Sketch and discuss the shear walls used for aseismic design of structures. Explain in detail the procedure adopted for repairing a seismic affected RC structural member. (OR) Name the passive and active control devices used in -controlling the response of structure and explain the base isolation technique. eee TALL BUILDINGS CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAJ, SYSTEMS IN STEEL AND CONCRE’ ERAL ‘The structural systems may be cl sified as systems for carryi and systems for transmitting lateral loads. This ean be groupe Structaral Systems Systems for Resisting Vertical loads 7 ing vertical or gravity loads d as following: Systems for Resisting. Senn | Horizontal loads 5.2 FLOOR SYSTEM The floor structure of tall buildings does not defer substantially from those found in low Yong _W8e buildings. There are certain aspects and properties that must be emphasized'buch as > Lowdead Weight of the floor, > Capacity of the floor to handle loads during ervetion process, > Suitadi of articulation of the dl piping. > Fire resistancg properties > Suitability of contin »G US construction Elimination of extensive shoring procedure Deparinen of ii Floor slabs may be categorized as > .Two.ways slab > One way slabs cays © Bean and slab systems 5.2.1 Floor Systems in Coniévete: > > Beam end Slab Systems: and commercial buildings, 5.2.2 Floor Systems in Steel: Slabs of uniforms thickness: These slabs may be a part of either one w: way tystems provided at 100mm, ‘These are used in Hotels and Apartments. » Conerete Joist Structure: rélatively narrow and closed The floor stricture in ‘steel are normally formed. with floor reinforced concrete or racial with concrete cover supported on AILOr ty nt 200mm thickness for spans off3m to SO) This systems is of thin slab cast integrs tly with Spaced ribs, whieh may be aranged in one way or {S¥0 way pattern suitable for medium to long span and has less ight, ‘The beam and slab sysems iv concrete are similer to ‘hat of what is normally used in low-rise sty heluresand Sey are emnatite foe office slabs using ceramic or beams and joists of rolled nud Steel or plate girders or virendeel girders of Castellated beams or staggesed-truse, 5.3 VERTICAL FRAMING SYSTEMS 0 suspended systems, Persrtment of Civil Bogincerng, SRNLEC & 48 TALL BUILDINGS 5.4 LATERAL LOAD RESISTANT SYSTEMS ‘The main dif erence between a low rige buildin lateral foads on them. In case of tlt build Stresses and lateral. deflection systems 12 and a high rise building is the effect of ings the lateral ionds create considerable In order to resist the lateral loads, Separate structural are povided whose function is to limit the | jteral deflection of tall buildings and © of low rise buildings the effect of lateral toads Separate systems for carrying lateral loads are not needed. The lateral loads systems can primasily be classified into (0 inerease their lateral strength. tn ca: are not very significant and hence the > Moment resistance frame _ > Braced frames > ‘Shear walls epactnent of Civil Uagincering, S.RLM.ELC, 49 TALL BUILDINGS In the sections to follow, various lateral load resistance systems, their behavior and analysis are briefly discussed. 5.4.1 Lateral load resistant systems in ste ‘The lateral load resistant systems may be classified into the following types. Rigid Frames. a > > Braced frames — > Staggered truss systems — > Eccentric bracing systems. — Interacting system of braced and rigid irames ~~ > Outrigger and belt truss systems 3-pFramed tube systems > Trussed tube system The bundled tube y @ RIGID FRAMES: i. , Definition: ‘frame is considered rigid when its beam-to-column connections have suficemt rigidity to hold virtually unchanged the original angles between intersecting members. A rigid ca frame high rise structure typically comprises of parallel or orthogonally arranged bents onisisting of columns and girders with moment resist ‘ant joints. Resistance to horizontal ding is provided by the bendi resistance of the columns, girders and joints, The’ CenunvIty Of the frame also assists in resisting Bravity load ing more efficiently by Tedticing the positive moments in the center span of girders, );.. Deprtinent of Chil Eginerng, SRMRG 50 » Deflection Characteristics Ss TALL BUILDINGS a S . »® Typical deformations of a ‘noment-resisting frame under lateral load are indicated in Figure 5.2. FIGURE 5.2 - Behavior of Rigid Frames > The point of contraflexure is normally located near the midheight of the columns and midspan of the beams, the lateral deformation of a frame is due to frame Tacking, which might be called shear sway, and partly due to column shortening. ‘The shont-sway component const S approximately 80 tn 90 percent of the Overall lateral deformation of the fame. The remaining component of deforme.ion is due to columns shortening, also called cantilever or chord drift component. The interel deflection components of a rigid frame can be thought o: as being caused by two components similar to the deflection components of a rismatic cantilever beam. One component can be likened to the bendin, prismatic cantilever ne component cz bending tign and the other to the shear deflection. Normally for prismatic members 51 TALL BUILDINGS when the span to depth ratio is greater than 10 or so, then bending deflection is far ding det the more predominant component. Shear deflections contribute a small portion to sn, the overall deflection and are therefore generally neglected in calculeuin leg eflections. The deflection characteristics of a rigid frame, on the other hand, are i just the opposite; the component analogous to the beam shear_deflection ee dominates the deflection picture and may account to as much a8 80% of the total deflection, while the remaining 20% comes from the bending component. The bending and the shear component of deflection are usually referred to as the cantilever bending and frame racking, each with its own distinct deflection mode. » ‘The two modes of bending of the frame are shown in figures 5.3 (a) and (b). ce Total Deflection of Rigid Frame ] Sheer Racking Component EEE 7 Bending Component Deflection due to axial deformation of co!ummns (15-20%) Frame racking due to beam rotations (50-60 a qo eeee Frame racking de 0 colump rotation. (is- 20%) Due to deformation of the joint Department of Civil Engineering, SR.M.EC. 52 TALL BUILDINGS (b) Shear Modes of Bending j > The connections in steel moment resisting frames are important design elements. ee ‘eint rotation can account for a significant poston of the 1 al sway. The : 5 Sint rotation can account for a significant postion of the later ay. Th ‘ Stength and duetility of the conmections aie alse important considerations i specially for frantes designed to resist seisinic loads, zs Applications: Moment resisting fames are normally ef nt for buildings up to about 30 storeys in height. The lack of efficiency for taller buildin 's is due tothe moment resistance derived yl br'marily through flexure of its members, ad Example: £ World Trade Center, Osaka, Japan - 252 m high, 55 storeys, ay TALL BUILDINGS Method of Analysis: Because of the large-scale availability of computers, the analysis of rigid frame buildings, even in preliminary design stages is accomplished most effectively by using stiffness Sealysis programs, Hand calculations are rarely undertaken except for very preliminary Purposes because of the approximate nature of analysis and the longer time it takes to de hand computations. Among the better-known spproximate methods of analysis the cantilever and portal methods are perhaps the most popular and considered by some engineers to be ‘Shlficienily accurate for use in the final analysis of buildings of intermediate height range. The portal method is considered reasonably valid for buildings less than 25 Storeys, and the cantilever method is assumed to be valid for the buildings in-the 25 to 30 storey range, 1) BRACED FRAME Definition: Rigid frame systems are not efficient for buildings (aller than about 30 storeys because © shear racking component of deflection duc to the bending of columns and girders ses tho drift o be too large. The braced frame attempts to improve upon the efficiency & rigid frame by virtually eliminating the bending of columas and girders hi This is diby.adding web members such as diagonals or chevron braces. The horizontal Primarily absorbed by the web and not by the columns. The webs carry the Heat Predominantly by the horizontal component of axial action allowing for Pare canilever behavior. of Givi] Boginering, SRIMEC. 54 TALL BUILDINGS {m simple terms, braced frames may be considered as cantilevered vertical trusses ‘esisting lateral loads primarily through the exial stiness of the columns and braces. The work as the web members in resisting the horizontal shear with diagonals in axial Compression or fension depending upon their ditection of inclination: The girders act ‘axially, when the system is a flly wiangulated truss. They undergo bending also when the braces are eecenrically connected to them, Because the lateral loads on the building is reversible, braces are subjected in turn, to both compression and tension, Consequently, they are most often designed for the more straightened case of compression. ‘The effect of chord axial deformation on the lateral deflection of the frame is to tend to cause flexural. configuration of the structure, maximum slope at the top. (Figure 5.4 a). Th however, that is, with concavity downwind and a 1 effect of the web member deformation, i8 to tend to cause a shear configuration of the stuetite (40, the concavity up ‘wind, a maximum slope at the base and the zero slope at the top Figure 5.4 b). ‘The resulting deflected shapes (Figure 5.4 ¢) are a combination of the effects of the flexural and shear curves with resultant configuration depending on the relative ‘tty magnitudes, as determined by the type of bracing, Nevertheless, it is the flex: } deflection that most often dominates ‘he deflection characteristics, Ve ewww Py ye TALL BUILDINGS FIGURE 5.4 ~ Behavior of Braced Systems ‘Types of Braces: ‘Types of Braces | Concentric Braces Braced frames may be grouped into two categories as either concentric braced frames (CBP) or eccentric braced frames (BBF) depending upon their ductility characteristics. In CBFs, the axes of all members, that is, columns, beams arid braces intersect at a common Becentric Braces ] int such that the member forces are axial. EBEs utilize axis offsets to deliberately d flexure and shear into franting beams to incre i Hs-some of which are shown in figure 5.5. ase ductility, The CBFs can take 2 13 , i, ;= ; 3 { 2 B 2 i ay 9 w vs VvU yo 3 oa TALL BUILDINGS is FIGURE 5.5 - Types of Braces (ID) STAGGERED TRUSS SYSTEM. Definition: The staggered truss system evolved as an outgrowth of the research done by the departments of architecture and civil, engincering at MIT. In this system, storey height trusses span in the transverse direction between the columns at the exterior of the building. The required flexibility in residential unit layouts is achieved by arranging the trusses in the staggered plan at altemate floors as shown in figure 5.6. The floor system acts as a diaphragm transferring lateral londs in the short direction to the trusses. Lateral, loads are thereby resisted by truss diagonals and are transferred into direct loads in the columns. The columns therefore receive no bending moments. ‘The system was first used for a housing project for the elderly in St.Paul Minnesota, completed in 1967. Since then, a number of long, narrow, high rise buildings for apartment houses, hotels, and in some cases, for office buildings have been built using this concept, TALL BUILI Behavior: Consider the three dimensional interaction between vertical bracings of » building interconnected through floor diaphragms as shown in figure 5.7. Assume that for architectural reasons it is required to eliminate the bracing at column lines A and B below level 2. If there is no other bracing below level 2, the columns at the extrer ies of the bracing must resist both the overterming moment and the shear forces below level 2, ‘TALL BUILDINGS ineficient structural system, Assume that architecturally itis permissible to introduce a bracing at the center ofthe building below level 2 as shown in 5.7 (a), (b). The structural action in a staggered truss system is transmission of lateral force across the floor to the {miss on the adjacent column line and continuous down on the truss line across the next Moor down the next truss, ete, as shown in figure $.8 and 5.9, Thus, between the floors, lateral forces are resisted by the truss diagonals and at each floors these forces are transferred (0 the tuss below by the floor system acting as the diaphragm, This column between the floors receives no bending moments, resulting in a very efficient stife ; structure, FIGURE 5.9 ~ Behavior of Staggered ‘Truss System, we ws areas eqatinent of Civil Enginceing, SRM. @ ys wv TALL BUILDINGS Eccentric bracing is unique structural system that attempts to combine the strength and stiffness of a braced frame with the inelastic behavior and energy dissipation characteristics of a moment frame. Behayior: ‘The. system is called eccentric because deliberate eccentricities are employed between beam-to-column connections. The eccentric beam element, acts as a fuse by limiting large forces from entering and causing bitckling of braces. The eccentric segment of the beam called the link undergoes flexural or shear yielding prior to formation of plastic hinges in ley the other bending members.and well before buckling of any compression members. Thus i the required stiffness during wind or minor earthquakes is niaintained because no plastic ” hinges are formed under these Joads and all behavior is elastic. Although the deformation is larger than in a'concentrically braced frame because of bending and shear deformation of the fuse its contribution to deflection is not significant because of the relatively small lenigth of the fuse, Thus the clastic stiffness of the eccentrically braced frames canbe considered the same as the concentrically braced framé for all practical purposes. Consider the bracing shown in figure 5.10 subjected to horizontal loads. Note that the nections tetween the columns and beams are moment ~connected to achieve brace he force in the brace is transmitted to the beam as a horizontal force including “link and its moment connection to the columns are adequate in bending, failure is by shear yielding of the beam web buckling is prevented. I 1 i 5 ww ® TALL BUILDINGS, FIGURE 5.10- Eccentric Bracing Systems Advantage: ‘The main advantage of this kind of frame is their ductility. The ductile behavior is highly desirable when the structure is called upon to absorb energy such as when subjected to strong ground motion. Steel’s capacity for deformation without fracture combined. its high strength makes it an ideal material fcr use in eccentric bracing systems: In. be after properly designed and executed connection, steel continues to resists loads e1 a & TALL BUILDINGS ac large deformations at the onsets of yielding. It fractures prior to, or just when it reaches the maximum load. Concentric braced frames are excellent from strength and stiffness considerations and are therefore used widely either by themselves or in conjunction with moment frames when the lateral loads are caused by wind, However they are of questionable value in seismic regions because of their poor inelastic behavior. Moment resistant frames possess considerable energy dissipation characteristics but are relatively flexible when sized from strength consideration alone. ‘Analysis and Design considerations To force tie formation of hinge in beam web, the plastic moment capacity of the beam should exceed the shear yield capacity. In calculating the plastic moment capacity of the beam, the contribution of the web is neglected because web is assumed to have yielded, In design, the beam is first selected for required shear capacity and then the plastic moment capacity ig checked to be slightly larger than the shear yielding, As in ductile frame design, the column is sel :cted by using the weak beam strong column concept to assure that plastic hinges are formed in the beams and not in columns. The plastic moment of the beam selected is larger than that required by the design, the column is designed in an equally conservative munner. To assure the braces are prevented fiom buckling, they are designed to withstand forces somewhat larger than those given by mnservative is necessary to take into account the fact that the actual beam designed Ito have additional capacity due to factors such as: (1) beam strain hardening; (2) Engineering, SR.MEC. ieee os si si TALL BUILDINGS designed as friction bolts and checked for beating capacity because of the likelihood of slippage in the event of a large earthquake. The beam to column connection is designed as a moment connection by welding the beam flanges to the column with full penetration welds. Single-side shear plate connection with fillet is used to develop the high shear forces in link. Lateral support is provided at the top and bottom flanges of the beam to prevent lateral torsional buckling and weak axis bending. Deflection consideration: The lateral deflection of an eccentrically braced frame can be estimated-as sum of three components > Deflection due to elongation of brace > Deflection due to axial strain in the co.umns > Deflection due to deformation of eccentric element. Distinct characteristics ‘The distinct characteristics of Eccentric Bracing Frames are > Lighter than moment resisting frames > Equal in elastic stiffness of concentrically braced More ductile compared to CBFs > Dissipates excess energy during earthquakes by yielding of eccentric beams ep ae . (V) INTERACTING SYSTEM OF BRACED AND RIGID FRAMES: er bale, tet In many of the practical situations the core fraines are formed of braced frames and tl moment resisrant frames are used in series away from the core, Figure 5.11 shy 83 {ypical combination of braced frames with moment resistant frames, Departnent of Civil Haginsering, SR.MLC. m a ESE aad FIGURE 5.11 ~ Braced Frame ~ Rigid Frame Interaction System Behavior: ‘The behavior of the system is discussed as follows: > Braced frames bend in cantilever mode, which has characteristics of more deflection and rotation at top and less deflection and rotation at bottom, > Rigid frames go into shear mode where rotations are more at bottom and relative drift of floors is rainimum at floors nearing top figure 5.12a, > The combination of these above frames creates an interaction in which the frame tends to pullback the brece in upper portion of building and while Pushing it forward in lower portion (Figure 5.12b). > This interaction increases the lateral stiffness of the entire system, 2] “pe © TALL BUILDINGS Cater eyimntoatonn ’ a) oe : = FIGURE 5.12 ~ Intera tion between Frame and Braced Frame “ (VI) OUTRIGGER AND BELT TRUSS SYSTEM Definition: Outrigger is a structural linking of the core to the exterior columns on one or more building faces with trusses or wall clements. Classification and layouts: ‘ ‘An outrigger system may either be classified as syminetrical or unsymmetrical depending 1 | on the following factors, i a > Column conditions of the core viz. Jexural rigidity, height and os support conditions > Alignment of the outrigger frame with respect ‘to core. Typical outrigger frames arc shown in figure 5.13. 9 weeyvuw Roe Departent of Civil Engincering, SRM. S oT) a TALL BUILDINGS @ ‘ TALL BUILDINGS Behavior: When the outrigger structure is loaded horizontally, thé core tends to rotate in vertical Plane, But the outriggers restrain this rotation by developing tension in windward columns and compression in leeward columns as shown in figure 5.14. This increases the effective structural depth of the building under the action of lateral loads, Factors influencing the behavior: Following are the factors that influence the effectiveness of outrigger action: Height of the structure (H) Fiexural rigidity of the core structure (El) Flexural rigidity of the outrigger (Blo) ‘The span of outrigger (d) vvvvy Axial rigidity of the exterior columns (AE) 1. gineering, S.RMEC. py Sees ES TALL BUILDINGS a > Location of the outrigger from the top of the core (x) > No of levels of the outrigger (n) >. Type of variation of extemal load > Alignment of the outriggce wit respect to core Application of outrigger based system: Outrigger-braced structure has been effectively used for buildings from 40-70 storeys high. The structural principle using outrigger systems at top and center of the building is found to be economical upto approximately 60 storeys. Following are some of the existing strictures in which outrigger-braced systems are effectively adopted. > City Spire (New York, N.Y) USA; Height 248m > Chifley Tower (Sydney), Australia; Height 245m > Trump Tower (New York N.Y) USA; Height 202m > First Wisconsin Center, Milwaukee (VI) FRAMED TUBE SYSTEMS Definition: A system that uses the entire. building perimeter to + ist lateral Is by a full three dimensional action of lateral loads. TALL BUILDINGS aS ‘te designed for taking gravity loading only and the floors slab acts asa rigid diaphragm, ‘The entre tube is similar to a hollow cantilever and resists the lateral Joad in a combined nd shear mode. The axial stress distribution in a square hollow tube is shown in figure 5.168, Theoretically the columns on either side of the axis of bending are subjected to uniform tensile or compressive stresses. But it is found that due to the shear flow along thin walled section there exists a shear Jag which can‘be explained as under; FIGURE 5.15 - Framed ‘Tube System ua ey ow 4 TALL BUILDINGS FIGURE 5.16 ~ Stresses in ‘Tubular Structure Consider a thin walled beam subjected to bending, In thin walled beam, the shear stresses 4nd strains are much larger than those in a solid beam and ‘often result in large shearing deformations. This large shear strains cause the plane of bending to distort. Because of this distortion, the bending stresses will not be Proportional to the distanc. from the neutral axis of the section. The stress at th center of the flanges lags behind the stress near the web because of lack of shear stiffness of the wall Panel. This phencmenon is known as shear lag and this affects the uniformity of the compressive/tensile stresses of the flange. Applications: The various structures built based on this system are > 120 storey high Sears Tower, > 100 storey high John Hancock Building, > 33 Storey high Standard Oi! Building all in Chicago and .> the 110 Storey high World Trade Center Towers in New ‘York which S88 succumbed to terrorist violence in September 200 (Figure 5.16b) TALL BUILDINGS FIGURE 5.16b - World Trade Center, New York (VIIT) TRUSSED TUBE SYSTEM A trussed tube system is dn improved version of framed tube, It is obtained by adding Giegonal bracing to the face of the tube to virtually eliminate shear lag effects in both flange and web frames. The main objectives of developing this system are > ‘The increased efficiency can be used to increase the application of the system to greater heights or > To increase the column spacing at the'exterior face, Examples: > John Hancock Center, Chicago (Figure 5.17a) > CityCorp Center, New York (Figure 5.17) Deparment of Civil Enginering. SRLMLEC. he, ( ‘) 2 P 72 oT we TALL BUILDINGS 7 FIGURE 5.17b ~ CityCorp Center, New York (IX) THE BUNDLED TUBE. Definition: ‘8 set of tubes that are interconnected with common interior panels to form a perforated ‘mull! cell tube in which frames in lateral load directions resist the shears while the flange frames carry most of the over turning moments. (Figure 5.18a) Advantages: ‘The advantages of bundled tube are > Shear lag experienced by conventional framed tube in greatly reduced by 3 the web action of interior tubes, ° Departinent of Civil Engineering, $.R.M.EC. B © é B TALL BUILDINGS ee, » Individually tubes can be assembled in any configurations and terminaied at any level without loss of structural integrity. » The entire system can be formed as modelar system, Examples: Seats Tower, Chicago 443 Meters high, 109 floors, with nine constituent tubes terminated at two levels. (Figure 5.18b) FIGURE 5.18b - S (7 Depactment of Civil Engineering, S.R.M.ELC. TALL BUILDINGS 5-42 Structural System in concrete: (A) Gravity Load Resi Hing Systems Platstaba. | WWathe system [Beam System | [stav system | ? (B) Lateral load resisting systems Of conerete structures: Following are the common lateral lond tesisting systems in concrete. > Load bearing walt > Frames > Shear Walls > Infill :d Frames > Frame-Shear Walls Peéorincs of ii Eoincering, MAE 15 TALL BUILDINGS {) FRAMED WALL INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS Definition: Normally, the walls of the service core are designed as shear walls and they are assumed to take the lateral loads. The vertical loads are distributed to the ground by the frames, When the shear walls are connected to these frames they interact with each other. ‘This results in an effective system called as frame-wall interactive system. Behavior: ‘The interaction may be clearly seen from the figure 5.21, The shear wall is restrained by the frame at base levels and shear wall reduces the frame’ deflections near top storeys. This results in improved behavior of the total system. Meinent fratne Des axtnent of Civil Engincesing, $,R.M.E.C. D- wk TALL BUILDINGS (1) INFILLED FRAMES Definition: Ttis a composite structure formed through the complex interactive behavior of the infill with the fram= members, The infill acts like a diagonal strut to the frame and thereby increases the Juteral stiffness and strength of the frame by about 2 to 3 times. Behavior: Typical behavior of infilled frame is shown in figure 5.22. The infilled frame may be considered equivalent 10 a pin-jointed braced frame wherein the infill is reduced to a H dingonal brace, i ¥ y oy Wy FIGURE 5.22 ~ Behavior of Infilled Frames Deparment ef Civil Brgincering. SRM... ig Up rey i ~ r a ~ > ~ = TALL BUILDINGS Factors affecting behavior: ‘There are many factors that affect the behavior of the infilled frame, They may be listed as Relative stiffness of the frar* = to infill ‘The nature of interface between frame and infill Strength of the infill Aspect ratio of the panel > > > > > Presence of gap between the frame and the infill of Civil Engincring, SRMLEC, STRUCTURAL CONTROL FOR BUILDINGS 1.0. INTRODUCTION The seismic design philosophy accepts certain amount of damage in butAdings. However, in buildings of special use, like hospitals or buildings with sensitive’ instruments, the levels of damage and vibrations that occur during earthquakes may not be acceptable. For methods are required to reduce, or control, the Structural Control refers to these methods which are these situations, seismic effects. employed to contol the response of civil engineering structures. 2.0 _ STRUCTURAL CONTROL Structural control techniques can be broadly classified into two namely passive contro! and active control. Techniques which types, conbine the favourable characteristics of these two techniques are termed hybrid methods. Consider a person standing in a moving bus. When the driver brakes the speed of the bus, the person tends to be thrown forward due to the inertia effect. Now, there are different ways of keeping the person stable. One way 1s to make the person simply grip tightly a flexible handle hanging from the top hand-rail. To a large extent, the person is made stable, even though the person may still be swaying, This method is called the passive control method. : Alternately, the person may directly hold the top hand-rail. The person senses the braking of the bus through the neurons under the soles of the feet. The brain then’ sends signals through the neurons to the tendons of the palms to apply requisite friction forces through the palns/fingers of ‘the hands to counter the forward intertia force. Here, the person uses mental Judgement to apply the required amount of force and at the required instant of time to effectively counter the forward 4nertia force. There is on-line decision making involved and also enough energy to be spent by the person, Thus, this method of stabilising’ the Person in a moving bus is called the active control method. With reference to buildings, in passive control methods, special menbers are added to the structure, The. strength and stiffness ee e “510 RRLRRLAA aA aR aA A eRe tke 2 a » Structural Control for: Buildings (page 2 of 13) $12 Characteristics of these members depend on the level of structural Fesponse experienced by then. Once these menbers are bullt into the Structure, their properties cannot be altered by ony external means, No external force or energy 18 applied to control the structural re ponse during earthquake shaking. These tembere. are called passive’ control devices. A schematic of the concept of passive control and the change in response is shown tn Figure 1. On the other hand, in active control methods, ground motion and structural response are measured (Figure 2) through sensors, called selsmometers. These inputs are fed to a computer which calculates forces required to be applied through special: menbers to modify the bullding response to the desired level. These special nenbers are called active control devices. They are Primarily actuators, either hydraulic or electrical. The magnitude and variation with time of these external counteractive forces are based on predictive control logic, for which the inputs are measurements. of ground motion and the structural response, and an analytical model to Predict the future Tesponse of the structure after a time delay (i.¢., a tine history analysis progran for the nonlinear dynamic analysis of the building). Smart Structures 16 another hane given to structures with contro} devices built in them, Some of these methods are already in use in real Uife buildings, of course, more research is in Progress to explore Possibilities of making structural control practical and feasible. PASSIVE CONTROL = 2_PASSIVE CONTROL, Two approaches are conceived in passive structural control. first, the earthquake ground motion input at the base of the building is filtered to remove frequencies that could be damaging and that are in the vicinity of the first few natural frequencies ‘of the building. In the second approach, the seismic energy input to the building is dissipated at convenient and safe locations in what are called energy dissipation devices. Sometimes these devices undergo significant damage and need to be replaced. Hence, they are designed as disposable elements like a fuse in an electrical In the which can be replaced by fresh ones, The former approach is known as base Isolation, while the circuit, Structural Control for Buildings (page 3 of. 13) 512 latter 1s called as passive control through energy dissipators. 3.1 Base Isolation Strong ground motiens recorded during earthquakes indicate that seismic vibrations are predominant in the period range of buildings whose fundamental natural in the past 0.1 sec to 4.0 sec. Obviously, periods fall in this range are more vulnerable to damage. Base isolation attempts to modify the fundamental lateral natural period of buildings to values beyond this range (Figure 3). Thus, the effective respons- of This shift in the fundamental sec is the building 1s significantly reduced. natural period of the building to values greater than 1.0 achieved by placing a relatively flexible material between the foundation and the building (Figure 4). This flexible material has. large strength and stiffness in the vertical direction associated with the transfer of gravity loads on the building. However, it is very compliant in the lateral direction. Elastomeric bearing pads, conmonly used for bridge bearings, qualify as a material with the above - desired characteristics. Owing to their low stiffness in the’ lateral direction, elastomeric bearing pads create a considerable increase in the fundamental lateral natural period of the building. Countries with advanced seismic codal provisions have already started using these devices, Their design codes, ,e.g., UBC 1994 [1], provide guidelines for the design of these devices. Base isolation is advantageous only for some buildings afd that too under certain conditions. For buildings whose fundamental lateral natural periods are already beyond 1 sec, J.e., buildings which are already very flexible, base isolation may not be very effective, Typically, buildings with 6 to 10 storeys are good candidates to employ base Isolation on. Also, in buildings situated on soft soil sites, where high frequencies of the ground motion are anyway filtered out by the time they reach the base of the building, base isolation may not be effective. : Besides elastomeric bearing pads, simple sliding surfaces to isolate a building have been investigated into. These are called friction base isolators’ (FBI), A combination of the above two devices, Structural Control for Butldings (page 4 of 13) 533 called resilient-friction base Isolators, are also under study, 3.2 Energy Dissipating Devic Instead of ieolating the buflding from the ground Rotion, seismic Slloved to transmit to the higher levels, but find ways of same at those levels (Figure §). It is also Possible to like heat, instead of energy can be dissipating the fonvert this energy into other useful forms, merely dissipating it. The total seismic energy input to the butlding gets converted into Kinetic energy (leading to motion in it), potential or strain energy and sone gets dissipated through damping in t at the interface of structural Af more energy can’ be (causing stresses in it), the system (usually generating hea and/or non-structural components). However, Gissipated in the building, then the energy available for kinetic and Potential energies is reduced. This also helps reduce the damage due to yielding, which are permanent in nature. The energy dissipation devices are Introduced into the buliding for this very Purpose. They. are located {nm butldings usually at ‘critical sections, where Jateral shear forces are large (Figure 6). Often, these devices are buiit into the brace members, which are either cross or diagonal inter-floor elements, or Inverted V-braces. Sone of the énergy dissipation devices useful for structura) applications are viscous dampers, friction dampers, steel ylelding elenents and visco~elastic dampers, Viscous dampers provide damping by Passing & viscous fluid through a constricted orifice in @ piston moving in & cylinder f£111ed with the fluid (Figure 7). Sometines, viscous fluids which aye free to slosh in a closed contatner also act as viscous energy dissipating devices (Figure 8). Friction Dampers consist of two friction surfaces Sliding against each other during earthquake induced relative motion between them, Yielding Steel Plate Energy Dissipators fre uch that when a building vibrates, the plates bend as beams with double curvature (Figure 9). The plates offer stiffness until yield, and dissipate energy in a stable hysteretic manner. They are reason. on yielding, also called Added Damping and Stiffness (ADAS) devices for this A visco-elastic damper 1s made of a Polymeric material sandwiched Structural Control for’ Buildings (page 5 of 13) S14 between two surfaces, which undergo shear deformation (Figure 10), 0 ACTIVE CONTROL Seismic waves generated at the base of the building, In the meantime, the ground take a short duration to reach the top of the building. motion and the response of the building are monitored by selsmometers (Figure 2), These signals are fed to a computer, which performs on-line dynamic nonlinear tine history analysis of the building, and estimates the lateral forces that are likely to be generated when the wave reaches different floor levels. Signals are sent by the computer to the actuators located at these different Ievels to apply negatives of these forces to annul the séismic effect. On receiving the communication, the actuators become active and apply thesame. For creating stable response modification in the 'butlding, a feedback control mechanism is required. On the’ practicalities of using active control in bufldings, wherein the control forces are large, some questions still need to be answered. Reliability, of the control mechanism, particularly when most of the time it remains idle and gets activated only when a strong pulse 1s’ received, 4s one main question. The need for large external power source to operate the actuators, 1s the other question. The magnitude of control force, and hence the power required, can be quite significant and may even become prohibitive. 5.0 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION The equation of motion of a multi-degree-of-freedom building system Subjected to seismic base excitation and external control forces 1s: Mur(e) + Cur(t) + Kut) =~ Mrug(t) + £ where £, is the control forcé vector and all other terms hold the usual connotation of seismic analysis. The control forces are applied only is a function. of a along discrete locations. In active control, f, response quantities w(t), w/(t) and u(t); ground excitation ut(t); a Predetermined time delay and’ time t, in addition to a stable Predictive control logic. In passive control, £, is only a function of response quantities u’(t) and u(t) Structural Control for Buildings (page 7 of 13) 516 77 PASSIVE Device 4 aaa Frequency = x Figure 1: Concept of Passive Control (a) Building Frame with Tuned Mass Damper, (b) Change in Response due to Passive Control. ee 517 Structural Control for Buildings (page 8 of 13) | | i | acbiie. Figure 2: Concept of fRassixe Control ‘ Structural Control for Butldines (page 9 of 13) sis Figure 3: Effect of Base Isolation on Natural Period, and hence on ‘the Response. Figure 4; Base Isolator Used t Filter-off Hogher Frequencies in the Ground Motion, Structural Control for. Bulldings (page 10 of 13) 519 Less En rood ECCENTRIC BRACE FRAME CONCENTRIC BRACE PRAIIE Lateral Load-Deflection Response (a) With Energy Dissipation Devices, (b) Without Energy Dissipation Devices. Figure 5: i Fst eee ll 520 (a) eae Materfal | (=) ki (b) Figure 6 : Critical Locations in Building Frames for Energy Dissipation Devices (a) at Brace Ends, (b) at Beam Ends. --e— eee worsen) wouRidg 2wOS—Log2 ‘97 KaeaURs jo EnbyEG 00c ‘92-72 Key oniryseogsux223 uo dows ‘L661 MEH 7 aendeu> jo mudw we ~wogs Nd P 7“ sosmoang was wesisoy-oyenbinaea,, “Ty “soddey, “epu PERO | auMNIOA, ‘lor *9¢ Azeauey PURE PEMON ‘uodey uy ay! fo ars~BupoeT ayonby10g s9pun aug 34“) EE] SHONAWAITa “Pasodaid usoq osye ancy soBeurep ayenbyuea seququR o sonsesd uBtsop on uy popscu suoweauIpONY “ainiey of WO) tutes, sesso, “ses Suzuueld an y panauyoe 29, “wonnqinspp sseur pue swousay9 Su ‘deo Suapyng e ut siz9yo reugysi% ak Cc Saas ing pare ee) AD A © Ghee nn ee a) ‘wo blocks. In quit afew mul storey complexes, fie of trea is « msjor ease of damage. Staircases and corridors are found to have been blocked by the failure of the unreinforced masonry enclosure walls. Many ext doors are found tobe jammed due to racking of doorfames. Stairs can stat acting as diagonal-bracing elements during earthquake indaced motion, and therefore, should be used with sliding joint inthe seismic design of buildings. Isolation of stars from the primary structure! system may also minimise the damage to the stair system. 13.7.2, Damage to Elevator shows the andamaged lift core ofa building during the earthquake at Gandhidham. ‘and are vulnerable to earthquake. It is passengers trapped daring the occurrence damage can cause substantial danger in circulation systems (elevators and stairs) are essential in hospitals which deliver crucial heath services after an earthquake, FIGURE 13.18 Undamaged lt core of @ reinforced concrete building. 13.8 EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKE ON CODE DESIGNED STRUCTURES ‘deals with the devermination of forces and the later code deals with the detailing of reinforced cor ‘govennmnenl Waikdings (elhow the design codes as man of code compliance (Thakkar et by Central Put ‘wo buildings sustained minor damage in the form of cracking of i functioning of lift. Both the buildings were in working condition after ied to be vacated. @ © FIGURE 1319 Damage in Government constructed Relnforced Concrete buildings (a) ‘quarters for Regional Pass Port Office (G8), Abmedabad, minor cracking i filler ‘Ayakar Bhawan (Ged), a RC building, Ahmwedsbad, diagonal and junction cracks in all. 13.9 LESSONS LEARNT FROM DAMAGES OF RC BUILDINGS “The occurrence of Bhuj earthquake has caused significant damage to multl-toreyed reinforced concrete buildings. The lessons learnt from damages are presented ‘re. most important in such sinations. -2aspyeng ouse3y opoH0o Pootoyupr wf aseozeHs of sewed (a) ‘SONG as Yo UoEIGK seeUd Jo Ine HuLIND smeste 38 RONDE IANS (6) SupENg pomEN gp.oue> PooesEP uy OSEAN Jo ANE LETT TUN 48 bopeigtsaseud-j0-190 oh aap fags 18 StHpING Oy UF MH puE pegepounTY emEBuEsEARN wt ‘SHO “ig UEAYS:A Ur Soseouns so omyTey Jo Sojdurexo yworda ase (QC EL PUE (ELT ET SaIRTL asvaumg 01 oupa 1'2et ‘Bumping ajaiouoo peoroyarar ui 2109 ite pue sores Jo SmURY oq MoUs TEL PuE Lie] Seung “ayeobyrea Ue Buunp soinor adeosa se ans Ose ‘SoseoNIEs om puE Zuipting wy iuoUOKOUE FeDN94 Jo eueau Kuo op exe SYM] UE SosEarTeS SWALSAS NOLLVINOUID TVOLLWIA OL ADVWVG Z*ET -posden09 orropsueo sopun HeyptOA SH poteeay aseq 249 Jo voRLIOd day, (q)‘BuypHNG aE] Sy © OTHE ‘race jo suoweg (©) Bumping sure1s Sut m uonesaz0e Jo spy MoREOTNdMY SPet TUNE @ 9g ap Jo nYBtoy OW Sueye vores sonauadya sBurpizng 30 [242] soos: SLadVuVd GNV ANVL YALVM OL ZOVWVa 91 ‘Sion 815 pu panos Jo sues 0 acu (@) ‘eure a.5009 30 AONE PAREN 6 anp yem sop Jo sedeneg (6) sues aysue> afvonp-aou of sf sotto Jo AINE SP eT guOd @ © ‘wononnsu09 Jo pexpaus pur STeuorer yo Aapenb a uo iwopuedsp 2q ox punoy s| 9Beusep jo apmatueu 3 ‘ape ai ‘seozoy asain sar 0) swoIgIMALY bps 4q poursuoo sjaued Aruoseu pacuoyuion ‘ubjowinad 2m punare sueid seem © soveato 5 ‘swonesgin 2upjd-Jo-no or arsolans are seas 283t “2UrEt) > 1g sie zoper9 0 secutp jo sejdurexs onsuarsemyo sens @)EIC1 UEC) et samy S1UM soneIT 01 BBoUDG z'5-¢1 sae ~ a ETD (Saresgus eel Dogs of STE ) Cc Grape Taentfcation of SEGRE Damages TRO Bling.) COD ssually accompanied by buckling of bars in compression and by hoop fracture. The opening of either because of bending action or temperature/shrinkage. visible due to strong ground shaking, Damage in slab i ge . forthe stability of the structure. However, it creates seri jonal and aesthetic problems. 13.5 DAMAGE TO NON-STRUCTURAL PANEL ELEMENTS 13.5.1 Damage to Infill Walls ‘provided. Sometimes perimeter infill walls are pierced with many closely spaced windows. The ‘columns in between these piers may be called captive columns like a short column. A captive : “ Vague YS} Wamuage to RC a in veinforesd concrete buildings (2) Cracks at ecling~? FIGURE 13.14 Failure of infill wall and panel in reinforced concrete buildings (a) Shear (X) ‘esting micro cracks; (0) Cracks at slab-beam jonction. cracking of maronry infil (3) Shear filore ia “captive column” ‘syanowoo poyeds par ‘29 pepeds Sra yi wemyo9 Sosos yay Jo seq (q) emRfoD kare a8qB ot ayo Jo Deed Pee BarPRAD (©) SIumPHNG sIoIDUO> poLOJURI wy sUINE|OD Jo asm ONAL TET AMIDE @ © U9 pe spuedxa a1o> ajaiouos ain Kqwanbosqne tyuswosoyuiar ays weds Aq way parsoyueut st 2u07 uorssaudwoo ain Jo Bunysnicy 278 TROND ota Ut s9p Jo Surseds ayeabapeu ap 2}2!9009 Jo nog ue doa SLNAWATA TWYNLONULS OL TOVWVA PET ‘sieurep sooye pasoyyas soewep sous paras Buyping aver suodsas ayenbutie2 na.2}jp 0} amp Wm royduoy ssueyy 30 PONY J0 s6deTIED (Q) im pasceno> Hep Tn0 (00H pet uo UoRoRsHo9 ago 10 erent os ood Jp Jo sozeadd in eouuoa STs pong stom seep Jo ote 2:oya eam TEN my ued tpnos au “A amp nom Sutsed sane newegeg Jo tind HD oe ror peed eq sSuping om o sour ee poxoeqo w209 os soy at Posdyio0 ose ney ‘oBeruy sea ons wei 691 Jo NBR J2HIQ “aaop sume ‘pO sqiLoun ays Cc Rang DRG Rem ee) ETB SS Op Gam en Da ae ) torsional effects may be attributed to collapse poo! at 10" floor, a ing to the torsional 4 Poor Quality of Construction Material and Corrosion of ) at Ahmedat ad was. sh o © buildings due to poor quality of constroction (a) Old construction, corrode) relircement prlor to earihquake, Mehta Chambers, Ahmedabad; (b) Poor quality of ‘material, corrosion of reinforcement. FIGURE 127 Damage o FIGURE 138 Damage due to corrosion of Stel in reinforced coneret amsunnedy seus Jo ways jo Sen00) parson pated () eatdme exmyy 9 Ypo[g-Y “eames € Jo Suion Pore BuOIGO (2) “wou iedy JEON 10 oC 19 2848109 (@) Saydeneg rey Jo YooLEY Jo Boned HEH Je mCeNS te (©) sStemsaua amon of oop sBoxpgna sptsuoo pasa we SIMUL SANUS CO ° a 1 Bt xajdaie3) suey fan qin oyenbyue fog SuLmNp (99"e SuioD IsuM RK“ “BupIng pakaiowe- neu 1005 uuedy seIpLYS pte (29 ut ors Jo AINE} OM SONS FET Cle tam ore tind ep eR 00g soddn oq wy sdcurep apes 1 ‘poqepaLEY dmemedy seq exe (Q) suunye> Buneoy wo Saxprag 30 osdeytestpegepeeey vores, futay gst (6) sutsmjoo Zuneoy qua sSarpRNG siosouss peosopuIa Jo ame Str anos o “Soy 240} om ut panupuoasyp am siooy sadn uy uasoud seydurexo eon iam pegepourny e sfupring weounmedy seq bay pe 361 24 “*Ftprng Jo ome 30 asneo sejnveoads pure o[QrU OU puOdeS ‘SUnEOY OF AND ($+) sBuIpyINg perBeprsor co!euoD peosOyUIO: WL @BEUEP sROyS sooo} sop BuloysueN 205 a}gesuodspur st st oun Nd ‘siutof uInfoo-weaq Jo Suyfrerap aynonp pue weg, Joo puma? jo mfuans 2g ut danotoqjep feud jo os Sunynses‘apjong pu wuoyep oy usFoq suanjoo oq eons sn Uunj09 2m tWoyzon0 podojeKap snk 92305 BojuanD “sues 2:7 Ka ponussuen ag ov anay aferbypea aia rap 004 Zac ot pte ouepuns 2 0 S2.) rae Hsajieno] age sasodind Bungmed so} pasn st 09 pur Sig) wouredy opody ayy, “ayenbypres faye wt TAS RG ae ET ce RO Ranigac Reon Dain Sree inement reinforcement and ductile detailing in of view. 13.3 IDENTIFICATION OF DAMAGE IN RC BUILDINGS Reinforced concrete buildings have been damaged on a very large scale in Bhuj earthquake of January 26, 2001. These buildings have been damaged due to various seasons. Wentification of C a single cause of damage to build not possible. There are combined reasons, responsible for multiple damages. ifcult to classify the damage, and even 13.3.1 Soft Storey Failure buildings in metropolitan cites require open ® FIGURE 134 Soft storey failures in reinforced concrete boildings (a) Apollo Apartment at Abmedabad, ground floor was completely collapsed: (b) G+6 RC framed building at Bhuj, Intermediate weakcstorey failure. iy (Sammars yim = T T T T T PAKISTAN cw WAS ports 4 sigann ¢ ‘Oana 1 13.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES jor commercial cities, the around florfbatementis often use for commercial and parking purposes, where te iafl walle resulting in soft or weak stories. aac LS m spin on higher oor in Ahmedabad, (Goel, 2001}; (b) 3-D and 60 em t0 80 cm Jong. of 12 to 18 mm diameter. The lon ateral load nployed to ween the t common isolators sed device ag damage xeentric or ‘ibuting to ngthening ree storey tumns can rechniques resistance e possible ‘on can be (ncreasing hieved by structure jon. This ef Reinforced Concrete Buildings) QED ¢ Chapter BG Selamie Retrofitting Strat is found to be efficient for seismic protection of historical buildings where superstructure has a limited seismic resistance and intervention is required only at foundation level. The supplemental damping devices such as addition of viscous damper, visco-elastic damper, frictional damper in diagonals of bays of frame substantially reduces the earthquake response by dissipation of energy. ‘Local retrofittings are typically used either when the retrofit objectives are limited or direct treatment of the vulnerable components is needed. The most popular and frequently used method in local retrofitting is jacketing or confinement by the jackets of reinforced concrete, steel, fibre reinforced polymer (FRP), carbon fibre etc. Jacketing around the existing members increases lateral load capacity of the structure in a uniformly: distributed way with a minimal increase in loading on any single foundation and with no alternative in the basic geometry of the building. 29.5 RETROFITTING STRATEGIES FOR RC BUILDINGS ‘The need for retrofitting or strengthening of earthquake-damaged or earthquake-vulnerable buildings in India have been tremendously increased curing recent years after the devastating Bhuj-carthquake with an alarming awakening for sufficient preparedness in anticipation to face fiture earthquakes. Many professional engineers are accustomed to the designing of new buildings but they may'find themselves not fully equipped to face the challenges posed at the time of strengthening the existing buildings with a view to improve their seismic performance, ‘This section presents the most common devices for retrofitting of reinforced concrete buildings with technical details, constructional details and limitations: 29.5.1 Structural Level {or Global) Retrofit Methods ‘Two approaches are used for structure-level retrofiting: (2) conventional methods based on increasing the seismic resistance of existing structure, and (i) non-conventional methods based on reduction of seismic. demands. Conventional methods Conventional methods of retrofitting are used to enhance structures by eliminating or reducing the adverse effects of sting the seismic The methods ~“Fuclide’ adding of shear wall, infill walis and steel braces. Adding new shear walls One of the most common methods to increase the lateral strength of the reinforced concrete buildings is to make a provision for additional shear walls (Figure 29.6). The technique of infiling/adding-new shear walls is often taken as the best and simple. solution for improving seismic performance, Therefore, it is frequently used-for retrofitting of non-ductile reinforced ‘concrete frame buildings. The added elements can be either cast-in-place or pre-cast concrete ‘lements, New elements preferably be placed at the exterior of the building, however it may ‘cause alteration in the appearance and window layouts. Placing of shear walls in the interior of the structure is not preferred in order to avoid interior mouldings. HEU) WCCO | @ © FIGURE 29.6 Increasing strength with shear walls: (a) Adding techniques (b) Infilling tech niques (CEB, 1997), Technical considerations: The addition of new shear walls.to existing frame has many technical ‘considerations which may be summarized as (a) determining the adequacy of existing floor and roof slabs to carry the seismic forces; (b) transfer of diaphragm shear into the new shear walls with dowels; (c) adding new collector and drag members to the diaphragm; (4) increase in the weight and concentration of shear by the addition of wall which may affect the foundations. Constructional considerations: The first consideration duting construction is to find locations ‘where walls can be added and well located which may align to the full height of the building to minimize torsion (Wylle, 1996). It is often desirable to locate walls adjacent to the beam between columns so that only minimum slab demolition is required with connections made to beam at the sides of columns. The design of the shear wall may be similar to new construction ‘The longitudinal reinforcement must be placed at the ends of the wall running continuously through the entire height. In order to realize this end, the reinforcement has to pass throug holes in slabs and around the beams to avoid interference. To achieve both conditions, boundary elements can be used. Although it would also be convenient to have continuous shear reinforcement but in its absence, the wails must be adequately connected tothe beamis, slabs and columns ensuring proper shear transfer through shear connectors. Wall thickness also varies from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inch) and is normally placed extemally. This retrofitting system is only adequate for concrete structures, which bring forth a big inerease in the lateral capacity and stiffness. A reasonable structural ductility may be achieved if the wall is properly designed with a good detailing. The connection to the existing structure has to be carefully designed to guarantee shear transfer. Limitations: The main limitations of this method are: (i) increase in lateral resistance but it is concentrated at a few places, (i) increased overturning moment at foundation causes very high uplifting that needs either new foundations or strengthening of the existing foundations. Gii) increased dead load of the structure, (iv) excessive destruction at each floor level results {in functional disability of the buildings, (v) possibilities of adequate attachment between the new wails and the existing structure, (vi) closing of formerly open ‘spaces can have major negative impact on the interior of the building or exterior appearance. Tapia Retanie erotng rattan of Mainforend-Convete ings) Adding steel bracings Another method of strengthening is the use of steel bracing, which also has similar advantages. The structural details of connection between bracing and column are shown in Figure 29.7. The installation of steel bracing members can be an effective solution when large openings are. required. This scheme of the use of steel bracing has a potential advantage over other schemes for the following reasons: 7 higher strength and stiffness can be proved, ‘© opening for natural light can be made easily, © amount of work is less since foundation cost may be minimized, ‘© the bracing system adds much less weight to the existing structure, ‘© most of the retrofitting work con be performed with prefabricated elements and

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