Theoretical Criminology Fourth Edition by the ate George B. Vold, ‘Thomas J. Berard, wel Jeffrey B. Snipes New York Oxford Oxford University Press, 1998ogo “Re say, ne oe ‘ito ong Ka iyi ©1808 Ue FI re mr ed ry Pe As ene No at thy git edn (yaya mee cee eal, top cea er beso pie Lay ages Caen Pin Dat ints Bp Toni athepig 2 Chiming. 2 Dut eae {Sta Rapa Tm ‘i | Contents Foreword ix (Chapter One: Theory and Crime 1 Spiritual Explanations Nutra Explanations—Clasa_ Criminal — ost Cniaogy “The Behavor of Criminal Lane—The Relationship Among the Vous Fraes of Referens Chapter Two: Classical Criminology MM “The Soll an! nee Hackgound of Casal Crniolog—Baccr nd the Cassie Schoo!—The NeoClndealSehool-Aswsng, Bess “Theor Inplaasons and Conhaions Chapter Three: Postivist Criminology 27 CGuery and Queteket—Cesae Lmbrino—Maderm Crinnaogy the Sec for the Canes of Cim—The lation Between oti od Chas seal Their —Concaion“ Gontents (Chapter Four: Theories Related to Physical Appearance 40 Pysiognomy std Phesology—Catninal Antroplogs: Lamba Gannge Hy Type Theres: Sheldon to Cortés -Concaion ‘Chapter Five: Theories Related to Intelligence 52 Background Ido and Coneopts—neligene Tesing ad Crine—Crent Controreses: Deligency, Hae, and 19 Interpreting the Anoiion Betoren Delany and 1)—The Bell Cune—Canason Chapter Six: Biologia! Factors and Criminal Behavior 68 aniyStudles Twin and Adopt SudesNeweransiters— Hormones—The Cents! Newens”System—The Autonomic. Nerot Sistem Ensronnently Induced Bolg Components of Beaver Implication and Conclions ‘Chapter Sevens The Personality of the Offender 88 Historical Backgount: Pyehiary as 4 Springourd for Pechomaltle ‘Teory—Signund Freud and Psjchoanlss—Psjeoande Explanations of Cina Beir Research Us Porsonlty TestsAntsodal Pe SonaliyDiorder—Predting Future’ Dangrousnese—Inpulty and (Cre Ieplaton and Conan ‘Chapter Eight: Crime and Beonomie Conditions 108 Reseach on Crime and Eeonornie Conon: Contractions and Dis sgremente Cre and Unemployment. A Det Look t Research Fblens lnterpting Rewrarch on Cre and Eetonie Conions— Implications aed Conlsions ‘Chapter Nine: Durkheim, Anomie, and Modernization 123 Eile Durbin —Crine as Normal i Mechanic Soleter—Anomi a4 Phologal Stte in Ong Sots Asenng Durhbens Tayo Crne Candie Contens wi Chapter Ten: The Ecology of Crime 140 “The Theory of Human Ecology—Reserch i the “Delingueny Amat” of (Geo Poi Impl Revet Thro and Resear on Neigh ods Cause of Crime Stutonal Contents of Ce —Conchons Chapter Eleven: Strain Theories 158 bert K. Merton an Anois in Ameren Soiety—St the Epa sation of Gang DenqoengyPay npatons—The Dc ad Reser {ever of Strain Thorsen In Indl and Societe: Neue Errtins and Isutonal Anon ~Conlsion Chapter Twelve: Learning Theories 179 Base Paclogal Approates o Learing—Tare's Laws of Ietation— Suterand's DifereatalAswcition » Themy—Reserch Teng Sutherland's Theon:—The Content of Learning Cultural sd Suber ‘Theories The Leaming Pros Seca Leaning Theory Ingato Concasone Chapter Thirteen: Control Theories 201 Early Control Theories: Reiss to Nye—Matats Delinquency ond Drift isch Soc Conta Theoy- Aven Social Contr Theres From Sac Gaol o Self Cond Gottedson and Hin’ General Theory of Crne—Conchions ‘Chapter Fourteen: The Meaning of Crime 219 ‘The Measing of Crime tothe Sel Labeling Tog —The Mean Cxine tothe Crna Kat Soactions of Crine Tho Mesaing of Cr othe Laer Society: Deine and Social eation-Stte Poe i tht Meat Inu Cre: Conta log—pattone and Concho ‘Chapter Fifteen: Conflict Criminology 235 Sal's Clare Conflict Thory—Val's Grup Coli Theory —Qieys ‘Theory f the Sota Realty of Cme—Twrks Theory of Criminaizton — Chants nd Seudmaas Anais of the Grminl Jt Sytem — Mecarrel and Castellanos Integrate Conic Model Haga Struct Geininology—Dlads Behar af Law Unie Cont Tay of (Crimes Cant Theory Pay Ingle —Canchonvi Contents Chapter Sisteen: Ctical Criminology 260 Se Crt focal and Potmedemit ining Penson and Fonsi Contoge-Amcrment of Ct ites ‘Chapter Seventeen: Developmental Criminology 284 “The Great Debate: Csininal Careers, Langa Research, and the Re Ibsonsip Between Age and Crime—Cmial Prpensty Criminal Carer "The Transition to Deelepmenal sre Thombery’ tater ‘tonal They™Sunon and Las Age Crate Teor of Tlral So ‘al ContalConcaston Chapter Bighteen: Integrated Theories 800 Elite a's ttgated Theony—Brthwaes Theory of Re Sniniag- “tet Cnr Baace They ier Come Pudi Berard an Sipe Inegted Model—Conchsion| Chapter Nineteen: Assessing Criminology Theory 316 Scene, Ther, Research, and Poley—tndvidal Dierence Theories ‘Shucur/Prce Theores—‘Thoeres of the Behavior of Criminal Eaw— Conch Subject Index 337 Name Index 945 Foreword to the Fourth Edition Te now has been eleven years since the publieation ofthe third edition of Theortcal Criminology. The reasons forthe long delay in publ ings fourth eiton are interesting from the point of view of what his ceition seek to accompli ist started working on a fourth edition in 1980, but that effort sgound to a alt when T was about onethitd done. The ineressingy ‘Complex and interrelated native of erinology theory ha made Feu forme to divide the field intoa sequence of neat ite boxes (chap ters) ass requed ina textbook T eventually became dsatisied with imy proposed organization ofthe material but was unable to reconcep tule fe at that point. In ution, I bad elininated too much of the ‘older materal so that I could preset recent work mone completely ‘while maintaining the approximate size ofthe hook. I eventual real ized that the very completeness of my presentations, as well asthe loss ofthe er mtr oll ie the Boke acest and ful to ts readers. “This book's major contbation to the fl of exminaogy has been that i provides seaberent, aceurte, and acessble overview ofthe fies in their historic and socal contest. had lost the thead of ths ma jor contribution, o I abandoned my attempted revision and decided to tome back tot ater when Thad a better sense of what Twas doing 'At that same Hine, Twas working on to ses related to the ole of | theory in erninlogy In the process of working on succes editions ofthis book, I became convinced that criminology was fling to make Selenite progres. For example, in each acces edition, 1 See ontx Forord tthe Fourth Bdion ‘quite bit of material because, to my opinion, no one would be inter (Ste in i any more, But Ua not thrown ont any materal Because 1 ‘ought it had been false. This syggests a astounding lack of se ent progress over fry year period of increasingly vigorous and phistiestesl empiri esearch orginally presented my concerns about this station in a 1980 ar- tide entitled “Twenty Years of Testing Theories: What Have We Learned and Why?” In that article, I took a Popperian approach, with sn emphasis on how to falsify theories in order to get raf ehem. At the same time, I wis working on integrating eimiaclogy theories. In my view, tegration ian alterative to falsification as a way to reduce ‘he numberof theades in eximinlogy- Where I boieved that flsifien- tion had largely fale Decanse esearch misspecfied the theories, Labo Ipelieved that Ifthe theores were propery specified, then a moch Irouder integration among them would become apparent ‘All hese sues came together in a 1906 stile on theoretical inte _mtionwnten sith Jef Snipes Thi article abundoas the Popperian “emphasis onflsietion and takes “risk fat” approach hat deals in Structured probabiies, This highly smtegratve apprtach maitansafo- tsssonthe empirical adequacy’ a dhoores but moves policy implications to the forefront. It ako makes clear that there has been cousierable ‘cientife progres in ciminology, uti is noe inthe form of alsin Aheories "el has jolned me a coauthor in writing this fourth eition of The oratical Criminology, andl our new conchiding chapter interprets the ‘eld of erminology in these terms Ax coauthor, Jel brings song ail ‘es to aecuratly summarize and organize exiting criminology theory snd research, Ultimately this invobves having a god intuitive sense of theories and how they operat. Beyond thal, he buoys a fees per spective onthe field of eminology and ts eurrent exer organization. ‘This was one of dhe stumbling bloks in my intial attempeto revise this book, snd Jef solved aumber of my’ problems with alc and sim ply Finally, el brings mich better quantitative sis than I posses. “These sls are a great deal more important today than they were i ‘the past, and they wil be incressingly important as eriminology devel ‘ops in the fare "The gl of ths fourth edition, asi was with the second and third, Isto rng the text completly up to date in away that provides cont nity with ee earlier ection while introducing a grest deal of new ma terial But beyond that, elieve that this edison aso stractures the book to accommodate the increasing complenty’of the Ded of eri nology and rate of change within With this dion, Lele that Dh Foretcard tothe Fourth Elion a retical Criminology swell postone to move nology for some time to cone. ‘We wish to thank Disna Fishbein for making extensive comments sud suggestions on the biology chapter. We also wish to thank Wayne (Osgood and Lynne Goodstein for eeaing and earnmenting on various sections ofthe book, and Kim Menard and Mark Motiany for eating ‘nl making comments the ene daft. Any errs ar omissions ae, ‘ofcourse, the sole responsibilty ofthe authors. oto the future af ein T)B. State College, Pa March 1997‘Theoretical Crin nologyTheory and Crime Criminology a8 eof study has been well documented by longline ‘ofecellent and distinguished tebooks, both European and American, going back many decades! Most ofthese tets concentrate on present- Ing face known about the subject of erie. For example, they discuss the extent and dstrbution of criminal bchaviors i society: the charac. teristics of eiminl lw and procedure; the charactenstcs of emia tnd the history, srcire, and functioning ofthe criminal justices tem. The theoretical material presented in these txts is usually some ‘what ited. Almost all ets evew the major theories about the causes ‘of erminal behavior, and some texts present other theoretical materia Such a sociology of av, pllosophy of punishment, o theories of cor rectona treatment ‘a teat in theoreti criminology, this book doesnot concentrate ‘on presenting the facts known abou erime, although atleast some of those facts are presented in the various chapters. stead, this book ‘concentrates onthe tvores use to explain those fats. The theories 2. Soft igh gud te tn ee ‘Rear Lb te Nal eee Ete) ue eR (Char da cacy th of bos and Bene, Mak, 1 Sephen EB Reso Gitmo iawn Coy th tg sc Bene aE SIE Gan Ses ano ¥ Cl Cain Hosa ae seh2 ‘Theoretical Criminology hones, ater than the fit bout criminal, ae the fcus of ton theory apt fan espana? Basal an explanation i scablowy of tome pata’ henner Bem ed OF iforaton, blesses hat mak up ett ‘nomphere of prope pares tine or place For eunpl, when ‘node people ces tain owe song the aod acs thal that phenomenon to theses in temo thelr nit of Iter tal ambnstonenges: Primi pple i al eyantos that en ‘Bled them osecunt Tor sich phenomena, Bl they wed pte oneep sch the pero piso enn Siete dois ae one kt of explanation Tn genera scenic ‘iors make tates abt te relationships betwen seal plenomena’ Por xample som sete theresa emily make Statements abot the tliohip Between the etna sent of rial pisces he vo rmia ehais saey. Other sdentife theories make statements abt the reaonship b ‘ween bloga pcbolog o socil hrstriy finals {nd dhe Ilion that thse indica ll eng ceminal bea tr. Silber seat teones make eres aout the elation ‘hp tween the xl harris of inal and the ood tht tee ial vill dined and procs a eine ‘minal josie system All these charters ea he shee and Soa dice theres are scent, Beaune they make sateen sont the relationship among ob serablephemmena, ey chante f ent hares tht thy ean e tied Th pres of stempsing fo aly seni thea oles tema oberg the featonshis desebed in Seco tea ern coed ‘Thy Ani fe Uri engin, Hera al” han, et a ie Sa arr ec is Fe Sete aida coment ee apie Se cataract Soar eenmem ec henar Rie pee ei ar Si i Si ee atic gaa The ae ca etn og mr SP tf ean enya SS A ‘Theory ond Crime 3 the theory and then comparing tote observations o argues ofthe Ahoy Hal Ths proces ele escarce Tht, he etons of thetinory ar tested gst the sere word the fact The ob Senta are inconsient with the saeraons ofthe they then te theory fasted. the obsntons are consistent wth te serio tbe theo, then the theory becomes more eee bt Hi not proved her ar aay eat there that might so expan de Eine cbeorved relatensipe theory ean una et del feet ll th eons a teat theres are ten to be icons wth he bed word tia At hat pit te coy gh amply be aceped ste Home Ser tala poste that some new ut wl be covered the fore thet ae fcr wt the thoy, that anew theory al tp required: For example, Newton's lf pips were acpi 8 {to or 20 yeas, but they were replaced by Entel theory af el thy tthe begiing othe trent century de tothe dsevey of tonence bets? “Criminology bas been blessed or cursed, depending on one's point of ew wit ey le urbe of asa oie. The een hich thse thence are spre yh Bt nate qesion Uy Over sity yeas ag ical ad Ader wed re thoes Snlonde Te asec ah hernhelets nahn non regarding Un cases af crime in sing contrast 10 Tortlosncs of the data upon which thoe opines are ated > Michel and Ales jgnett was bard een st the te But their ‘ant shou be kept mind the varios theres ae eviewed An ‘her port var aed more recently by Cou wo commentd"Some topes are inesed wth enorons sal mpartane but Bled wh ver lle rll formation, When the rat of dita to socal impact, ito lon history of sent atts maybe le more then sn the econo wl cange Tay be that the istoy of en tology fet sore abot the changing ofthe larger et han {Cae aboot the changing sentiekng ofrime fetta! lt murat dows o Cry, ge Nee Na 1 bl, St Sits, Uy of gy Fe, Che ‘or Mt a Mone. Ade Cy, a ond Sos Si Reto Ma ENE an a Spl ole eyo of on Nar New Yak BH 38 {0 Yate Te Sh Cd a eh Leg Mae4 Theoretical Criminology th broad spe fist, thereat asc of this of cxime. One rls om spn, of eter-word expats while the ‘her rele on nara or hwo, explanation, Bath type ofthe es ar ancient wel sry ny tetra noes an Be Caled scent since ol they Fass on oseablepenomens Sp ‘ul explanation aecemly vce cents hat cnt be obser there the hos ct be ae Ts een fon om Siler opal thos athe mot aes explanation of rine Canna be comin cei " ce SPIRITUAL EXPLANATIONS Splint explanations of erie are par of general vw of Mein which say eet ae ee ek om hile ftv powers For eanple, pie pope reprded natal dates sch fans loads nd pages ss pishments ar wrongs they a done tothe pinta powers They sponded by performing sated es td sale to appene those powers Inthe Mile gern Europe pistol ew of th word was one te poi acl option eu proce be _anlng of the enna jess system. Oral, rte was alr ft ain wich te icin oe v's any one eee Figaro gtr om onthe drt fers funy. The problens wus that rate vengeance haa eden) tsar od fds that con contin for may years ti ane othe et any was completly wpe ont. The fal lors therfore tae smth y which God em ste who wa ont and wh a iy The St such med ws aly bat nich the vn Smember fir or her anh woul ght the offender ora member of sor her an: Hee Grd wold ve sor othe nace py. the fay ofthe ler wold ave no ground for exacting cageanes om the wine, he od fee were end The problem wth tril by bate was that get wars could com- sit many rns hey wanted secrete Kn thal Ged “oul ene ge them ity Ts some in sty a by oka was nied Tn ths tho the aces wa sae

ema be that the theory ofthe bor cena fered coment rato zation ofthe fale a preventive effort anda escape fon the nation 24 i ad i et Teaming” Ar Postiist Criminology 35 of he dangers die tt ine 2 etl prot for wil ips ray wel Bat pe ich ha en mgd ems Pctomers komedi party to gh Reape fx Wisveaag pobien Radinowice made a similar comment see intra st mes of i te op as tp he danger ses san nde ety detache fron the pe ‘ing oct coins Ty wor poe ae ger tory paved nd vec, ving by voting the frat of dey sey which turns oud aman ie by net sey wake Inst ofthe etc: Lomo nae one that il ong he remembered esimportant in the development of rinologal thong ‘A Selina wel sd "Any scholar ho succeeds in diving hundreds ‘of fellow stents to search forthe truth, and whose eas aller hala fentury possess vitay, merits an honomle place inthe history of thought MODERN CRIMINOLOGY AS THE SEARCH FOR THE CAUSES OF CRIME Most criminology today Is posts in the sense that I studies the ‘euses of rie. Bu theve ae realy to cfeent methods of studying the eases of eabe and therefore so efferent types of theories in pos itt eiminology. Lombroro sted the biologi, pychologeal, and tovial characteristics of individuals to dently tactrs that increase or ‘decrease The Hklthood the india ll engage in ere In entra (Quetelet sted the sca characterstics of eiferent areas of France to ides factors that are associated ith high or low erie rates in those areas, These two methods donot contract eachother but they ‘certainly are not the same thing, Lambroso's method f staying the fuses of rime is sssaclated with indiddual-bne!theodes of rime ‘while Quetele’s method is associated with societlleel theories of Consider, as an anslogy, methods to study the causes of unem Een mnunpana terran iifeae ppimimn eae36 Theoretical Criminology omen: We ol sty why some pol re emp wi SLL —C™= Sui ho sy ihe cen foarte nc Spare thm techs of emyed pe tos Shea ono pty al ons br se ste ins sean meat, sag a + i+ -_~ Sh ie paso ow epee hess ——rr—r———_C— Une pas nih ews gh sacpigree a fur the th te cnc es an ace he | ---| 18) woul arom se th cee sek tied tae dts ean ang ne Se ——r—rr——s=s ‘hia cars fe sacl ath wind boe “ater caning ts fc tert dn mann Ge Be ath nd eg i rupli on xine isis, ute od ut cen eats tt pole uo wee pores ih commit cn thn plo ere ei be xg hing shat Qn ear the ue det ogre Frnt wi repre the ore ene esa tore pvr ht cn: Ps noe es a eee itkoo te cine was pinoy ome by per fee thn fla Ferma bese ae a a oF L—rr——_—C—=C“aw iodo eet he bd tema ace alo ha prea ee me Tin tnt re Postcst Criminology a {THE RELATION BETWEEN FOSTTIIST AND ‘Guassicat THEORIES 0 eat Tote emily might sem opposed tothe cla xin preneatd i Chapter’ but ths ae necesay th ce. Rather car al thcores can be minced as mpng theory of han ib ht quite cose ith pest the ps, asi in that es nologts howe summed hat fhe cri a sve of ci {umshnent coul fet alr but Bt oer erable Theemionment coal nt Bot hs dfese of asco. Rosh ee” Inger ev hig ihwe nateepon pr eeTaam et kf irom cone one ye San recat em ene Tyee tFaeennmen tt nes ts ese sea whe Sasa crimiolgit therefore cou expand the theoreti Fae Gf reerene and cumin bo ene aerate influenced bya wide tung of Tatoos the erin jst ten, including blog {El polo an sol factors, Aes tors ol en be de Scribe as “ernses feime,Rfling ths base ston, Bere ar foes thatthe proper place for Beco theory im the history of nls th very beng he tion fo which Commons oped, aly potency“ ‘inant ear be made soot postive crm E the past posts rings ne sed at ea ppl and A ar can acne cial chav, Dt ht he centainaned ‘crv eimin unset ould ot, Bt nthe defense of pox ie egy, Coteion ad Hic argue ‘No deterministic explanation of ere can reasonably exch the sara of ‘he seal elo determine ous Those aries may account for Sore ofthe var nem If se thy ve mic cis to econ In putt” motel a any tbe ato varale acco for the same esa fart, tai Gage em hg 8 3 pester Simi Tf Ma Gi a di tet Conta lh ts Tin” p92 {ec Pe reg, Nebr ek3s Theoretical Crminology “Ths, postive criminologits can incl the certainty and severity of ‘rin ponies among the many ether factors that night kn fence erininal behavior Posts and classical criminology therefore are really part of the same enterprise they both seek to identify the factors tht inven the incidence of criminal bear. The base controversy between them Isempirical ater than theoretical: Which factors have mare infcnce ‘on erminal behavior and which have less ‘CONCLUSION Inthe chapters that fellow, the major dheores on the causes of rims rl behavior wil be examined. Each ofthese thooses suggests tha cer tain factors, either atthe individual orth societal level, might ave a cans inflence on erm. Research has disproven some of the caer theories, nthe sense ofilng that the factors to which they pint have no causal nflience on crime whatsoever. Extensive research has been done on the moze recent theories, but there is considerable disagree ‘ment about which factors have greater and which have lesser infence "The fac that there are no couclsive answers tothe question of the ceanee ferme does nt mean that erninology is ascent, Its pre ‘ely because criminology theories are scent, the sense that they assert relationships between lasses of observable phenomena tht they fan he tested wth research tal. Nonscentiic explanations of ere, such a spirit explanations, cannot be tested with research because they include phenomena that are not observable, Tn general the earler chapter fllow the lead of Lombroso in that they focus on the question of why one person engages fn eriminal be Ihaviors whale anther doesnot. Ths, the earlier chapters emphasize factors assocuted with individuals, espetalybilogieal and pryeholog eal factors: Later chapters increasingly take Quetelet’ appro, seek ing to explain high oF low enme rates by looking a factors associated with societies. But there sno absolute division betwen these ta yes of theories. Rather, # i a question of where their emphasis es. This vas te even for Lombroso and Quetelet, By the end of his le, (Quetelet had included in his theory many bicogial factors that ex plhined why some individuals are more likely o engage in erie, so that Fis theory ended up being quite sina to Lambros ater one. Ad by the en of his fe, Lambros hal included in his eheory many sac ‘Se Si on ane as ag ha Posts Criminology 2” ‘aleve fctors that seemed more appropriate for explaining ates of ‘ine rather than the indveal’s propensity to engage int To some ‘aunt, Lomb’ theory hal become lke Quetelet eae one.Theories Related to Physical Appearance ne ofthe oes ett appa in into ory xnphaes ‘seal and loge meray the tingashing mare em FE in hs apprath elas ae ied somehow dfleent. shoe imal defetne, and therefore ofenor Wloka, Tis biog fer iyi thoug to reduce cen pl characteris that make he Spysarance af cere ifleent om tat of worn, Ealyein itt tude the psd pearance of cman an ae nly tee chance. The el cpa of nal ev, inthis ve, sbcogdefetheness and inferorypyaland other cdarsctersics are nly smptoms of that feo PINSIOGNOMY AND PHIRENOLOGY “The bli that criminal and eil people in general have unusual phys tel appearance goes back to ancent times. For example, in The ad (Pope's transation), Homer devened the exl Thrstes as follows (One eye was Hiking and one leg was an Iie mountain shouler al ix res terre ‘Thin has Beste hs lng shape ead ‘The venerable Socrates was examined by aGreckphysiogomist who found that his face revealed him as brutal, sensnons, ant inclined 0 drunkenness, Sosates admitted that sch was his naira dspasion Tt sud he fad learned to overcome these tendencies! ‘ices hte Sok sa a peas be ‘eae een eas gc tree She ed ee eh inGpa sora ay Rog Yon a ‘Theories Related to Physical Appearance a Physiognomy.—making judgments about people's character fom the appearance of thelr Iaces—was a recognized study inthe Europe of Ce ‘tre Beccarta, In 1775, Johan Caspar Lavater (1741-1801), a Sis ‘colar and theologian, published four volume work on physognony “enltled Pysignomical Fragments, which received nearly a fxorble tention athe now moch beterwn work produce by Beceara ‘only eleven years err. In this work, Lavater)stematized many pop ‘ar observations and made many extravagant claims about the alleged relation between facial features and uma condvet. For example, beardessnes in men and ts opposite, the bearded woman, were both considered unfavorable rat indicators as were ashi” eye "weak thi, an “arrognt” nose, and so on, Details ofthese casiieations are oflitle importance now? The principal sgnieance of piysignomy es fn the impetns gave to the hetteronganized and logically moee ln pressive view tat exe to be known as phenology Phrmology focused on the exteeal shape of the sul instead ofthe sppearance ofthe fae. Based orginally on Aristotle’ idea ofthe bain ‘the organ of the mind, phrenlagsts assumed thatthe exterior ofthe ‘hl conformed to ts interior an therefore tothe shape of the bran Different fcutes or fanetions of the mind sere assumed to be as cated with diferent pars of the bran. Therefore, the exterior shape of ‘the skill woud indste how the mind fancioned. “The eminent European anatomist Fran Joseph Call (1758-1825) s ly given credit forthe systematic development ofthe doctrines ‘of phrenology, though he did not originate or make much use ofthat term In 1701 he started publishing materials onthe relations between head conformations and the personal characteristics of individuals Closely lied with Gall in the development of phrenology was his s- dent and one-tine collaborator, John Gaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832). {was Spurzhelm rather than Call who cared their doctrines to Eng: land and Amerie, lecturing before sientife meetings and stimulating Interest in ther Kas, Gall ltd weng-sx speci fctes of the brain Sprain in crete the number to thirty-five? These lists included faculties de ‘ered a amativeness,conjality, piloprogentivenes (love of off ‘pring, frendlines, combativenes, destructiveness, acqustvenes, ulousness, self-esteem, firmness, benevolence, consractwenes, de 2.4 Ek Nail he ry of ay, Kp i eke Theoretic! Criminology aly, and imitvenes. These were sid to be groped Int thre re or compartmets one the “lower” or acne prpense,anther the moral seinen cde hid enlaces Cees ‘tive the lower ropes, nt amatenes pope srithenes,combatnenes.erethene and actives Ties repens however, cul be bei rest by the mul see Ines othe telltale tn which ease no ee won commited. Character and human conduct wee Bs eonecved 8 quire inthe pull ofthese opposite ines. Animal propenstien night impel he nid rin, bt they would be opposed ty the higher Sentiments and intllgene Jot ether ngs were stegte ened by exrse and efeebled by dns. so were the ous ofthe tind. Cart trningof th hl sl eve ft a it Ing woald strengthen the “onan of dese foals an hit hv dae meropenem of ne “The obvi seni citi ofthe phenological theory of ere as that noone ws ale to oboe the pyle oma of the tind or thee reation to parnlar pose beh The ot ser obstacle tos acceptance bythe pe, however, ws the determin te nature of ans. IThutan conc wee the rest ofthe or. {as ofthe mind then people's ate wasn the hans of thei anton {nd physio Thisvice weet and opposed iy teachers pres 5 Jods. and ole adr sinned paleo ease ‘Contracted one oftheir mst cece dt. tarel tat homens are asters of ther om cond a euble of naing tees ‘thatthe wl. tas the ned osha tat humans were tll masters ofthe ate as well to esp fo sms othe fate poston implied by his carer werk) ht od Cal to pblch hs Dev Dopo tions nds de Feet de esprit ey matériome (ISD. whi he ssgued that phenol was ftalite, ta al ant wee be Sand soeeme i he deton a ontl fhm Bebo CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY: LOMBROSO TO GORING Cesare Lombroso (1835-1000) extended the tradition of plysiognomy snl phrenology by studying ll anatomical features ofthe human bey. not merely the Features ofthe fae or the shape ofthe sal? Lambros vasa doctor in the Hallan army who was concerned about the pea Jems, including eime, of soldiers wo came from Southem Ital. Stade et ttn ‘Theories Related to Pyseal Appearance 8 fing iy Atha tne the “Soxtho question” as poplar on Som ih many allegations he pola press and by coset pelican tht the Sothern arene gy» epee ESininal and arbace> Tomes dash of sight while performing pstiortem on a thet ho me rm Sater tab cn layng open the ll found onthe cept part, erty 0 he spot sige apne & nd inthe noma sas ic reson wh nae Motlan scptel for, tease fs ston recy i hereof he ‘puta ifr animale expec rode Attest of dt sul Teme osc alla sen ted up aaa pan under» Dania the pron a he str of heen -an see being who epee In Ws pers he Froou nine of printive humanity and the Infor tinal Lombrso went ono perirm autos on sys male criminal and Tetund that thse alsin number f characteris that were Sraarto prinitve horas: He alo exanned $9 vngerinizl, bah tle and female 990 noni alan sors, and ie)” “Thee stds were presenta i hs book, Lomo dalnquente (The Criminal an) which appeared in 1878. Some ofthe pls arate tht Lombros Uaed to crime ince devia nes und shape, yet ofthe face, re Javea heetbones, amstaly age or sal ears or eas Chat ta St fom the bea ey ps, moral eth, receding chin, brant Tat re nga tages or, oan sey of thin? Many thew carter or a ree me aninals such at monkeys and chipanees oni’ gered tng aon th Gol ad a favorable, among is contemporaries In respone to ers of hs they, Lambros fered hive an npr commited ty of 10 en final 10 psos with eimiatenenes, and 10 oral Deron, Lobos eller ort hs there if the ply em Taunt pcg characteris of the tre rps were fou 0 eee Lena: ed“4 Theoretical Criminology ¥ be identical. This challenge was never eeally met, since Lambrosos op [nents sid it was impossible to distinguish heen the the gros ecuratly However, study by Charles Goring, bogun in England in 1901 and published in 1913, was to some extent response to Lambroass chal Jenge.® Goring’s study was strictly a comparison between a group of convcts—pesinscomied of ees wd nied goo un convicted persons who included university undergadates, Pempta Dalients, and the ofcers and men of units of the British aay ‘Than, ho attempt was made to distinguish between "bor eiminas.” persons ‘ith criminal tendencies, and normal persons. Also, Goring red to tally on objective measurements of physial and mental characterise, where Lombroso had objected to such ttl reliance, ntainng that ‘many anomalies were “so sll a to defy all ut the mest minute search? He argued that thse could be detected by the eve of the trained observer but could not be meseuted. Finally the study, aki ‘evolved, went well beyond any attempt to prov o disprove Lambros theories, as Goring advanced his owm theory of hereditary infer, Goring’ theory wil be presented in Chapter 6, in this chapter we wl concentrate on his attempt to disprove Lombno's theory that erm ras had distinc physical characteristics, Lombroso had aserted that criminals, compared with the general population, would show anomalies (Le. diferenes or defects) of head Fight. head width, and degre of receding forehead swell as ifr feces in head circumference, head symmetry, and so on, Goring, In omparing prisoners withthe ofcers and men of the Royal Engineers, found no such anomalies. There wee no more protrusions or other pes callaties of the head among dhe prisoners tha among the Royal En neers. Goring also compared athe characteristics, such as nasal con tours color of ees, color of hi, and lethandedness, but found only insignificant ferences. He compared group of dierent Kinds ext inal urges, fgets, thiewes, et) of the Bas of thirty-seven spe cle physieal characteristics, He concluded that there wre no sign cant diferences between one Kind of erin and another that were not more properly elated tothe selective elects of environmental fac ‘oc 1 con pid y atta} as Se 2G Lan Temi i, nel Cat pt ‘Theories Related to Physical Appearance «6 ‘The oe gener exception to is conson ws content “ner cvtyinsatreandinErdy weight The eins wee oe oo Sth er ht ncn he ae pt eo ‘eighed rom the to seven pounds ls” Goring was sted cat Tosen ere alan sates ete thes indenting» genera iferonty of herecitary nate. Ps interprets thm greed wh hs general thei of heredeayinferoty as mesure Uyrcomparzns of mental ety and various oer indes of erry iloene) asthe bas for einalcondct = Gog babe ted rb to anise Lambros there Tn genet was beease Cova contre Lambos's ‘orto be ise. Gog ane hat "the wl of Lambros tape was condced wh the unconscious eton of ampig pes ih al lo dh al Eeconsdred un inparlvestiaton ofthe theory ul. He de rt ized Lomb wlinses to Geeta people vo bad never en ined wh thew wee ena soon the of ther py spprrence Goring Hn nine tha he wo the een il sho ref kl ely person who has broken he and teen oaited the than ay wage tcl er mor concept of “The Kin of men who, wheter Gye ohne ot comme ce wre alae fo be rnin at eat“ Ply, be argh even se Ce aiferences did et between the eins the sos hs ould not eet that ie real vas abnoca: Rater the a SS hl an eal wn pen ma pr treme dares fom th nomal erage” Gorn’ pnt snr to ‘sing tha profesional seta let eno tal bee Uy ar a SEE pment oem We Geer pI Perpetrator Lotro ewe een ‘Jo Gaal ke Mater of tn, Sar, Seok 18. eon rigs ng ea a Reena athe ead subg Tse adi deena ee ed ta eth ha on isin to ne Sh ca em mind. i ee ren org mt i Tews Hench A Conn They of Crome Starr aterty Pre tanker, 10«6 ‘Theoretical Criminology hnormalanhropeogialtype, bu hose they are selected at est pu ‘ily onthe bas of thee bet Tn contrast, supporters of Lombrosomntane that Cong had ac ‘vals found signibeant differences between erin and noncrninal groups fora vartety of measres, but that he minimized these difer fences by “eorrecting” them for such variables as age and stature, When the differences were sil sglicant ater “corections had ben made, Goring impugned the val ofthe original data. Other asessments of Goring’ work had generly found more support for Lomo’ theo- ses thin Goring adit. Tnspite of merous and extensive efforts to show tat ers were someliow physialy different from nonerminas, the weight of expert ‘opinion was agunst the propastion, andthe gener concuslons of Cor- Ing onthe matter came to be accepted by most modem enminologit Goring wrote! Wie hav elastics compared. with regan to many pk characters, df Sorat Kd of rina oh each ther andi cls, wh Ce li sting pb Ou rents mabe coin the even ft paca im ‘nal pe. nor pst He allyaton of exinial atop, Ty challenge thar evidence sala every peat x, bh head to teu tal the presence of psd anos in rial ost sent ar “ing confor ith Sr seit ofthe Ibid elas Our ine nelson mst bod heen ach thing a pte rnin ye ‘BODY TYPE THEORIES: SHELDON TO CORTES Some of the more interesting attempts at relating criminal behavior to physical appearance ate the salad lady ype theories The boy type theorists argue that thre isa high degree of correspondence between the physical appearance ofthe body and the temperament of the mind. 1 should be recalled that Lombyoso had attempted to establish some relation betwen mental order and piysel characteristics, Many oth- er, bofore and alter Lambroso, have made sna aterpts, “The work of William Sheldon.» especialy his book on delinquent youth, ia good example of «ody type theory. Sheldon tak hi Sruiniacearen rents et Siva am ates Se cso eee ‘ft Ant Crna toh Pony ou Pen Masa Nek a pemeSomteree meena ‘Theories Belated t Physical Appearance a dering Was and terminology of types Fm the Fc that ran be ‘gis life as an embryo that essentially a tube made up of tree di ferent tissue lier, namely, an inner lier (or endoderta), mide layer (or mesdiem),anid an onter layer (or ectoderm). Seldon then constructed a corresponding physical and mental typology consistent ‘sith the known fats fom embryology an the physiology of develop ‘ment. The endoderm gs nse to the diesive wiser; the mesoderm tobone, muscle, and tendons of the mator-organ systeny the eter, tnconnecting sae ofthe nervous system, ski and elated appendages She's ase pe characteristic of pysigue and temperment ae Iriel summarizet inthe following scheme! Phe “emermest 1. Endorpicrlaey grat d= Vass ror elation of heat dune vee tackngy pat ebro comae pn Ens ‘ltrs ghee tyra bet il ccna vt ay ot peg nbs, Seer sh sto ey ln 2, Mecmuryic rive prdoninace Soin: ate, mane, pom ‘imocis baltwo cpsotwlt parssoehch; Sches the te eek Rwy ch ge mete ‘Nacrand he fbn ard ploy of ates ie em ty Sea 2, toonphic we pedis. Caos an att ie thovanl 2 apponbost whch tar tl copter Sn ose Se nner ananassae fe, trom ete Supima, lee owe degree nan Gite fom Sean fcr shape a rh. sev by mead te grt Seco ach person posseses the characteristics ofthe three ses toa greater tr lesir degree Shelon therfore wed three numbers each between and 7 to indicate the extent to which dhe charactsstics of Ue Uhree 'ypes were present in agen individual. For example person whose somatoype is 7-1-4 would possess many endomorphle characterises, few mesomorphic characterises, and an average number of ectoror. phic characteris. Sheldon presented individual ase histones, uniformly writen ac- cording to rigorous ease outline, of 200 young males who had had a ema mr ote48 ‘Theoret Criminology period of contact, ding the decade 1900-188, withthe Hayden cod! om all smewbst speciale. relaitaton Tame fo Sein Bt, eon ht hs oh ere ete igh me somorpy and low in ecomorphy ith the merge somal bly S542. Sd ad eat sed 20 cles ns oe ‘spparentnondelinguents and had ound atthe average somal W532:834 The iflecnee betwen thee to group wth espe {© esomorply and ecomerphy i sigufeant p = 001. The sociation between esnephy and dliency was ao fom sayy te Clues, ws compe 30 patent deli ents with 500 proven nondcingunte® "The to groups ‘were sche ne gel tigen, cnr drat residence th underpeieged areas. Php ofthe bya wee tie other and thn vial nese fore predomi boxy ‘ype By ds mead OT perent of the dln, but oly 902 percent of the nondelinguents, were found to be mesomorphs > The {ns ned a tidy of sy-sven personaly tats td eg ‘eet ctors tetris of these ee aseied wih tetingeney® The Checks found Ua sonora, gover wee tne highly chartered by ers pricy tale t the come onlay nth neg ey tendency to expres tensions and stats in cn), opt th ‘late fred fom chibi to ston dents el ing of inalequncy, marked ssbmssnenst to autor, emodoal sty. and hei.” They ao fund hat tose comer wo Became denen were character a numberof pera ta, Senet a tg Sioigeces ee oienmeseeeccee Sess Sac fat es eka yee ‘See Sar 1 ly ame ee ek SSatkime cca ESCitd ac psn hp tn Hecate a ty om nt Stews mayen Theories Hlatd to Physical Appearance 0 fot normally found in miesomorphs, including susceptibility to cont fous dveases of childhood, destructiveness. feelings of iadoqay. ‘Ehotional Instability. and emetionl conflicts In edition three so ‘Goeultual factors careless household routine, lack of family group creations. an eagerness of recreational facies in the home—were only assouated th dlinguency in mesomorphs.® “The Glueck study has been enced because there wis no contol for the rapid body changes that occur én adolescence, because the method of somatoyping volved only visual assessment and not pre- ‘Gir measurements, and because the deinguent population included tl institutonalized youth: In an attempt to overtone these prob Tens Cortés used a preise measurement technique to somatotype 100, delinquents, of whom seventy were sastitutionalzed and thirty were ‘on probation or under suspended sentence. He also somatotyped 109 private high school seniors who hid no record of any deinen, and Eventyinsttotionlized adult felons le found tht 57 percent ofthe {delinquents were high in mesomorphy. a compared to only 19 per tent ofthe nondelingents" The mean somatotype ofthe sondelin (Guents as .9.35-05 the mean somatetype of the deinguents was $54.31, and the mean somatoype of the criminals was 28-54 31a “To determine whether body type was asocated wit temperament, ‘Contes had seventy-three boys who were clearly clasifed as to body type (he. whose predominant rating was a Teast 45 and exceeded the ‘hes two ratings by atleast one-half yt) describe themselves in terms ta set of rats sociated wth the three temperaments, The resus of this experiment show tht these was a strong tendency fr boys with tnevororphi physiques to deserbe tei temperaments in terms that ‘Sheldon hud talled "somoton:” Similars, boys with endomorphic physiques used "vscerotoni™ terme and. those with ectomorphic Dlysiques wed “cerebrotole” terns to deserbe ther temperaments. [us exactly the relationship predicted by Sheldon. This procedure vras repeate wth 10 college gs anc withthe twenty conscted adult Felons, with snr results, Fil, using MeClcland’s Test for Need fe Achievement, Cmts found that mesomorphy was associated with30 Theoretical Criminology need for achievement (0 Ach) and wath nee for prwer(n Powe) Cortés conchaded™ Detingces and poushy ena die rom andnguets ad noes nals in being pigsty nore mexomorphi moe ene ptt esse tonperamentl ands showing her ae for alse ae power matcatimaly. Cars chon ind on so ans The sal sera nent ern ets en etn a Soom qestndi Thee neon fans yay les eres oon cas er Se ‘clan spay prawn lee S--r~—t—“—r——C*=FE=t a —hrrC—~—r™—C~Crzs Studpenepin anne endo rete ea at SS —LrtrsC™—™—_CU tetas ns ope eee ‘conn. Ts ett Shey ee lng nd Sinunhyt eaprtcnttaetins Ral dene ee Snipa shown raed scanty cme a ”™hL™Lrt—~—“C—O~tr— Sing msm toe tempo eel ah eee ‘hn on nae ng es a ”—rlrt—COeCO tage teste te ent nose {ome weet Dalen ee iar el ohne los gin ee ase ‘Nc tthe ning th pean be me ee coxcLusion ‘The tendency to believe that outward appearance reveals nner charac- teri il with us today. For example, in the moves and on television, the good guys are usually played by attractive etry, while he bad guys 2 at es te pe ae eb, Theres Rl 0 Physte Appearance a are uml played by actors who are unstatv or een ugh The ten ney to bev that way peopl re hal tay cry oer sea ie. Some stutes have found tendency tenia cor for posal ate fens to be ead re er nah hn rage lng o rate offenders Despite ths tendency there stvtcar evden that psc appearance, sh as ay cnsisent teaton to legly defied eine ‘Omthe oer had, there tat fas on lyse pprarance can bo ssewe mare of es a88sphistited fon of shadowboxng th w Soe sbie anddiictproble, namely the exe to whch biol telerencey en dileencs fs hua behead particulary ‘n riminl tehavr. Tht more diel problem wil be explored Chapter 6. Sort Caan he ie a Sl Trea ny si Sap al am fait ylTheories Related to Intelligence Nes to phy appearance, fw intllgence probaly has ben the concept os often ted expan cial behavior A he simple tt tn iyptieses of hse who fos on psd appearance crmbled one by one pss, prensa the a peste ht criminals were les tls than eng people st inemphass from py ieencs fo metal ieenes was xy 0 make, for both portrayed the criminal as an inferior person. Thus the rel lt Gon onl har testing ofthe tligence of pons gener suponted Iyptas lnina fort new ere cae we sna nf Later ste and tha ot atmo {cgence and orate the yet that there waa eansip ‘wen nina and lw inteligence liad, See 19 however. theres been sewed sport fo hs yptes, pre vith spect to jee dsiquent Fe sj the pee cher toeapoe the hanging os bt ftligeceal me scene coer epgatemaaeear Tec! Sachs sleet eee See Pa cee ey nes Theories Related to Inelgenor 53 line of descent became the naturists way of acoumting or such mis Fortes, Thisvew wae assed wth te ewlatonary Uheores of Charles Darvin ad ters thee nineteenth century. Darwin argued tht the ‘elation of a species proceeds through natural variations that coc song the offspring! The weaker an theless capable offspring die off fr fall to repre, wie dhe stronger and more capable surive and ‘ourish Throwgh ths proces of-nstund selection” bythe sural ofthe Fite” the craters of the more capable ofipeing come to dom hate the species andthe specie self whe to amore advanced tate "These ere the teas ofthe time, and tas natural that they woukl be applied tothe problems of rime, One person who did this was Lam bron, as discussed n Chapters 2 and 3. But Lombroso rei! on a mi- ‘or point in Darwin's theory: that cstaininvidals might be attic {hrobacks to an earlier evohaonary tae. More important was the m= plication that. ation tothe development of superior strains of in ‘vids who were destined to dominate the species, natural selection “vould result inthe development of inferior strns of people who were Uestned to de out, While the superior strains of tnd would be ‘characterized by any desirable tis, ifero stains would be char teterized by many undestable traits. Tichard Dual used this basi ide to explain the history ofa fam liye called the “Jukes As part of his work forthe Prison Assocation fof New York, Dugdale foun six members of this fay in a county jal in I874. He traced the genealogy ofthe analy back over 200 yeas and Found s history of "panperism, postition, edhaston, disease, for- cation, and illegtimaey,” He attsbuted this melancholy history to the “flegenerate" nature of the fly. His study had sting Impact on the thinking atthe time, deypte the fact that was based on unec thle, incomplete, and obscure information ad vas filled wath value jndgmentsand unsupported conclusions, Forexample, Henderson, it Ingin 1898, ete the Jukes tpi of fais of degenerates and ar toed that private cartable work a alleviate the suffering ofthese peo- ple was actualy allwng them to reproduce in reat numbers, resulting Inthe dsigtde of pauperiem, sanity. and erie which threatens to ‘venwhlan ad engelf oor elation. He apgued that this “detero ut De ie nn of te ah in pi ish te, sn Rp sprtaiaaatar mated EenEa Phooretical Criminology ration of the common ek” mt rested aerating sch i Fe pis ot ag hen ean ee opular ses of generate Tumis sapored the popular plnon thet exile wat they wre beewse thy dom Low hough to under the hard tre of ermiatyor the sat fang evar of iw-biing e-Bo rte sei get re {jues more act ond atematc procure than were pasion sich iors befor any contre conchsos can be dom, Accurate ‘Sonpasons cll fr act measurement and erfore tect i ‘estan ofthe relationship between crime and mental sity could Come ely afte the development of ntligence tots and tc apl- cats to is problem INTELLIGENCE TESTING AND CRIME ‘The nstemate serio nd recoding of indi ions has teen pingpal concen of experiment colt The ct mee ‘tremor ont ifeeesin ecto nes ng ben com Tonle nthe pycologial orstiy,Oter doen or oe {Bcrences be so ber seed, sch the yt mero, comple oto sagen su sentene, to complete pcre fo ee Sgn the unig of wor, and to do mental athnet A ae) ¢Frctemgs have Deen made to measure thee dierenes, For ea pln 850 German pgchologt HES (150-190), de Sse’ etl Silo ened shat he ites ceed nog indian this spect cull be expres ona numer sti hist eset idwolanintligoee sto objet of whch ‘to express numeral ferences ang pens the aby to Perfor eveyone operation th taken get, e com eer “inteligence oan inet of intligence Then French pci Ale Bnet (1857-1011) fit tw ntl esting oto teary an edt the pe ‘Sting poem of wtton nthe Pars colt 53h bear ‘Sis diector af the thn seen founded pyle iebratery tens ete ella ite 2 tert eae imac bt Tame inn Crs ase rd Tome Pope, Flaite Sevier bhai Se into Ne ‘Theories elated to Intelligence co at the Sorbonne (he became dsetor in 1894, holdiag that poston un {ibis death) and began his iflong quest for awa to measure intelli dence, conceived ofa native abit rater than learned behavior He Fit tied to asess inteligence by measuring the volume ofthe sl following the method of hi countryman Pan Broca, but quickly be ‘came convinced that such methods were useless. After writing a report ‘on his findings, he abandoned the effort. 1h 1904 Binet became & member of a commission to formulate pole icy forthe administration of special lasses inthe public veal of Pars nnd yetured othe effort to measive intelligence. This ine, however, Ihe decided to fake a practical approach. He assembled a large number fsa tasks related to everday fe but which inwolved the base rea Soning processes, These were then arranged in ascending dificuty 20 thatthe fist asks could be performed by very young chikren while the last could be performed ony by adults, In this task he had the valuable ‘vstance and collaboration of Theodore Simon, the medical officer of| ‘he Pais schools Ther ist scale of tests appeared in 1905 and was called the Bine-Simon Seale of Ingen "This scale was revised in 1908, when the concept of mental age was ‘added Binet decided to asin an age level to each tsk on the test ‘The opie year-old, for example, would be able to perform the tasks trade forage 9 oF younger bat not forage 10 or older. The age level tthe last tasks the child could perfor would then be described as his ‘her mental age and could be compared with his or her chrono ‘al ag, In 1912 the psyehologst W. Stera suggested tht mental age te divided ry onologeal age and the results multiplied by 10, This ‘woul then be elle the intigence quotient, or TQ (a quotient being the answer ina disson problem). Thus the typical! year-old who had {I mnental age of would have an 1Q of 10, smarter O-year-lds would Ihave 10s above 100, while dll ones woud have 195 below 100. “Tis test as revised azn shortly before Binet’ death in 1911 At that tine Binet expressed his reservations slut the ways in which his test might be used The est hal heen designed to identi chien who twee doing por in schoo otha Hhey ould receive spect elp Bi Tet argued that te test soul not be used to identify eildren of s- peor intelligence, since was not designed fr that purpose. He also famed against using the tet to label lower stints as unteachable so wit wg wa Canta pe 81% ‘Theoretic Criminology hasta of beng helped they wou be eet fm he cho Bi ‘et van sone comida Ine ter pertrmanet popes lp eset wp spec clases inthe Pas schook the cen who dd ports on hs tess: He ete with plese ofthe sucess ofthese clase aging al the pps treed noon the Kaede tthe integace as ele Is ths prt cet oly ne access to tt ey at the tlle of tee cde has fe need We have ese imellgenc of pup th cpa toler no ass stron “Thus Binet jee the we ht intel sae an inborn a (ay that nat be hanged thug incon. "With the sucess ofthe Binion sein Pas merous ro sons, extensions, and adupttons were made many lan Tn the United Sites Binet tests anus were trated ino English and plaid by HL Gord ofthe New Jory Ping Schoo for the Feeble Minded a Vinlind. Somewhat Iter Lewis M Terman of Stanford Univers pulsed what came the Bs ao ad ost idl sed frm of th ttle the Sford evn and Eve Son of the Bt Simon Scale 1908 sale conse of iyo indidal tests arranged i order of ily so ta he eat tes Ing be passed ly a Sear cd, with the yost el equi, {habit ofan average ade. The Stanford Reson contd of niet ‘ex, silly aranged in de offical fom the year keel totht ofthe “superr atk alike Bie, the Americans were convinced tht intelgence was 2 ‘ud and inbor quant, 0 tthe primary purene ging lgence tess was to sot people no appropriate soil roles Thee ith 1Qs above 15 or 120 ere sald oe propriate forthe proesons, whe 19.7 0&5 appropiate for Semi aor Feman or ‘xanpe, mentined th "uthing ane 8510 in a brber probably represent dead waste"? hey wey concn ith Ming hse wos in ‘cligence was subnarnal” Tee purpose, however was he oppo Binet They wed eintttonaze thse ele arent them liom reproducing much ke Henderon ha stgested ether This re ured that ome 10 sece be determined to be the ding ne be ‘heen noma lige an escheat ve te Sefer am ge, Henn Mb Rat 8 9 ‘Theories Related to Intelligence or gence testo al he ime tht aston at Vineland ant ll ‘ow inmates on admision Ths testing program dred so Inmate ih arent age over 12. Godard Getfore colada that mental {We 1219 79 onthe then commonly held asmpton afl metal ity eee at choles age 16) mathe the wper int of iebleminednes otha meatal gr 1 mathe he lowe it of oe smal ial ith th tends he a compro, Goad and ay cxher pelt ve ntlgence test tthe nates proms jl fevpie and sues other publi nsttion, Collard wamined large une such tudes nthe inteligence of enn.” The pro- ton of crninsgnsed a eben these ged From 25 to 9 percent th the mesa study Siding that 7 percent {i eimiale were feted Cart therefore conelied tat tot criinals were feclenoed Gotland al cinerea group of “fc” ing in the pine burns of New Josey and acd her erage bk to an wo at had an Megatech 9 TecbleindedDemald!" OF 80 dkscendants of this anion, Godard aimed at 143 were feble- tind gts, 3 seni mor 24 cote dale, eplept 3eminal and 8 hepes of hoses of prostitution. The tna er nari a ightsous Quaker woman, union uma e- ‘etn in 408 “orale wo ward nto he bet fr Tes oftheir state" Collard mourned the hav that wi og By ne thong act and cone that rity and feelemindedes ere 60 ‘Spee ohe sme degenerate state hat al ebleminded people ‘vere poten ciminsFeelemindcdhese vas ad tobe ensed by a Trees gene that obeyed the nonmal rae of inestance orgy formulated Wy Gregor Mende! Thus Coan argued tht eble- inideess could be elinnaedthrogh selective neg Thiet Tisrecommontaton tht he eclosion and nak Ale to reprodce5s Theoretic! Criminology ‘These ides dominated the thinking of mente fr ine Dut wor dct lege bythe ee of gence testing ans tere to das ding World War Polling Cord ay poll Cont ist ade the conventional sup ht hse of mental ge 120 rw were feclemindd an tert nt for tity en. This pce eda dagnons of eben tor ST percent ofthe tes snd 89 percent ofthe Hack teste" The tet flay of asoming ht ety oe hall ofthe pop Fecblemioed we poery recogni. Ths Glande som a. fer the war, “The mat etree it hat eon ha aed ses ‘that one pronto the ppuaton is feeninded He haere Chae that temo might be remedied ctor ond at itv ot mses to eget the eblemine In sts and torent tem fom eroding Gddard was fa cbt is ‘hang of min" for nypl hk The gine oe othe Pleat of th rel of Word War esting alo pred ew perecive on the wlsonshipetaven teligene an rine. Am Treratudes were done comparing te performance of pron th ‘hat of foes on nteligece et These general fond Sinica dienes betaren the tw gros. ap sew san ica th prisoners actly cored higher than draece Aa rel of such tes feemindedes lage dapeared abs fo ex ing rina behav. Conner cowmnovinsts: DELINQUENC, RACE, AND 19 | ——r— CE {ion het enna ingens hs Ste coe Brel in met cnr concen he ely SS —,r——=CF=E 13 pn lean Un ners 0 tes So een Sind henge es "ES Cnranet Ping ang BC fe al 8, 15.8 H Glitnir al Deg f ape 313 1. Goa Yee: § usin of Pt arf Pah eee Chie Tepe os 1p ee Mn Cn as a in, gc dC Ur of has Ps ‘heures elated to ntligence 30 thane sed the dference in 1Q scores to explain the iference in evime an delinquency ates between the mics. Their arguments have gener tly fused on the ssve of delinquency rather than ere in genera, ‘an ts there that the stronger ease at been made However these argyments must he considered in the context of the ‘ver controversy bon the meaning of 1Q scores. Fst theres acon troversy about whether 1Q measures Inteligence or whether it mea sures such other factors academic achievement, reading ability, oF Ffestwienes.” If one assumes that 1Q actly docs measure itll gence, thea there fu controversy abont whether the tests are “ult ‘ly biased” so that the intelligence of minorty groups is underreported Finally f there sara difference between the Intelgence of Alcan Americans and European Americans, then thre i controversy about ‘whether this difference ithe result of genetic or environmental inf "The seeds of this conteovesy ae found in a 1967 speech before the National Academy of Scenes by William Shockey, a winnee of the Nobel Prize for physics for his roe in the invention of the tra sisors® Shockley speculted that the diferences in 10) between African Americans and Enopean Americans might be solely the re- salt of genetic ferences and that these genetic diflerences might tdso explain the diflerences in poverty and erie rates between these igioups: He also sugested that "IQ test results may actully bea deeper measure, atleast on a stitial basis, ofa distribution of some more Fundamental socal capacity” He did ot actualy argue thatthe all ‘genetic model was correct, but urged that a National Study Group be “et up to research the problem and to make recommendations ithe 1QPoverty-Crime problem was found tobe related to genetic dile- Tn 1969 Anhur Jensen published a lengthy article in which he pos tively argued many of the points on which Shockey had only speew 2A eer cig tye B.A. gece esc at ethernet ae ee eee Eze raermey ere ements eb Slime aaa fe rec ee ee SSropmee eee0 There Criminlgy lt Specify, be cotendd tht 19 et do mee autor that, ‘s important for performance in Wester nse sts a that about 90 pore hen cieencr on ts cne ede termined by genetic rather than emonmentl diference, He cone cluded tht remedial eden pograns had fale for pes Iho reason. This are sell he lage 19 contoneny jut ston Jensen’ article was ued by Condon to arg tha vars dein ueey ne are best expla by vartons in TO Gordon sted Jenson tothe fect tha 19 large loge eto, and sc seve stas that suport the hyptes th ele el {othe ilo ofthe nda. He pntd tothe star Bones the dsm of 19 scores andthe ution of delngpeny sad demons hat cour recor data fom Pepa sbd natal tates fr comatmen to inn col cul be deed mere oe ‘suing tha all youths (bath Afican Amer snl Buroeay Ane in) with 1Qs below «eran Klan no youth abort heeane delinquent. He didnot amu tht sch elonship bean Nd Seinen al est th ts ce sy {as tht there be ome more sna anton latipes ser between 10 and deingency tht common neat coon tothe” He went on fo anue, without supporting dts ttt detingency rae of ever terra gp ea ele. Japanese Chinese ad Jes rer have manned deli ‘qency rates despite thet minonty gro tats and general os see ‘ome positon, and thse gop are all tof soe hes Ko Shan Boropean Amer Meicn Arcane sal shave bh detngveney rts and average IQs somere In betwen thee a ‘Aincen Ameena Euopean Avett {nalater aril, Gordon responded to the frequent ri that his rete eflet diferences in soa dss etween Ala Ameren se Enrmpean-American youth nd that hey do not pre eying set 4 relonship between dtingueny snd tlignee >If at ase hg «ate, Cordon reasoned, then dred mesures fsa las orld pe ‘ht dlingueny iter than et measures sucha 10, Condor i ied several measures of sol clashing male nce, Ey {2.4 Jone How Muh an We at 1 a at as Ha See tee seg a Ae 2 et Gdn." ura 0 he 0 Delpy Md ent fr sig Stalag at Saal nln Sb Na bs Theorics elatd to tligence 6 come, evan stainnent, sl acuta statu He then demon ‘fred dha thse det measures of sca case cold ot do hat the iG ats ad edaphic eo ata ‘the an ae content tare by ann hat al gouty blow neta cases o outs above Became Angus The soil se measures that came cones to dpating Aone ates ere hse tat, according te Gordon, mst csly pra inated inten tonal Soper for the asocaton between 10 and delinquency wetted sss scan Mine Hh rowed vw nber af tes nthe sbject2" They fond hat To TO was at leutarimporant assoc class or ce predicting Mca deigueney fod tae tase important in precting elereprted dali rene that delinguenc consist elated ow TQ win aces Sha whi sel cses th. for empl, owerlas delingunts treet ov 1th lowes nls and rina scologea theories dliaguney “ave bee Sy ae hatch be ested oder rte ne ‘dso scl fas in shoul be, elated tot" They are that 1Q {San explanation of cre and dliaguncy bas been lpoed nei sy Hee trong as zt tse nthe cary par oF is en ‘eythane 0 an oplantn of cr lang Stonghy wot with the plyscans nuh as Goring ane Ga a eee meg Sec aemy neuen tat blac a nS msta cE digesta pend eel er hess ca hen es ot cmon nc an Shanetensries coarser Lobe Pee Ue Neecton aerate Se rbeericg Vieten ie pet te SQEAQHOETR Sec We ae en ce tc SSSR eM acl wee ea ey norm onptnd 9 a62 Theoretical Criminology sino ha dominated th el of criminology sae the tne of Lo brio. The ili to wee gang ake ner the et were ‘age tate nthe fect ofa conn tle a the characters he nal Ove the ren ety a Se ‘srsing proportions cna dengue cone feblemed ene ofthe repeated merino the chore et tal age inch nd Hinde Sat that Sula tenon to this ewenyyeartend—hih fat conined fr masher 3 Years alwe hsreerto mc htt wonld cote 8 the inl elas of eileence Between dnoents an nomen vets a no dain in face" But Th a kang ol Out thatthe diference betwen these 0 gros neve ently ap. raed and seemed sb at about eight FO pans Late sua fs haw a fond that more sero often ate ven ter 10 Scores than ior fer a tata 19 scores ang oma den are anced ith tr elting when these hie became Ssolscente ad se More rect atenon hes fee onthe vel ates fd quent, mene hy IQ teal onthe dierence between he “el 1” andthe wcll -priomance IQ Te eta 1 me sires the pero’ competentn of ngage while he perfntance JQ measur the dee of noverbl conta wih enone ad he ‘xpacity to workin conerete situations. For most people, the verbal and performance 1Q scores are quite clse to each other, But delinquents consistently show a large gap between the two scores, with lower er. bal 1Q scores but asicallynorwal performance 1 scores ‘Quay suggests several reasos why lw verbal 1Q may he associated with delinquency Fist. low verbal ability may la to school prob earache er {ft Dons ts fale oy 8 Si Faas ‘Setter pay esr sce pei Biller oot 7 nl nf ry, ‘Theorles Related to Intelligence o Jems, and the school problems my then ead dean. Second To verbal bites may be asst wih arty of eter prychono tal preblens, nd those ter problems may then ead dengue Fi low ver aii el t's aie eo ie ler cogitve processing sch as moral reasoning empathy, sod pro Tes The bck of hese gute processes ay enti ‘Ofer theorss, however, point ot tha eal 1Q i alte by atonal cheerent ne perormance TQ 6 no Ths suet that Ihe paternof ew verbal bt norma performance IQ smengdeingents tna simply reflect the fit that they tend to anderachiove in seo partic i they are fam the aver scirconomic chs. INTERPRETING THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN DELINQUENCY AND 19) Teseems clear tat, whatever it measures, lw 1Q scores are associated svt eime and delinquency. But is stil neces #o expan why po- ple with low IQ scores commit erimes more frequen than those wth Fgh scores. The explanation one accepts wll depend to large degree ‘on one's view of wht 1Q measures “The most common approach smeng those who study the 1Qdelin quency relation Is to asane that IQ) measures some form of abstract ‘easning or problem-soting ability and tha His by i largely in- ert. Gordon for example, assumes thls perspective and suggests that ‘ineffective child-rearing practices by low-1Q parents might be the cause ‘ot delingueney among this how IQ children Hirsch and Hindelang, ‘ako believe that 1Q measures inate ability, but angue that 1Q in ‘ences delinquency through is effect on school perormance: Low 1Q) ‘youths do poorly in schoo, which leads to anger at the school and to truancy, which then least delinguency® This argument is consistent sith researel that shows thatthe school characteris asacated with “cational flare are th sime school characterises associated with ‘elinqoene: high student-teacher eatos, low student attendance, high Sadent tumover, and poor academic quality. More recently. Ga 26 Sh, hk nd en, Nn Wl New Fee? @in ct np st nt aly6 Theoretical Criminology tfredson and Hirsch have suggested that youths sth low intelligence {eo to seck short-term lnmediate grtifeations, where these actions flten turnout tobe eiminal® A sila argument was made by Wil Som and Hermstin, who sggest tat those with ow 1Q are inclined to Commit “ipulsiveerimes with immediate rewards." Al ofthese i tespeetationt asime that IQ scores measure some form of innate aby: In second approach, st could be argued tht 19 des not measure Inte alt, ut instead measures qualities a are related othe dom inant culture. Jane Mercer ilsrated the meaning ofeultual bias by Constructing atest of simple behavioral ass relate to intligene, such {sbeingable to te one's wm shoes bythe age of 78 The test was given to samples of lowerchss Aftian Americans and Mexican Americans tel mildle-class Enropean Americans, al of whom had 1Qs below 70. Of the African Americans, 91 percent were able to pas the test ofthe DMerican Americans, 61 percent passed, whereas none of the European Amencans did. This would indicate that many African Americans and Mexican Americans nay be more intligent than would appear from their IQ sores "A thid approach would be to arg that 1Q measures general abil ties, but that thowe abilities are largely determined bythe person en ‘ironnent. Sinonsenticined Hire and Hindelang’s interpretation of the relationship between 19 aed delinquency by ting this teraure* We ited numberof studies that eeported IQ gains averaging about 15 points when low IQ, lower-clis children were placed in spec clases, where mos of those gins were prediced in shout one Year's time. isch and Hindelang had reported an average gap of only 8 poins between delinquents and nondelinguens Simons conchded that Tis best viewed ata bro set of ver andl proble solving sls ‘which ae better labeled academic aptitde or scholastic readiness" He pointed out that the questions om standard verbal intelligence tests are See athe ton te So Siete eat te a Se eae ae eas Sales fe eeestte ante rater SEeth ars Steet eater tiene Sseaatin shia teh fog airman ated rl hfe, Sind ay ‘Theorie Related to tntligence 6s ‘tually ndstingwshabl from those on reading comprehension tet, fd thatthe score dstetbtins from the two types of teste a italy ential. He also etd a study that showed hat cdr in the ealy grades of lower-class African-American schools and of midle-clase ‘Afcan-American schools hud similar reading comprehension tet scores, but by th eighth rade there were large dilerences between the to groups. That suggests that the lower-class children's interac. tions with thet school stagnated their growth, and tat they were not mentally inferior to bepin with. Falls, Simons pointed out that deli ‘quents are aos ava desenbed as ntivate stdents, and asked ‘why anyone would think that these students would be matated to per form tothe bes oftheir ablityon the day the 10 tess are administered ‘when they are nt motivated to do so on any other school di. ‘Tue ELL cunvE “The 1Q contrnersy was rege recently by the pblaton of The Bal carey Hin mt MrT are hat telgene at messed by 1 tests quite mora forfnctonng the mde ord tat there are nge ferences in iceligence tng Indl, that thine difleences re larey Inert, and that at tempts tose the 1 of low 10 persons through edeton have gly fale. They go on argue tat res ae operating to rede the cl Iecve 19 ofthe American people High 16 people conta the econ. sired prc th teh Ever lie ve thm at ler, tht hey are kings» proprton the popuien. € the se tine, law-Q people ve recon sed hare them a younger ages so that ter proportion othe pop thn i nereing The res Amercan oct hats both ing dba an becoming plaid into too very clleret gros Her Sein and Moray’ argument vas primary dicted atthe Case par {zt of inteligece, bt the nce lengthy csi of he B- loa as of cl ierences in sores an lo aged at ew {Qs inked to ce and degen. “The Ameran Pyeologal Assaion appointed a a force oe amin thew aber. The tk fone ome ht Herman and uray’ bok was the mos comprehentve sever a deus of Ahesubjet to dat, that ts mar conchsons were wrong In far ‘ety ea at ge ace nr Ste Sone Tac NPs er 0 oa ore ial pe tad ere pre ca aren ne orn nats% ‘Theoretical Criminology ‘ula, they pointed out that f Hermstein and Murray were gt, then average IQ scores in the entre society shouldbe deining over tine (Ge, the “dumbing dwn” hypothe), while race and class cifferences Jn IQ sores shou be increasing (Le. the "increasing poration” hy. pothesis). But average TQ scores in the United States ave increased slighty since the 1930, which isthe opposite of Hlermsten and Mur 175 “dumbing down” hypothesis Alo in the 1950s, there was a ‘erage 125 point gup in 1Q seotes between these with high stats abs and those with the low status Jobs, but the most recent data show that this gup ha shronk to 8.5 points. In adtion, the dffeence between “Alisa Amercan and Buropean-Ameriean 1Q scores hit shan, al- ‘hough the data on racial IQ scares only nes back to the 1970s. This Shrinking difference i particularly apparent in verbal IQ scores, which ‘probably refles changes in edcton associated wit desegegiton of Schools and inreased Acan-American attendance in colleges CONCLUSION All this sugests thatthe overall dferences in 1Q sores between deli ‘quent and nondelinguents probably reflect environmental rather tha netic factors. In particular t suggests thatthe eiferences in verbal 1 scores flee the underachievernent of delinquents in schools rather than any genet infer ts interesting to note that othe attempts have been made to en {uy as racially inferior those ethnic groups whose children ad high delinqueny rates This practice goes buck at least sf the 182, ‘when delinquency in New York ss seen prima as the result of in fecior racial stock ofthe Irish” After 1Q tests were developed at the hoginning ofthis century they were used in an attempt to demonstate the racial infenionty of dhe Souther and Baste European peoples who at that time were immigrating in large numbers to the United States For example, in si separate studs Halian-American chidren wee found to have « median 1Q of 84, oF 16 pint below the US, average, this is almost ental tothe median 19 of Afiean-Ameriean children tora. Asaresul ofthese and other sila studies the Johnson-Laxge pon es Scutgmyyomaioenseremratnsat {hm Fest, Cag, Creme fre Weert ean, 9 p18. ees ‘Theories Related to Intelligence o niga Act of 124 vas pased, withthe expt eatin of in Ainge migra of tes‘ peple™ "Fame of tetsu the atop to dente the Bei sagen afcean ope hingne:Canet eto at tourney in vl que eterna Ramet’ pepe, ike ther tamgnnt proceso, re erly smal i the mao popula ther chien sno onrepeseted inte eae co The at hat an Serratia 19 tess he ante, ice ht deve meats gol petro delay. Youths how est Te Se ghrelin tecomingdlingent tha outs gh some, Dat tnt a al clr ta dts ees ‘igen mat i hea hat TaCHAPTER 6 Biological Factors and Criminal Behavior his chapter cues dey on the oe dat ig characteris Dyin he gf criminal bern epoch ae ‘ih ply apesancs or melden Sone a hee aoe Cal racers ae geet and nb. thy athe eo the ges dlls ee om he part te tea ae ton Other eal rom gente mutton tha esr toate ception o develop whethe et inte tens Tax hapa oe sto a eae tnt nee Sil ce ny deo oe Tut ofthe pena’ ernment such fmm neyo ‘ie These Wola harcterstes aw neler get ny eae Eatyhsogal thorn criminology tak sew tar eee per to he ute sense ‘The centr nenens system contains neurons and ystems that ex within the brain and spinal ord. OF particular importance in rescarch om 3g tression and wake theater potion of the bran, the cerebral cor tex This cont of tuo hemispheres ddd into For lbes- frontal, tem poral parietal and opt. Mos attention pid hy ivestigator sting ‘ntsc behavior i the Frontal a temporal lobes, sie these ober ‘xe involved with goa/-dected elavir, impulses, ane ematons Di ‘urbances or ireguartes within the frontal lel general aluence new eed Rat Why Rardin Cy 7 AT Ta St Dans Pin,“ Pty of Fede Agen Cm te nd Br0 Theoretical Criminology ropsycholgial performance, whe the temporal lbe in genet appears {oltavalve behavior: more direc emotion in expres Inthe past, research on the relationship between the central nerous| system and agpesive behavior has been done using variety of rel tively indirect measures More recent however ore dive met sues ofthe central nervous stem have become salable: brain nay ing techniques. These techniques inchude computerized tomography (C1), magnetic resonance imaging (MRD), poston emission tomogra- ply (PET), and single photon emission tomography (SPECT). These ew brain imaging procedves hve been used to detect stractural and funetional abnormalities in both the frntal and temporal bes Alter 4 sgmprebesve reve of bra imaging tes, Rane concludes An integration of finds fo these sta hes sto the pes that Sota dsnction may characterise let fenders wie espa ld. Sanction may characterize sexual lending ener ih cj let tnd sex ehvior are hypothe to be characte by bt etl alte poral labe deform Another common way af messing bain normale i hogh thouseaf the eledroenepaloaph EEC) The EEC measure ce tral ats an detest rain wave pater onde of ses hve exined EEG actoy in ars pes oF rina, Mt eves gee tat petit fender aca ‘tried by EEG abnormal, ht fhe eaonsip. between po hops snl EC instore nore unertan Rae pot a tnt ofthis search ta bro a fcaand wiliay pott o Some general reliionshpeten dna hte and EEG ab tonalite, we teed to know mich mere specie lormaton sot the process iy which bran we at male en Steurbisiensntncoretse een SRK rg eee ae Biological Factors and Criminal Behasior a ‘THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM In ation to the central nerons system, there i elitively separate part ofthe nervous stem, called the autonomic nenous ten (ANS), ‘which controls many ofthe bodys involuntary Functions such a blod pressure, heart and intestinal ctty, and hormone Teel. The ato- homie nervous system i, in tem, modulated by structures within the Tim sytem in the bran sac as the hypothalars) eit contol m0- tivation, moods, hang, thirst, reproduce and sexual behaviors, anger and agaression, memories, and other feling stats. "The ANS is especialy actve ina “fight o High” situation, when i prepares the bod for maximum efelency by increasing the heart at, ‘eroutig the bled fom the stomach to the muscles dating the pupils Increasing the resprtor rate, and timltng the sweat glands Lie de tectors measure these fnetions and use them to determine whether the subject selling the truth The theory stat acre, most people tar boon contained to anictpoe patishieos when they wel a Bo. ‘The anicpation of punishment proves the tavoluntry gh or Might response, which resus in a number of measurable changes in hear, pole, and breathing rate, and, hocuse sweat Hsell eonduts elect. yin the eletee conduct of the skin “The ansely reaction n anticipation of punishment hasbeen desea bbysome researchers asthe primary socializing agent for children. Chil alten ae conditioned by thee parents to anticipate punishment in ce tain types of situations, and the ansety they then fel (asualy called conscience or gut) often lads them to avoid those stations. Because {he anety reaction in anticipation of punishment essentially an tonomienerwos systm fiction related to the ight oe Hht response, the level af sacaination in cikren may depend atleast in part onthe Fmetioning ofthat system. Specially the fight o Might response is activated slowly or tlw level situations in wich punshanent i an tieipted, oft falls to deactivate quick when the station changes, ‘then the cd wl be det to sci. “The fist to examine this question was Eysenck, who based his di- ‘cussion on Jung's concepts of itroverson and exttverson asthe mi jor ates or ortentations of the personality The introvert f or ‘ete tear the finer, subjective word, and tends to be more quiet Pessimistic, etn, serious, cautions, reliable, and controlled, The ex (5.3 rk Come nd ray. oron ‘Far Ci noha cn {2 rock Cane tnd Prty 302 Theoretical Criminology trove orieated toward the external, objective wor and is more lable, impulsive, carefree, eptimisti, and aggressive. strove crave tcitemet, lke to take chances, tend to be undependable and lose ‘heir temper easly. Eysenck noes thatthe diagnosis ofthis personality ‘A nuber of mote recent studies on autonomic nervous system Fane tioning have involved measuring the sume peripheral funetions that are ‘monitored by aie detector For example, Mednick maintains tht the rate of skin conductance response (SCR) reeovery—the time between ‘when the skin condi letra eure a ts peak empl and when {hat condactance sefurns to nora levels be taken to measure the senera ate of recvery nthe autonomic nervous atom, Ho, t would Biological Factors and Criminal Behavior 8 Imes the ete at which the ant reaction In atklpaton of po {coal poses ished falling removal fo the ete ington, Medic ages thi the rate oh the amsey ds fe eer sac fat redone ost power enone Erownt ysl When far pte qu, he nde che aug enbcement or oig the tion of petal po ‘tment, a condoning s mich mor iy toca ane reno ng wt cote sponses concer tht "hee date prove muppor fr Boemis contiening ery of eHow be ms at tht in he pst decades all, thr as been ie esearch on thi tpl, th nt of ou dita core rom the ate 17D ear 10508 Heller some wasn whch dn eoehetatce ezarch on codon tng and criminal cr tay be pve Rae lo revewed sud ies ranging fom 1979 to 190) ht elated kin condctance measures to general anno behavior, thot neces sig coon, framework Overl the Rings are mid, tacts psa the ANS dos pay ome ae in anti bebavor ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED BIOLOGICAL “To this point we have discussed research on hereditary factors ih: ‘eneing antisocial and criminal cwor (such asthe funy, sins ad ‘alopion studies), and research addressing factors that maybe here tan’ but may also change ver time dae to environmental inflcnoes (auch as hormones, newrotrasiiter levels, and skin condoctance re sponses to stimulh) Now we examine resarch on several blogic fa: tors that may influence evminal hebavior but whic cleary are enc ronmental, nthe sense that they have nothing to do withthe person's hereditary or genetic makeup. These are drug and aleabol abuse, det td toxins, hea injury. an pregnancy or bith complications There are many posible types of relationships between drug ad al- cohol abuse andl volent behavior: biologi, psychosocial, socal, cul tora, and economie. For example, violence snd crime may result fom aad’ need t get money to hay drs, fom "ware between Sal drug gangs over the rights to sll drugs ina certain area. Became the range of erature iso broad in hese ates, we do no sunmarnei Theoretcal Criminology ‘there. Instead, we present few bref comments onthe strc b- ‘gical lnks between vlence and slohol or drug use ‘Acoho s known to temporal inerease aggresive behavior in lower doses when people get nas), and temporal decease aggresive bo- Torin higher doses when people pas ot). Many people believe thatthe increased aggresness at lower doses is because of aleobl's "dinhibting” eflect—alcohol tends to release people fom thei Inhibtions—bur there i litle evidence for this. Ab altematve expla ‘ation i that sleabol increases the production ofthe endocrine system, especially testosterone, but agin, there i litle evidence for ths. Other posible neurobiological explanations involve serotonin functioning and [BEG abnormalities, but experiments have yet cones any ofthese posible explanations Some researcher believe tat there may bea ge- ‘etc bai forthe relationship between aleahol and violence, but there '5 no coafimation ofthis to date. So while there strong relationship between aldol and violence (probably dhe strongest of any da), the recon for this relationship reins uncle. ‘Other dogs that may have a biologial association wit violence are opiates, amphetamines, cocaine, and hallucinogens. Opiates are kwon to temporary reduce aggresive and violent bebavor, although chronic tke may inerate the posality of violent behavior Withdrval foun opiates i related to agressive behavior ae well Chronic amphetamine 86 may provoke violent outbursts in humans, but usually only when the individuals already are prone to violent behavior" There i stil no dec evidence ofa bilogal effect of cocaine use on volet beh ir? Naja we most Hey decreas ese afi viet ‘man behavior: FCP, when used over along term, may intense agers sire behavion aed LSD may itera vlet behavior ose ied ‘rome to aggression Research onthe relationship between nutrition or torlns ad antiso- «al or aggressive behavior offen is comprised of eomelatonl studies ‘sith methodolgsal shortcomings. Most commonly studied are sugat, holster, and ead toi. Soy hary steerer sh aden ut Preeti Vor op ht Biological Factors and Criminal Behavior co Research in the 1980s showed hypogbcemia (low Hod sugar which i caused in part by excess sugar intake, to be comson i ha bitually violent criminals Numerous methodological problems with these studies are cited by Kanarek eastng sigaifeant doubt on whether sagt intake canses antisocial ehavor. Sigar bas also been associated with lyperactisity in caldre, but ain, there i eason to ‘doubt the validity of most of this seseareh.™ More research that tmethodlogialy tld, examining potential ngutive consequences of ‘suyar is needed before any conclusions should be drat on the sugar violence lnk, Research has also purported tht there ink between blood cholesterol and violent behavior, but these studessufler fom the same sorts of problems asthe rescarch on sugar and violent be- havior Finally, expose to Tea in diet and envionment has been shown to negatively affect bran fanetioning, bringing about learning “lsabities and hyperactive attention deft disorder in children, and ‘may increase the sk for antisocial hehavior®° Future research er tain to continue examining the Hkages between lead exposure ad negative behavioral consequences Sever] studies have found « correlation between head injury andl criminal and antisocial behavior whether the relationship i casa s nother matter! Such head Injury can be detected by ined texts such as Xcnys, CAT sens, and spinal tps. A variety of studies have foun that prisoners and violent patients report large number of ead Injuries involving loss of consciousness. Mednick found some support for relationship betwoen brain damage and violent behswior song, jeniles in sid of cildren bor at a hospital in Copenhagen be {een 1059 an 19612 Those sho later became silent delinguents ‘had generally good medial, physica, and newrolgial reports during pregnancy and delivery, despite relatively poor socal conditions, How fre, they had sguiicanly worse physical and newologal status a 1 dear of age Similar Dndings were reported by Dorothy Lewis and her 5 Foin,Seed She thBikg oAhl er SUM Bh ep 5286 Theoretical Criminology calleagues® Lewis ao found a strong asocstion between parental ‘minal and the presence of serious meal proms tn their chi dren, She suggested that delinquency among clea with crininal par ents may relet the combined physical and prchologeal effets of rental neglect and battering rather than any genetic factors. Raine dscuses some possible snares that wold account for the _ssocation between head injury and erninal bear Fo example, in susie homes children are more likely to incur bead injures, and these homes may aso be more conducive to criminal behor among off ‘spring raised in them ill, Raine cites evidence that the lisk beeen | hea injury and criminal behavior maybe a east partly casa Some processes by which head injury may inflance negative behaviors are (0) increasing sensitty to effets of aleohol (2) decreasing cogutve and soil sil (3) eansng headaches and iia, which increase the possbalty of violet outbursts; and (1) damaging the frontal and temporal lobes of the rai, inreasing ane, anger and hostility.” ‘Avother possible souree of CNS dels (which have been linked to aggressive behavior) is pregnancy and birth complications. A recent study by Kandel ad Medek examined data on 216 children bora be- teen 1859 and 1961 in Copenhagen” The group of 216 was selected from an original cohort of 8.125 children because thelr parents were schiaphrenie, pychopathle, or characteriondeted, and therefore thay were considered tobe a high risk of becoming delinquent. The research examined. pregnancy complication (sich at tnfections, chemotherapy. and jaundice) and delivery completions (such sup tured perineum, weak secondary bor, and raped tens), and mes sured criminal behavior with ares records for property and violent of. fenses whea the subjects were 20 to 29 years old. Pregnancy ‘complications were not significantly related to offending rates, but de livery complications were relate to volent offending: 80 percent of ve lent oflerders ranked lal greater thin average delivery complications IEE arias ce sae ets ‘Sen Gere al of cury 185) se a th Rat ed tre ttt bo a Biological Factors and Criminal Behavior ‘compared to 30 percent of property offenders and 47 percent of nono Fenders A subsequent study found that let offending ours st ‘often among indvdals with both a high number of delivery compli cations and parents with psychiatric problems." IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Blea theo are necestary part of “mull factor” apprsch toesiminal behavior the presence of cern bike factors tnay Inset the lord but no deters sce Cha an in ‘al wl engage in rial beunors. These lio generate en tal belie when thy inert with pacologal of soll factors Mednick for eampl, bas sggestd a poste atercton between Be loge an ei actor ‘Where the sol experiences of an antisocial individual are nt especially a {oc olga factors shuld beri. The vale of Ue bagel tors ore ite npg atic bir ids have ‘experienced erninogene sal condos nthe rearing, Inthe past, biologically oriented and secclglealyonented crim: nots have often been at odds with each other. Both sides have over- State their com postions and refised to alee partial say in their opponents ews. This is changing as eriminologis on both sides are recognizing the ned for bioacal theories thit examine not ‘nly the separate coteibuton of sciologial a biologie phenomena to eriminal behavior, but the interaction ofthese perspectives well. ‘This emerghagsythesis of perspectives wil probably nett bilogeal criminology, since extreme bilogeal views often raise images of de terminist among some audiences, who subsequently react negatively to the furthering of such research and to any plies based om 1 fa. Med nd Kal Cope eit ind ge Cate i nll tl a ed fh atThe Personality of the Offender ‘The term proalty refers to the complex et of emotional and be. ioral tues ht tet renee constant the nd sil moves rom tot sont Thi hp enamine hn eth nnd rary er of ei ern atte ofthe nde Seren, pylon FPchni tones nce the pom of toad i ae {pln of eiminal bebair Fns thse heres are he foc of the presen hate, Payenlogeal and pyc thereto consider bilgi and si tonal ctr in her explanations of imi bhano. ch ofthe Balog esearch presented in Chapter Bas ben done by pyc shan petit and canbe contre spr of pelo Pochitre hears of crn. This heres so sonore mpat [the itton on he nal thy ela chavo y interes Tt the station th nha tag and poll char acerca factor. however, al be dined inthe hp ters on scl theorem chavo Ta ation soc ychologal heorcs ange tha rial behvor the est of ta tering roo Fese tenes eds eo Chaser “The present chapter considers only those pycholgial and psych- lst theories that argue that ceil behasor originates prima in {he personalities of offenders eather than in thes Bology or situation, Tis includes paychosnaltic theories thu argue tat the causes of rim inal behavior ae found ia unconscos elements ofthe personaly. Te also inches rescareh onthe conscious personaly. using ype of py ‘hologcal ts elle the personality inventory Final. the present The Personality of the Offender 9 chapter disosss the antsoial personaly and impulsity a specie personality characterises thought to be associated wth eral es er Fe pereeee re ete Sel bing he cee te etc eter teeta yan en et eee ee enc sc ele cele tes od ie egret felt me semi Hepat 7 a er seach eh wae ne i octal An en te ee sepie ndenene oced ears sedge einen tier So ee eee denne apf leh Ta samen pep a aot itchy git ate teste Wo ae ‘Seen see nar le ni i neo ae Sige Sita Se aly%” Theoretical Criminology sense pinecone an npn dvs ofthe developing ek of metal kale fom the ery bpning me ‘As inowlede of pal disease oly gre, knowedge of ental ince ial By the tne of Sgn Fred (1856-190), lhe ba Si eonceps of abnormal proto hal been developed out of expe ‘ence n eaing wth cred pen Tse nlaed distinction be {en organic dsoner—for example hea inj hat eae the mind ‘lank or that distort somo heartg orcas ging the ears of those duet disease or degeneration, such a ype pares or the sent ofa age—and font dre in which here strange ‘shar but no lnown onan cans. Even the central concept of poy chanalss, the uncon, was developed before Freud by on at ‘an (1842-1906), and was eatensely ied and farther developed thy Moron Pnce (8541635) Somewhat the sane is tre of several ether ides or concepts that have een tse extensey in peor tna ingen, progeny eh. ava ous notions of subntate responses. These all wee pa of pci before Freud? ” meer SIGMUND FREUD AND FsveHtOANAL3sis ‘While schists ld medi, ppchowshss i ele ent development scat with he and work of Sign Fred nd some of hi pupa Aled Ar (870-108) Cat fang {i675 an Within Stebel (1555-190 Payehonnas ane treme complied a pata und set of Kad tthe fet the Fred hms seve his mot funda es at sever ins inhi ie, ad slower conto to propose eons at Extensions aftr is death, Nevertle,ithasba tpn input om alt al ser thong nly ow, rte con ceptions of man and eonsequnt rnin) has low ingicoly ery bef meron sone ales aed wth poy hoa ct to ve ass of wha abt rian ol of Cc ‘Spon ple sys 2 Rd a te Rod oe ‘eae Poy. Hops aber a, Bar TS ‘pS yng Nae fee Ce st Se kina ara ye NR mt ae res ne ee Boe, Bid The Reromalty of the Offender o Sigmund Fred ved moto fis en Vena apie most of hs mprtan sew ding the Bt ty Sear of hs centay® ike other pent fore ha, be wa «pyscan wo wan concemed ‘ithe medial teatnent of vary of funtion driers Bat Seemed Lo be unelted to any orc eves. Fre! Gt adopted the evo the uncoacns, aud by eae mists, egg a he ‘isos could be expisned ty mate expences uy cil od hte the rho he ea ete the et tha he in Cina ms ot onscreen ‘yo thew rons, Fd ent hie he called "hose" The conta en of pconays wat ee SSoctolThe tet ela cml tnd ed ot hater Came to ln By exploring thew soca the indi ws se toreconsta ther events andl rng the to consonance the patent as concow of thee event rewd angie that the ewes ‘ud bse their concious posers the patent wold un cone ‘sous contl ad ced nico hee ‘ed ler evs is conceptions of he concowand uncon Ina sense redefining the osc ga spliting the coms into the a soperego, dwar ater ted to esrb the great ese Coiref olga ed pela dex te urges and pues that Tree al beh. Tat nes the bid, the fll fre of sea renin the india dise and tena the “wilt ve" fee inal animals Th is permanent econo, nd espns tly toh read elle the plese ciple fel gpd, do {0 The mpee in contrasts the fore wl ic ol coscence fd relacriemons ht tr Gone ada oil exper toe ln paral mie Th sipereo may contain coms Sloment nthe frm of moran t cok, bt primary Census int operon The sep aes i Br get ove “tachment the cd exgerenes hat this or br pans. The di Sxpernces then a julmetal and lintel nero He a weemcgrid tht ane compton of ht he ot Should fe aly ot Froud ella the ogo he eoscons pron ali. ett toa the real word Im which the person ves yee ‘Soe gti Han Sen ‘Thre 5 sr a ae win cis Te nea el Ete family hase sh ees eld EEE Sitges te Fein ae ‘Sahil fe He os Wawa 92 Theoretical Criminology (termed by Freud the “reality principle”) and attempts to mediate bo tween the demands ofthe i and the prohibitions ofthe superego? ‘Given this basi organization ofthe personaly, Freud explored how the ogo handles the conflicts between the superego and the id. The Isic problem is one of gully The individual experiences all sorts of drives and urges coming fom the i and feels gulty about chem hase of the probubitons of the superego. Thre area variety of ‘ays the individual may handle this situation. In sublimation the dr ves of the id are diverted to activities approved of by the superego, For example, aggressive and destructive urges maybe diverted t ath: [etic activity, Sublimation is the normal and healthy way the ego han dles the conflicts between the drives ofthe i and the probiitions of the supereg, In represion, in contrast, those dives ae stalled back Into the uneonscions and the individual denies tht they exist. This may result in a variety of strange effects on behavior. One possible = sults a reaction formation, sch as when a person with repressed sex ual desires becomes very prdish about al sexl matters. Another r= sult might be projeetion, in hich, for example, » person with ‘repressed homoseal urges frequently sees homosewal tendencies in thers, Freud believed that thse basic confies wer played ut in diferent ‘vas a different points ofthe life ejcle. OF particular interest to him svete the experiences of early childhood. He argued that each infant 0es throng a eres of phases in which the baste dives wore odented round, Sst, oa drives, then anal drives and finally gental drives, Dur ng the genital tage (around the ages of 3 and 4 the childs sexually attracted to the patent ofthe opposite sex and views the same-sex par ent as competition. This i the famous Oedipus complex in boys, std the comparable Fectra comple in gis the gui prediced by these urges not handed adequately bythe ego, i leaves a lating imprint ‘on the personaly that llc later behavior. “The major tool Froud used to treat these problems was transference, {he tendency for past sgfieant relationships tobe replayed during cur ent sigiicant relationships. As the relationship ith the analyst takes fn increasing signifiance inthe patients if, the patent wil tend to replay withthe anast dhe earlier relationships that are presently gen- eating the problems. For example, i a patient's prablems stm from an earlier traumati roationsip with a parent. dhe patient wilted to ‘reate a sins tranmatic relationship withthe analt. Treatnent then consists of straightening out the current relationship between anat ‘The Personality ofthe Offender % and patient, which has the effect fab straightening out the carr re- Tatonship the patient had withthe parent PSYCHOANALYFIC EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR. While the preceding sony a brief presentation of psychoanalytic the oy it provides the base ortenttion for pychosnabtic explanations of ‘hind behavior Within the peychosmalytic perpeetve ermal and ‘elinquent behaviors ae attited to disturbances or malfunctions in the ego ar superego, The if in contrat, i wewed as constant and bom bclgialy based souree of drives and urges it doesnot vary sub stantially among. inv Freud hime dd not deus eiminal behavior to any great extent ec however, suggest that at east some individuals performed erm inal acts becanse they possessed an overdeveloped superego, which led to constant feelings of gull and anety* There is a consequent desire for punishnent to remove the gut felings and restore a prope ba inet of good agua ev. Unconsciously motivated errs (Le, eaeless for prdent ways of commiting the crime) lave chs so thatthe a thors may more readily apprehend and conve the gully party and {Uhusadnistr suitably cleansing prnishment This idea was extensively ‘he ment prea ewe an th Seale the MMP, pre owl alld the "pyhopthic deve see hich onsite po heed sion es, Pes tie general conde at el rs nd cn were me phi” han odes ‘Seale Hower, indies atements such at“ ave never been in twuble wth hel "Sometimes when tas oungT tke things“ He schon and “My relates are ety al nS wth = On the average, toadelinquents and nomenmine responded to four of these stent ferent Han did emis and delinquents, Ths samt lcs the atin ts thr ves ater than ay nese pchepety” among dlingent tol rminl? ses best onde tt the dileenes Eiaiaerstie iene term cue nate SRT pera eee tb ae Elona ase corer Sieitimeetiimer meters irene Reve Sn ii tt Cre nd ery Se ik 2 hie soh entrees ra treet et cat Soe Et oes The Perwnalty of he Offender 9 pear between criminals and) noncininals om personaly tests do not Rive any theoretical relevance to understanding the eases of criminal havior or to eating ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER. Inaction to appearing on personality inventories, the term psychopath is used by pyehiatrists to describe vale who eat a certain troup of behaviors and atitudes2™ When sed in this say, ee term Drelcpath can be considered smuoaymous withthe more eecent teens Sociopath ad antisocial personality dsorder. Th thee tems ae wed interchangeably inthis secon. The fourth edltion ofthe offal Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) ofthe American Psychiatrie Assocation states that “the es sential feature of Antisocial Personality Disorder i pervasive pattern of dsrogard for and violation of, the sghts of others that begins in chk hod or eary adolescence andl comes into adulthood" The diagnosis nay be mae when there ae at leas three ofthe folowing sx chara terstics (1) repeated wolations ofthe law that ae grounds for atest (2) repeated Ing, we of aliases, o conning others for personal profit, ‘or pleasure 3 palsy oF Faure to plan aca (4) repeated hys- fea gts or assaults: (5) repeated false to sustain consistent work be- Ihaior or honor eancal obligations and (6) lack of remorse. "The DSM distinguishes antsocl personality disorder” from adult antisocial havior” Which s criminal behavior that occurs without the [presence of any personality disorder. A person shoud be diagnosed as having “entnacal personality disorder’ shen these characteristics are infleblc,mladaptive, and persistent, and ease siguiiean funcional impairment or subjective distress” The DSM alo lates thatthe a thecal personality disorder “asa conic course bat may become less tient or remit ste dvd grows older, particu bythe Fouth Ahead of he” “The DSM-4 attempts to provide a uly precise definition ofthe term isc personality” especially so tat i ean be deinguishe from cerinality-In pretice, however, CleeKley points on that "the term psy ‘hopath (or atisccal personality) avis applied by various pach tras and hospital aft somesines becomes so broad that ca be ap rman Te ‘Guede Dry, Wy Neo 2 Beal te My rad Dai, Sh Son hia ee100 ‘Theoretical Criminology pled oslo anya He ares, hover, ht he mu Sf pschoaths ae no miss he map of ema ae no psychopaths. Paychopatie maybe furl ay profeson ncuing busines scene, meine, an pia: ™ Tyce pcos a ferrom ype ermal thats en es purl they cause themsees needles sro and shame, ad they weal do et i jr ines ois kee ese terms pochopat an "steal personaly" mt mere desertion of bear ptr, bt alo fy ta hse ben oviginte nthe personaly of the inva Is possible however that the thar ay be enplsined by actors ter tn penal Por tape, Yablonsky ared that “ace members lent ang were socoptis who ke the gang in mobi idence a wy acting on ther own host and aggression ™ Other gang researchers deserved the ber of or ang mers ns ay, but aged at the behavior rete rm the aed to ete and ata eer Ship pestion nthe gg” Th he og ofthese Beas may mo hepa arate Bees schist tend to sre tha ann action ogi ‘nthe penalty of the offender sone pacha hn recommend ‘hat prope with “atncalprsnaty dso be ced up wnt hey reach mil ge and even hat thy be eecoted This Beeause poyehiates have no elfivemethns fi eating ths order, hey jn ha the enon il tie oom se ats a ret ema fe. Bt hi sumption it spp y ly by Willan McCord who bs done exes woke peop aa cine McCord fond that dling hd fen dagposed pPychopai a ene tits ha ony siiy wore rec 5 fms Sore el Gyn ig hence Dace Sekaatet a nen stants EEGSpip on Cees en. nl ey he ‘sea nat i ne a ayo Se cert ae sere ec tl Up Sh a Pury Sa) 39 (ape oa SS The Personality ofthe Ofonder 01 ism rites than other delinquents at the same intittions and that se tal years afer release the res rates were intel [PREDICTING FUTURE DANGEROUSNESS Some psyciatists recommend that offenders with antisocial persona iy disorder be locked up fr extended periods of tine. While this may trea reasonable pole for frequent and senious offenders, pyciatss 0 farther by arguing that dhey are able to identify these offenders ough pyehitric means. Ithat their dam, then their track ecord 1 far bs been poor For example ten-year sty in Massachusetts by Kozol and associ- ats! nwo the use af extensive psychiatric and Socal easework ser ‘eesinthe alten to predict the fiture key dangerousness of «group OF high-sk offenders prior to ther release from prison. As it turned tut the researchers were unable to predict nearly two thirds of the ¥ tent cine that ultimately occareed iene eximes ont of forty taht, and neary two thids ofthe persons whom they predicted would, be valent (thiny-t0o persons out of forty-nine) were not Beease of the probable occurrence of such erers, Morris agues tha iis and ‘mentally unjust fo detain anyone onthe bass ofa prediction of his = tre behavior In akin, the Mes tht a person canbe punished for what he might do rather than for what he has actually done seriously threatens the basi notions of freedom of the india from unwar ranted governmental control ‘Monahan extensively reviewed the clinical techniques for predicting violent behavior and eonclided that can only be done within very re Strcted creumstances” Specifically, he concluded that itis possible to ‘stiate the probability of solet actin the immediate future when the person going to remain ina stuation thats esenialy sina to tes in which he or she had conatted volt acts in the past. Mons han presented comple procedure for estimating this probability, which inched: (1) comparison of the circumstances he olfender was likely to encounter the near fire withthe Gieumstanes in which the offender had comited violent ets i the past; (2) the rece. yn i ty tS Te Dea Tet {Sno The ou of ope, yf hogy Pr, ay 6 5 Sn Pdi Va Bln Suge lca,10 Theoretical Criminology seventy, and frequency of violet ets the individual ad commited in the past and (3) general statis cm the probity of vnkenee for In vias who are sinllar in age, se, race clas, history of dng abuse, ‘siden and employment stabi. al education atainent, Mon shan tate hat snot possible to predit violence over along period Ofte, o to predict i when a person was moving fom one sition toa very diferent one (eg, om being released from prison). He as) ‘maintained that this type of proton is entirely separate from the di. ‘gnosis of mental disease, and that if meatal disease i also of interest, 4 separate examination must he undertaken, Finally Monahan argued that pochologits should confine thenselves to estimating the probe bility of violent act and should not recommend whether any Ocal scion should be taken ina gven ease. According to Monhan, crim ‘al justice officials are responsible for deciding whether or not to take ‘oficial actions while the role of psychologists poychitist fo pro vile accurate information on which to ase those decisions. Pychologicl and psychiatric escarch as ow ante away fom the ‘question of trying to predic whether particular people will commit sts ‘of violence in the future. Instead, this research has tuned to the more several question of identifying factors asocated with an increased or creased likelihood that person wil engage in ay tye of eime in ‘he futur. Most ofthis research has forse on delinquency eather than ‘eal criminality, and on less Serious cee athe han mae serious ‘lence, since these are considerably easier to predict. This research shows that the strongest predictor of ater delinquent behavior ical hldheod problem belanors sich as dsrptive lis. room conduct, aggressiveness, hing, and dishonesty." This nea that the same indvals who caused the most problems when they were young children wil so cause the most probes when they areal: lescents and adults. The stability of behavioral problem overtime su ess that these people may have certain personality carscterscs, even 'F they do ot show’ upon personality tests, that ae asic wth an ‘seca or troublesome hehaion ‘Othe factors neal hilo associated with ater delingueney in ude poor parental cll management techniques, offending hy pr ‘ents and siblings, low iotligence and eduetional attainment. an ep aration fom parents? Ths suggests thatthe personaly characterise ‘Sablon Si tah itt dg ene kn ee ise el ey fn tees SST em Renae es , & ‘The Personality ofthe Offender 103 may be associated wth a eased by early caldhiod experiences This ‘esearch wil be futher discussed in Chapter 18 on developmental the ‘res of ximinoogy, but is als ed to several theories that fac on Itnpusity asa key personaly characteristic elated terimeand dlin- quency IMPULSIVITY AND CRIME [Arather diverse group of researchers have recently suggested that im palsvty ste hey personality etre associate with antisocial behav ta gener, thee researcher assume that impulsivity is manifested ton In gener in high levels of atv (especialy where the person acs without think ‘nga tendency to bocome impatient and to seek immediate grate tion, and tendeney to become distracted “One theory that facused on his charcteritic was by Wilson and Her instein™ Farrington desertbes this a a "pial psychological explana tion of crime inconponting propositions seen in several ther psycho- logical theories In general those propositions include the assumption that crime i inherently rewarding 9 tat everyune would commit it tnles we were testained by internal sibions. These intemal inhi bitions are asoated wth what s nora called “conscience” and are develope primary in early childhood by parents through their chi rearing practices. While criminal behavior may be diet learning through modeling by parents, pees. oF the media, most crime i as Sul tobe the esl of the fale to Tear intemal Ibis ist “Fin the conte ofthese nr assmgins, Won and Herm stn poon ht te by inde for associated wth sly se teen) to tink n ters of shot er ater then on term consequent: The owas om ok cmt crime mn Stic ates ar op ‘Soft iC FF Sn Fama Doman Prep ae al aca Aero Sn fey dD reste dire Son an ied ss add f pyr Pa No 2 anes en ee | ert, Cro men Nae, Ne ok Riri ase: Fon “tno. eewos Theoretical Criminology _ ié#&=2=7~~-—— ‘Sarit prs Thonn ott noes Siar Sted ith» ty cos ing pel SX tively a mac ee ahs tent cts sos sass Bahr | = =Ehlhs¥YX—hEr™erE ‘scan rae vs eed hon see stress ung anne he abe ed Stns) in man tw holy ana meee eo tole nf catalyst ty conc ppl iy ee intend eee ote cn es a ay Cahier gh eginae avo and reas oe Monee wt ie ey cnr rea rough ———_ Secs tithe een wo aso etary hrc qd ys ee a LT—rt—“—C~tsrsts—s—sSsS sua an eng pony aces Wale, eles ele cma a ee sherd by bl ee etry tna ns an oa peor tegen! eon an hn vans cl ess sede art hae casino gee ny farina ho operate ster ecko ah SFF—— =F ie ae ef ts he Te aoe Image oreo eg) chsh ce seca at engin te mo sl daly hes ar oe ouverte sec a olan thy ante eed peste satel Foy retin meat in helere tba dopeeog et thon ngs do vine ey cans a Shr ————— fl ng thy he de nth ean ec haat B.S ok ny Les Cae, Cnr Sy 1620 ah 8 SES lar plat ral ed ‘rer asharatietat ira adem Somonnn focne ec rae can eh Se ea eat eee tr SSSSNEE ire iit forcdtrre een sepa SS RSIS crreciemes crs ‘The Personality ofthe Offender 105 fore shuld nt be bell responsible or the bd hing: Soperptinion Shetty bh ft ang a wi tn en including being punished for the crimes they commit. Cognitioe inc races tty at dnt pay tention othe detain Me DS cy mst ai hon content 8 {Menton an ema facie om ol ener te Ct oy goon ply « Nt no sions perenne Molt dsrbes those a #5 oppo wena in etal bebsor of nest or anther Sg Reet irie empl of hen would etait agarage ft shophfing ar trancy ta 10, dug dealing and car thet so iE cy andoe at age 2, a ad and child aus tage 05 Most agus hat hese behavior bog eth ear netropcho- ie dans nt ae ease yr sch eo poe m= uo bythe other wie he i pegent compheaions at bith re Sart dango drain ic oi ase tng sear, These peel rd ed rer tt elim nme prem le Parts deal ‘Spot ce wo ne thes poblens oes ne prog bcs themes and he temps te dpi nd oie ir Chen totes the ches tien xis As theca ena se pce det ne poles by nerf AISy lng Gna thir ane hin of te fue cose {fences th acts nition the probes can pe the le ‘TetStckoin schol which cance rai toaoqa rears ‘eiptmat eis and nes th od they wi tr ee ‘alt ntsc tons for rv AMhough hs thon qe = Se amber of tudes hve rode support ests seperate Roker nacre Stn mr mls Dl Nag Seis or tia alas eran coma ines eee oer cei pias TES a te tarot ceiait donteugcwrncemmehretcam Sic ieee te emcees is Fe an ide Boney Conc 2730 i ak eae ee ci ony tt Rg cay SB tt at106 Theoretical Criminology More recent, Cas, Mffit and ther calles exanined peron- alt tat no ey ileent group: about 1000 yous Gor Dunedin, New Zl in1972-1), al abut 50 eta diverse 12: and iyearol bys fom Patt They found that ere proneness wis apie wth a combo ftps and “nee the enuslonaiy” which hey deserted tendon to experience ‘tenet sae acs anger, ane and ay Youths ‘ith "note emetonaty,"thysigeted, perceive moe teeta

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