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UJI K cAPP PDF
UJI K cAPP PDF
4.1 INTRODUCTION
“Fully Automated Factory” or in other words “unmanned factory” has been a major and
long-term goal of both industry and academia for a long time, although some authorities
claim that it is impossible to achieve. CAD and CAM are two of the most important
activities to be amalgamated in a typical automated environment. Due to developments in
computer technology, numerically controlled equipment, robots and computer controlled
automation in CAD and CAM systems, many manual skills have been automated, thus
resulting in reduction of lead times, improvements in productivity and increase in
manufacturing accuracy. However, the full integration of CAD and CAM systems in
industry has not yet been achieved. CAPP is one of the most important obstacles to be
overcome in the automation of process planning activities, it forms a bridge between
CAD and CAM. The CAPP was first proposed by Niebel. Schenck supported the CAPP
idea of Niebel by his Ph.D dissertation at Purdue University in 1996. Due to the
limitation of computer hardware and software, the CAPP had not been feasible until the
early 1980s. CAPP is very inclusive and basically consists of the determination of
processes and parameters required to convert a blank into a finished product. The key
elements of process planning include; material selection, operation selection, machine
tool selection, operation sequencing, cutting tool selection, set-up selection, etc.
Automated process planning brings about following advantages :
• reduction in process planning time
• reduction in the required skill of the process planner
• reduction in costs due to efficient use of resources
• increased productivity and process rationalisation
• production of accurate and consistent process plans
• maximisation of Just-In-Time performance
Today, it has been recognised that Computer Aided Process Planning is the key system
promoting the integration of CAD and CAM systems. It has been seen as the only tool
for removing the slash between CAD/CAM.
Process planning as the link between CAD and CAM, actually translates the design
language into the manufacturing language. There have been a great number of efforts and
studies to achieve the major goal via CAPP; to effectively integrate the design and
manufacturing, providing the automation and standardisation of the process planning
5
Elements of CAPP function. However, it is worth noticing that the industrial use and applications of the
developed systems are quite limited. One of the main reasons behind this lack of
industrial use is that the process planning is a complicated and divergent task including
many sub-activities from the interpretation of the product data to the tool path planning
and CNC part program generation, and between these sub-activities there are many
highly complex and ill-defined relationships. Another reason may be the difference
between the assumed conditions and actual conditions on the shop floor, or the presence
of unexpected disturbances, or continuously changing demand, or improved technology.
The performance and applicability of the CAPP systems can be improved by including a
higher number of the actual manufacturing variables and by providing a adaptive
structure to the system.
An ideal computer aided process planning system is shown in Figure 4.1. The system
consists of several modules ranging from Feature extraction module to intermediate
surface generation module. Each module may require execution several times in order to
generate optimum process plan. The components taken into considerations in computer
aided process planning are shown in Figure 4.2.
The other data required for the generation of process plan are given below :
• Part list
• Annual demand
• Accuracy and surface requirements
• Shopfloor details – process capabilities
• Jigs, fixtures, gauges, etc.
• Machining data
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CAPP Techniques
Accessible technological
Resources of production
semi-finished products
their characteristics
plant in form of raw
Process engineer
Process engineer
programmer
xxx
xxx
Coding Standard
Plan
File
Process
Plan xxx-xx
xxx-xx
xxx-xx
Editing Standard Plan
Retrieval
Figure 4.3 : Part Search and Retrieval
A number of variant process planning system have been developed. One of the most
widely used systems is computer-aided process planning, developed by
McDonnell-Douglas Automation Company under the direction and sponsorship of
Computer-Aided Manufacturing-International (CAM-I). This system can be used to
generate process plans for rotational, prismatic, and sheet metal parts.
The other popular variant process planning system is MIPLAN, developed in conjunction
with the Organization for Industrial Research (OIR) and Genera Electric Company
(Hourzeel, 1976). The MIPLAN system accommodates both rotational and prismatic
parts and is based on the MICLASS coding and classification system for part description.
A very comprehensive group technology based system developed by OIR is called
MULTI-II. It consists of a number of task-oriented modules including :
• MultiClass II for group technology classification and retrieval
• Multigroup II for group technology analysis
• Multitrieve II for design retrieval
• MultiCats II for automated time standards
• MultiTrack II for tool tracking and inventory control
4.2.3 Problems Associated with the Variant Approach
(a) The components to be planned are limited to similar components previously
planned.
(b) Experienced process planners are still required to modify the standard plan
for the specific component.
(c) Details of the plan cannot be generated.
(d) Variant planning cannot be used in an entirely automated manufacturing
system, without additional process planning.
4.2.4 Advantages of the Variant Approach
(a) Once a standard plan has been written, a variety of components can be
planned.
(b) Comparatively simple programming and installation (compared with
generative systems) is required to implement a planning system.
(c) The system is understandable, and the planner has control of the final plan.
(d) It is easy to learn, and easy to use. Also, it is cost effective and suitable for
small/medium manufacturing organisations.
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Elements of CAPP
4.3 THE GENERATIVE APPROACH
In the generative approach process plans are generated by means of decision logics,
formulae, technology algorithms, and geometry based data to undertake a large number
of processing decisions for converting a part from raw material to a finished state. The
rules of manufacturing and the equipment capabilities are stored in a computer system.
When using the system, a specific process plan for a specific part can be generated
without any involvement of a process planner. For generative systems, input can come
either as a text input where the user answers a number of questions in an English or
English-like dialogue (defined as interactive input), or as graphic input where the part
data is obtained from a CAD module (defined as interface input). So far, the former
procedure is more common in existing CAPP systems, while the later is still a fairly
undeveloped area due to its complexity. Neverthless, interface input is necessary to
enable an integrated manufacturing system. It has attracted much effort to interface
CAPP with CAD. The terms, feature recognition, feature extraction, feature refinement,
and geometry reasoning have been used to denote the study which will be discussed in
detail later in this unit. Tulkoff states that ‘Generative process planning systems today are
still somewhat elusive on the whole and can be considered as being in their early stages
of development and use (Tulkoff 1987). The generative approach is complex and a few
years back generative CAPP system is was too complex to ever be computerized.
However, with the rapid development of AI techniques, the success of applying AI
techniques in other areas has greatly encouraged the utilization of the AI techniques in
the process planning. This effort has given initial results which indicate that the
generative systems are desirable and promising.
4.3.1 Advantages of Generative Approach
(a) Generates consistent process plans.
(b) New components can be planned as easily as the existing components.
(c) It has potential for integrating with an automated manufacturing facility to
provide detailed control information.
There are essentially two major components of a generative process planning system : a
geometry-based coding scheme and process knowledge in the form of decision logic and
data.
Geometry-Based Coding Scheme
The objective of a geometry-based coding scheme is to define all geometric
features for all process-related surfaces together with feature dimensions,
locations, and tolerances and the surface finish desired on the feature. The level of
detail is much greater in a generative system than a variant system. For example,
such details as rough and finished states of the parts and process capability of
machine tools to transform these parts to the desired states are provided.
Process Knowledge in the Form of Decision Logic and Data
Basically, the matching of part geometry requirements with the manufacturing
capabilities is accomplished in this phase using process knowledge in the form of
decision logic and data. All the activities of process planning are performed
automatically. Examples include the selection of processes, machine tools, tools,
jigs or fixtures, inspection equipment, and sequencing of operations. Setup and
machining times are calculated. Operations instruction sheets are generated to help
the operators run the machines in case of manual operations. If the machines are
numerically controlled, the NC codes are automatically generated.
Manufacturing knowledge is the backbone of process planning. The process of
acquisition and documentation of manufacturing knowledge is not a one-time
activity but a recurring dynamic phenomenon. Furthermore, the sources of
manufacturing knowledge are many and diverse, such as the experience of
manufacturing personnel; handbooks; suppliers of major machine tools, tools, jigs
10
or fixtures, materials, and inspection equipment; and customers. To use this wide CAPP Techniques
spectrum of knowledge ranging from qualitative and narrative to quantitative, it is
necessary to develop a good knowledge structure to help provide a common
denominator for understanding manufacturing information, ensuring its clarity, and
providing a framework for future modifications. Tools available for the purpose
include flowcharts, decision trees, decision tables, iterative algorithms, concepts of
unit-machined surfaces, pattern recognition techniques, and artificial intelligence
tools such as expert system shells.
Table 4.1 : Boolean Value-Type Entries
Extra support T
Rule 1 Rule 2
Entries can be either Boolean-type values (true, false, and do not care) or
continuous values. See Tables 4.1 and 4.2. The decision-making mechanism works
as follows: for a particular set of condition entries, look for its corresponding rule,
and from that rule determine the actions. For example, if the condition is to drill a
hole, then from the rules we look for the rule that can be applied, and from that
rule we get the solution (or action).
Table 4.2 : Continuous Value-Type Entries
Extra support T T T
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Elements of CAPP
4.4 KNOWLEDGE-BASED PROCESS PLANNING
We provide a brief discussion of knowledge-based process planning. A knowledge based
system refers to a computer program that can store knowledge of a particular domain and
use that knowledge to solve problems from that domain in an intelligent way
(Hayes-Ruth, 1983). In a knowledge-based process planning system we use a computer
to simulate the decision process of a human expert. Usually, human process planners
develop process planning based on their experience, knowledge, and inference. A
computer, to some extent, can also be used to perform these functions. By capturing this
process through the use of a knowledge-based system, the proper process plan may be
developed. In a knowledge-based system, two major problems need to be solved: the
knowledge representation and the inference mechanism. The knowledge representation is
a scheme by which a real-world problem can be represented in such a way that the
computer can manipulate the information. For example, to define a part, we need to
define whether there is a hole in it. Given that there is a hole, we next have to define the
attributes of the hole, such as the type of hole, the length, and the diameter.
The reason for this is that the computer is not capable of reading the design from
blueprints or databases as humans are. The inference mechanism is the way in which the
computer finds the solution. One approach is based on IF-THEN structured knowledge.
For example, IF there is a hole, THEN a drill may be used. Through this type of
knowledge, the computer can infer what operations are needed. Once the operations are
known, it is easy to calculate other details and the process plan can be developed. Other
aspects of a knowledge-based system include the interface, which contains the user
interface, the interface with the computer-aided design (CAD) database, and the inquiry
facility, which explains why a decision is made.
GARI is probably the first AI based CAPP system to be reported in the literature,
developed by Descotte and Latcombe (1981) at the University of Greonoble in France.
GARI consists of a knowledge base of about 50 rules and a general purpose problem
solver. Knowledge is represented by production rules dealing with conditions for the part
being manufactured and advises representing technological and economical preferences.
These preferences are weighted according to their importance and, where pieces of
advices conflict, the system refers to their weights. The manufacturing rules are of the
‘IF-THEN’ type and are parameterized by simple variables and set variables (see
Figure 4.5). GARI is implemented in MACLISP language and operates on
CH-Honeywell Bull HB-68 computer under the MULTICS operation system. Recently
GARI has been tested in the metal cutting industry with satisfactory results. A typical
GARI representation is shown in Figure 4.6.
STOCK
PART P
Rule 3
IF feature is a SLOT
AND tolerance = + 0.010 in
AND surface finish <= 94
THEN machining _Process is END_ MILLING
AND machining_direction is Z_Axis
0.5
2
F1
F3
Y
3.0
X
Process Plan
Procedure
Specific
Machine Sequence 1 Sequence 2 Sequence 3 Sequence 4
Planning
Chucking
Operation
Operation Specific
Planning
Primary
Operation
Work
Cycle
WC 1 WC 2 WC 3 WC 4 WC 5 WC 6
Figure 4.7 : (a) Processing Element Representation Scheme; (b) Schematic Representation of a Process
Plan; and (c) Overall Structure of the EXPLAN System
Several generative process planning systems have already been developed such as
14 APPAS (Wysk, 1977), CMPP (Waldman, 1983), EXCAP (Davies and Darbyshire,
1984), XPLAN (Lenau and Alting, 1986), and so on. The biggest advantage of CAPP Techniques
generative approach is that the process plan is consistent and fully automated. This
kind of system is mostly oriented towards large companies and research
organizations since they can afford the investment on a long term project.
Especially for companies which has a number of products in small lot sizes the
generative approach is attractive. As a research field to enable the necessary
integration within the CIM concept, the generative approach is important. Five
alternative approaches to generative process planning are discussed in detail by
Allen (1987); decision tables; decision trees/decision tables; axiomatic; rule-based
decision tree; and constraint-based.
Table 4.3 depicts the differentiation of variant and generative CAPP systems with
respect to activity-task-parameter. Figure 4.8 shows the developments in CAPP
systems.
Several generative process planning systems have already been developed such as
APPAS (Wysk, 1977), CMPP (Waldman, 1983), EXCAP (Davies and Darbyshire,
1984), XPLAN (Lenau and Alting, 1986), and so on. The biggest advantage of
generative approach is that the process plan is consistent and fully automated. This
kind of system is mostly oriented towards large companies and research
organizations since they can afford the investment on a long term project.
Especially for companies which have a number of products in small lot sizes the
generative approach is attractive. As a research field to enable the necessary
integration within the CIM concept, the generative approach is important. Five
alternative approaches to generative process planning are discussed in detail by
Allen (1987); decision tables; decision trees/decision tables; axiomatic; rule-based
decision tree; and constraint-based.
Table 4.3 depicts the differentiation of variant and generative CAPP systems with
respect to activity-task-parameter. Figure 4.8 shows the developments in CAPP
systems.
Table 4.3 : Individual Activities for Two Different Methods in CAPP Systems
Simulation No Yes
15
Human
Expert
? Technology
Elements of CAPP
SAQ 2
(a) What are the various approaches available for computer aided process
planning?
(b) Give a brief description of the retrieval type of computer aided process
planning method.
(c) What are the differences between retrieval and generative type of computer
aided process planning? Which is better? Explain your choice.
(d) What methods are available for taking decisions in the process of
developing a process plan?
(e) Briefly explain the methodology to be followed for developing retrieval type
of computer aided process planning system.
4.5 SUMMARY
This unit discusses the importance of CAPP in achieving a fully automated factory.
Process planning forms a link between CAD and CAM, which actually translates the
design language into the manufacturing language. There have been a great number of
efforts and studies to achieve the major goal via CAPP; to effectively integrate the design
and manufacturing, providing the automation and standardisation of the process planning
function.
The two major methods used in computer-aided process planning are the variant CAPP
method and the generative CAPP method. The concept, structure and complexity of
systems using these two approaches are very different. These two approaches have been
distinguished.
A brief discussion of knowledge-based process planning is also given. A
knowledge-based system refers to a computer program that can store knowledge of a
particular domain and use that knowledge to solve problems from that domain in an
intelligent way. The knowledge based systems like GARI, EXPLAN were briefly
discussed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Nanua Singh (1996), Systems Approach to Computer-Integrated Design and
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T. C. Chang and R. A. Wysk (1991), Computer-Aided Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall,
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E. Paul DeGarmo, J. T. Black and Ronald A. Kohser (1997), Materials and Process in
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Kwei-Li, R. and Bedworth, D. D. (1988), A Framework for the Integration of Computer
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Maropoulos, P. G. (1995), Review of Research in Tooling Technology, Process
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