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Prof. Christoph Heubeck

Institut für Geologische Wissenschaften
Freie Universität Berlin
Malteserstr. 74-100
12249 Berlin
GERMANY

ph: ++49-(0)30-83870695 fax: ++49-(0)30-83870734

cheubeck@zedat.fu-berlin.de http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~cheubeck/

Today‘s Lecture: Reservoir engineering

• Drive Mechanisms
• Pressure-Transient Analysis
Reservoir Engineering • Recovery Factor
(light) • Subsurface Phases
• Links and Literature

1
 Drive Mechanisms Drive Mechanisms

9 High Porosity
9 Permeability What causes hydrocarbons in the reservoir to move to the
9 HC saturation wellbore ?
9Source of reservoir energy !
Which forces should be supported or pushed back ?

Where and how should secondary recovery strategies be

Driving force(s) to create a
implemented?
pressure differential, causing
HC to flow to the wellbore
(natural or artifical)

Drive Mechanisms Gas Cap Drive

Only where a gas cap

Gas cap drive exists (or where one
Solution gas drive Gas
forms): RF ~20-45%;
Cap
Water drive (Bottom-water, edge-water) possibly assisted by
gravity grive
Oil Zone
Gravity drainage drive
Combination Drive Initial
Conditions

Danger of depressurizing
volatile phase (gas)
Gas
Cap

Oil Zone

During
Depletion

2
Solution Gas Drive Bottom Water Drive
Gas comes out of solution as
production causes reservoir
Need aquifer under
pressure decline (cola-can
pressure. Need favorable
analogy): Least efficient of
uniform water advance.
the drive mechanisms, RF 5-
RF ~50% but may be as
20 % Oil Zone
high as 85% !

Initial Aquifer
Conditions

Danger of producing Danger of drawing the

volatile phase (gas) first less viscous phase
(water) to the wellbore
(water coning, water
tunneling)
During
Depletion
Oil Zone

Edge Water Drive

Gravity Drainage /
Present in all reservoirs
Gravity Drive
but very low production
rates.

Important only
• near reservoir depletion,
• in reservoirs with high
structure, and
• low-viscosity oils

3
 Producing GOR trends by drive mechanism
Combination Drive
5
Gas-to-oil ratio

Producing GOR – mscf/stb

4
Solution
Gas Cap gas drive Gravity
Dangers (and possibilities!) drive
Oil Zone
from all sides !
3
Aquifer

Water drive
1

Gas Cap

Oil Zone
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Oil Produced - % of OOIP original oil in place

Reservoir Pressure Trends by drive mechanism Reservoir Water Cut by drive mechanism
100 100

Water drive
Reservoir Pressure (% of Original)

Water Cut (% of Produced Fluid)

80 80

Water drive

60 60

Solution
gas drive

40 40

Gravity
drive

20 20
Gravity drive

Solution gas drive

0 0
Gas cap drive
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Oil Produced - % of OOIP Oil Produced - % of OOIP

4
 5 5
Gas Cap Expansion Drive Solution Gas Drive

4 4

Ultimate Recovery Ranges by Drive Mechanism

3 3

2 2
Drive Mechanism Energy Source Recovery (% OOIP)
Solution Gas Evolved Solution Gas 5-30
1 1
Drive Expansion
Gas Cap Drive Gas Cap and evolved 20-40
?
0 0
solution gas expansion 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

5 5
Water Drive Aquifer Expansion 35-75
Gravity Drive
Water Drive
Gravity Drainage Gravity 5-30 ( incremental) 4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Black = GOR Blue = water cut Red = pressure

5 5

Gas Cap Expansion Drive Solution Gas Drive

4 4 Recommendations for perforations

3 3
Gas Cap Drive Gravity Drive

2 2

Gas
1 1 Cap

0 0 Oil Zone
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

5 5 Initial
Gravity Drive Conditions
Water Drive
4 4

As far away as posssible from

3 3
the gas cap in gas cap As close to the OWC in a
reservoirs gravity drainage
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Black = GOR Blue = water cut Red = pressure

5
 Recommendations for perforations Reservoir engineering

Water Drive

• Drive Mechanisms
• Pressure-Transient Analysis
• Recovery Factor
Oil Zone • Subsurface Phases
Aquifer • Links and Literature

As high up as possible in
water-drive reservoirs

Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

110’
Undetermined
inner
outer radius
radius

5280’ = 1 mile

DST 1 was performed over

the perforated interval
12400’ - 12517’ MDRT
in the Fulmar Fm.

Fig. 62: Halley 30/12b-8 test overview.

Fig. 67: Interpretation of 30/11b-3 DST 1.

6
 Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

28’

Open ? Open ?

85’

5280’ = 1 mile

Parallel-boundary model for 30/12b-6 DST 1

Seismic and test data show fieldwide compartmentalization Reservoir engineering

30/12b-7
Dry hole.
Not te sted

ton
Apple ha
Outer radius
unknown due to
short test
Alp
• Drive Mechanisms
durati on

110’
inner radi us

450’
30/11b-4
30/11b-1
No reservoir.
Not te sted
580 0 psi DST “saw”
only 8 -12 MMB OIP

open
• Pressure-Transient Analysis
• Recovery Factor
30/11b-3
Short tes t
490 0 psi
gas condensate
1550’
Mo

• Subsurface Phases
nik ie

a,
108 0 psi

30/12b-6
Gamm
leton Halley lta y
Halle Alpha
Close II
faults.

App Beta
28’

De
open
30/11b-5
Au k

Fault

poo r shows. 85’ 30/12b-4 30/12b-2

Not teste d open
Close Faults (3 0 deg) 1100’ U-shaped F bloc k
In comm . with Fulm ar ?
Fau

Halley • Links and Literature

1100’
80’
960 psi
lt

160’ open
1000’ open
1000’ V1 833 psi

Fa ult Be 2200’

ta
Zo

200’

Fulmar
ne

1000’

h (V2) ~ 300’, Vol(V2) ~ 3.5 e8 ft3

A(V2) ~ 10,000 * 10000 ft2 30/12b-8
Represented by 4 blocks of 2,500 side length each In pressu re 970 psi
Spatial Relation to V1 unconstrained comm. with 12b -4
30/12b-3
Dry hole.
Not te sted

N
923 psi

F ield Clyde Field

Fulmar
5280’ = 1 mile

882 psi

Appleton / Halley open

Fault Compartmentalization 450 ’
from Seismic and Interpretation
Geometrical
of PTA and RFT Data 1550 ’
Representation Well Major Pressure

7
 Study of 100 FIELD NAME COUNTRY RSVR AGE RSVR CLSS
CAMBRIAN
fractured HASSI MESSAOUD ALGERIA FRACTURED TIGHT SANDSTONE

Definition Recovery Factor reservoirs ELMWORTH-WAPITI CANADA

CRETACEOUS FRACTURED TIGHT SANDSTONE

(by C&C TURNER VALLEY CARBONIFEROUS FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

CANADA

Reservoirs) WATERTON DEVONIAN-CARBONIFEROUS FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

CANADA
PRECAMBRIAN
Recovery Factor: RENQIU CHINA KARSTIC/FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

AHWAZ IRAN CRETACEOUS FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

MANSURI IRAN CRETACEOUS FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

Percentage of AIN ZALAH IRAQ CRETACEOUS FRACTURED MUDDY CARBONATE

economically BAI HASSAN IRAQ TERTIARY FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP

recoverable reservoir KIRKUK IRAQ TERTIARY FRACTURED/KARSTIC ORGANIC BUILDUP

fluid, compared to KARACHAGANAK KAZAKHSTAN

DEVONIAN-PERMIAN FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP

Original Oil in Place TENGIZ KAZAKHSTAN

DEVONIAN-CARBONIFEROUS KARSTIC/FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP

(OOIP) CANTARELL MEXICO

CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY FRACTURED FORESLOPE CARBONATE

POZA RICA CRETACEOUS FRACTURED FORESLOPE CARBONATE

MEXICO

EKOFISK CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY FRACTURED FORESLOPE CHALK

NORWAY

SAFAH CRETACEOUS FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

OMAN
IDD EL SHARGI NORTH DOME QATAR CRETACEOUS FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

VERKHNEVILYUY RUSSIA CAMBRIAN FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

ABQAIQ SAUDI ARABIA JURASSIC FRACTURED MUDDY CARBONATE

ANSCHUTZ RANCH EAST USA JURASSIC TIGHT SANDSTONE

JONAH USA CRETACEOUS TIGHT SANDSTONE

LOST HILLS USA TERTIARY FRACTURED SILICEOUS SHALE

www.pore-cor.com. POINT ARGUELLO USA TERTIARY FRACTURED MICROPOROUS CHERT

WATTENBERG USA CRETACEOUS TIGHT SANDSTONE

YATES USA PERMIAN KARSTIC/FRACTURED CARBONATE SAND

Study of 100 fractured reservoirs ( by C&C Reservoirs) Type I Type II Type III Type IV

Reservoir management
Reservoir properties strategy

• Lithology • Optimization of production rate

• matrix heterogeneity • EOR technique:
• fracture distribution Water flood, steam flood Fractured Fractured porous Microporous Macroporous
• fluid viscosity reservoirs reservoirs reservoirs reservoirs
• drive mechanism
• wettability Enhanced oil Little matrix Low matrix High matrix High matrix
recovery porosity and porosity and porosity and low porosity and
permeability. permeability. matrix permeability.
Fractures Matrix provides permeability Matrix provides
provide both some storage both storage
storage capacity capacity; capacity and
and fluid-flow fractures provide fluid-flow
pathways the fluid-flow pathways, while
pathways fractures merely
enhance
permeability

8
Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type I Type II Type III Type IV

Fractured Fractured Microporous Macroporous

reservoirs porous reservoirs reservoirs
reservoirs
Which one are you going ave. RF = 21 % ave. RF = 26% ave. RF = 24% ave. RF = 34%
to buy?

easily damaged by … dependent upon … most sensitive to

excessive production rates.
Many perform well under
unassisted primary recovery
when managed properly
lithology, wettability, drive mechanism
and fracture intensity.
The choice of proper
EOR technique is
essential for optimum
exploitation

Ultimate recovery efficiency in 450 mature clastic fields Reservoir engineering

Development strategies and reservoir management techniques play crucial roles in maximizing
expected ultimate recoveries for given reservoir/fluid parameters.

• Drive Mechanisms
Five main fluid type/permeability clastic-reservoir classes, with characteristic ultimate recovery
distributions and controls, are:
• Pressure-Transient Analysis
(1) heavy oil/tar reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by well spacing/reservoir depth, reservoir
• Recovery Factor
connectivity and the application of tertiary recovery techniques; • Subsurface Phases
(2) low-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by permeability variations, well spacing
and application of waterflooding/miscible flooding, fraccing and horizontal drilling;
• Links and Literature
(3) intermediate-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by fluid viscosity variations,
reservoir heterogeneity/architecture and application of waterflooding;

(4) high-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by natural drive strength/type and
control of aquifer and gas-cap encroachment; and

(5) gas/condensate reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by permeability variations, aquifer

encroachment and condensate drop-out.

9
 Vaporization of a pure substance at constant Pressure Vaporization of a pure substance at constant Temperature

T1 P1 T2=Tv P1 T2=Tv T3 P1 T1 P1 T1 P2=Pv T1 P2=Pv T1 P3

P1

Gas Gas
Liquid Liquid

Gas Gas
Liquid Liquid

Gas Gas
Liquid Liquid

Hg Hg

Hg Hg

Hg Hg

Hg Hg

P above
Heating Hg flows out so that Vapor
p stays constant Pressure

Pressure-Volume Diagram of a Pure Substance Pressure-Temperature Diagram of a Pure Substance

Critical Point
Pc

Liquid Precipitation,
Melting Condensation
Critical
Point
Pressure, p

Pc T7

Pressure, p
Freezing
Solid
Liquid T6
De
in e

Evaporation
wP
tL

T5 = Tc Condensation ?
in

o in

Liquid Vapor
Po

T4 Vapor
tL

+
bl e

ine

T3
Vapor
b
Bu

T2 Sublimation
T1

Vc Tc
Temperature, T
Specific Volume, v

10
 Chemical Composition of Hydrocarbons
Phase properties of the binary ethane – ethane system
Composition of Reservoir Fluids
1400

100%
8,21

1200 CA 22,57

80%
Reservoir Pressure (psia) C7+
56,4 C6
1000
nC5
Critical iC5
60%

Dew Point Line

Point nC4
Ethane,

e
Lin
800 iC4
CE CB 86,12
92,46
C3

int
40% 73,19

Po
C2
C1
le
600 bb Critical 57,6
N2
Mixture Point
Bu

B Heptane, 20% CO2

Mixture CH
34,62
A Lin
e ne
400
int Li
Po t
in
b b le P o
Bu
0%
ew
D

as

il
as

l
te

oi
O
200

sa

k
e

ac
ry

til
et

en

la
D

Bl
W

nd

vo
0 100 200 300 400 500

co
as
Reservoir Temperature, deg F

G
Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

5000 5000

4500 100% 4500 100%

Typical Typical 8,21

4000 reservoir 4000 reservoir

temperatures 80% temperatures 80%

3500 C7+ 3500 C7+

C6 C6
Pressure, psia

Pressure, psia
nC5 nC5
3000 60% iC5 3000 Gas 60% iC5
nC4
Condensate nC4
iC4 iC4
92,46
2500 C3 2500 C3
40% C2 40% 73,19 C2
C1 C1
2000 N2 2000 N2
CO2 CO2
20% 20%
1500 1500

Liquid
1000 1000
0% 0%
Gas Wet Gas
500 gas 500
Condensate
0 0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Wet gas Temperature, deg F Temperature, deg F

11
 Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

5000 5000

4500 100% 4500 100%

Typical Typical
4000 reservoir 22,57
4000 reservoir
temperatures 80% temperatures 80%
C7+ C7+
3500 3500 56,4
C6 C6
Pressure, psia

Pressure, psia
nC5 nC5
60% iC5 60% iC5
3000 3000
nC4 nC4
iC4 iC4
2500 C3 2500 C3
40% C2 40% C2
C1 C1
2000 57,6 N2 2000 N2
CO2 CO2
20% 20%
34,62
1500 1500

1000 0%
1000 0%

Volatile Black
500
oil 500
oil
0 0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Temperature, deg F Temperature, deg F

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures Behavior of fluids during depletion

5000 5000

4500 4500
Typical

De
4000 reservoir 4000

w
temperatures

Po
Volatile

Loci

i nt
3500 3500
oil

Lo
Pressure, psia

Pressure, psia
Gas

t
Poin

ci
3000 3000
Condensate

le
Bubb
2500 2500

2000
Black 2000
oil
1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Wet gas Temperature, deg F Temperature, deg F

12
 Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram

4000 4000
Gas Single-phase Gas Single-phase
condensate oil reservoir condensate gas reservoir
reservoir reservoir
A
3500 3500
B B
Reservoir C Reservoir
3000 Critical Fluid 3000 Critical Fluid
Reservoir Pressure (psia)

Reservoir Pressure (psia)

t Point t Point
in in
Po Po
e e
bl ci 80 % bl ci 80 %

path of reservoir fluid

b o b o
Bu L Bu L
2500 2500

path of

%
Produced

40

40
produced
2000 2000
fluid Fluid

%
Dew

Dew
20

20
%

%
1500 1500

Poin

Poin
10

10
e
m
lu

t
Liquid Volume Vo

Loci

Loci
%

%
id
qu
1000 5 1000

5
Li

%
0

0
500 500

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Reservoir Temperature, deg F Reservoir Temperature, deg F

Behavior of fluids during depletion Behavior of fluids during depletion

Gas injection causes re-vaporization

Propane injection in oil of gas condensate
can cause dramatic
nonlinear viscosity
Reservoir Reservoir
4 3 2 1 reduction (CO2 is 4 3 2 1
Fluid best) Fluid

C C
nt nt
P oi P oi
ble ble
Pressure

Pressure
Bub Line Produced Bub Line Produced
Fluid Fluid
Dew Poin

Dew Poin
Adding gas (a solvent)
to oil (about 40%) can
t Line

t Line
cause asphaltene
precipitation
Hydrate may form from gas and
water upon gas expansion (need
antifreeze injection)
s s s s s s
Gas evolving from oil
due to pressure drop
during depletion can
Temperature cause wax Temperature
precipitation

13
 Behavior of fluids during depletion

5
Difficulty and relevance of early reservoir
fluid sampling !
4 3 2 1
Pressure

C
4

pressure
s s s 2

Temperature
asphaltene precipitation
1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

time

Last word

Geologist Reservoir Geologist

Engineer Hydrocarbon
Basins
Plant
Engineer Production
Engineer

14
 Lectura Practica Lectura
9:15-10:45 11:30-13:00 15:15-16:45
Lu Lectura 1 / 2 (Introduction; Lab 2 (Internet Lectura 3 (Geochemistry: Origin of
The petroleum system) resources) HC; organic matter, source rocks,
accumulation. The "petroleum
kitchen")

Ma Lectura 4 (porosidad, Lab 4 (Porosity Lectura 6 (The reservoir: Lithology,

permeabilidad) calculation) geometry, and facies. Reservoir
characterization and management)

Mi Lectura 5 (Reservoir Lab 5 (Bound Lectura 7 (Reservoir engineering:

petrophysics: capillary water, capillarity Drive mechanisms, phase behavior,
pressure, pore-size exercise) production problems, scale
distribution, bound water formation etc.)
etc.)

Ju Lectura 9 (Logging Lab 9 (Logging Lectura 8 (Geophysics in

concepts and tools; exercise) exploration and reservoir
quantitative evaluation of management)
lithology, fluids, and
porosity)

Vi Lectura 10 (Exploration: Lab 10 (Petro Lectura 11 (Summary: Reserves

Hydrocarbon classification Mod) and Resources, unconventional HC)
of basins; play types)

15