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Spherical Tringonometry..g PDF
Spherical Tringonometry..g PDF
OF
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
BY JAMES HANN,
J,\TE MATHEMATICAL MASTER OF KING'S COLLEGE 8CHOOL, LONDON.
LONDON:
VIRTUE BROTHERS & CO., 26, IVY LANE,
v ' '
PATEItNOSTEIt HOW.
18GG.
PREFACE
TO THE
SECOND EDITION.
0. H. DOWLINGr, C.E.
p
CONTENTS.
Pag©
Definitions 1
Polar Triangle 2
Fundamental Formula 4
Relations between the Sides and Angles of Spherical Triangles . . 5, 7
Napier's Analogies 8
Right-angled Triangles 10
Napier's Circular Parts 11
Solution of Oblique-angled Spherical Triangles 18
Ambiguous Cases of Spherical Triangles . . . ' 23
Table of Results from the Ambiguous Cases 25
To reduce an Angle to the Horizon 26
Numerical Solution of Right-angled Spherical Triangles 28
Quadrantal Triangles 38
Oblique-angled Triangles 35
Area of a Spherical Triangle . 44, 48
Girard's Theorem 51
Legendre's Theorem 52, 55
Solidity of a Parallelepiped 55
LexelFs Theorem 57, 59
Polyhedrons 61, 67
Examples and Problems 67
SPHEEIGS.
r.
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
]. A sphere is a solid determined by a surface of which all
the points are equally distant from an interior point, which is
called the centre of the sphere.
2. Every section of a sphere
made by a plane cutting it, is the
arc of a circle. c——
Let 0 be the centre of the
sphere, A P B A a section made by
1
a plane passing through it, draw
00 to the cutting plane, and pro¬ N
duce it both ways to D and E, and V M
draw the radii of the sphere 0 A,
OP. '
Now, since OOP and OCA are
right anales, O A2 2 — 0 C22 = A C2. 2
and OP -OC = PC , but 0A = OP2;
2
AC2 = PC2
or AC = PC; hence the section APBA is a circle.
If the cutting plane pass through the centre, the radius of
the section is evidently equal to the radius of the sphere, and
such a section is called a great circle of the sphere.
3. The poles of any circle are the two extremities of that
diameter or axis of the sphere which is perpendicular to the
plane of that circle ; and therefore either pole of any circle is
equidistant from every part of its circumference, and, if it be
a great circle, its pole is 90° from the circumference. A
spherical triangle is the portion of space comprised between
three arcs of intersecting great circles.
4. The angles of a spherical triangle are those on the surface
of the sphere contained by the arcs of the great circles which
form the sides, and are the same as the inclinations of the
planes of those great circles to one another.
5. Any two sides of a spherical triangle are greater than the
third side.
B
9 PPHERIC8.
Since by Euclid XI. 20, any two of the plane angles, which
form the solid angle at (), are together greater than the third,
hence any two of the arcs which measure those angles must
be greater than the third.
6. Since the solid angle at 0 (see fig. p. 3) is contained by
three plane angles, and by Euclid XL 21, these are together
less than four right angles, hence the three arcs of the sphe¬
rical triangle which measure those angles must be together less
than the circumference of a great circle, that is a-{-S + c>
360, and since any two sides of a triangle is greater than the
third, we have 6 + c>a; a b.
CHAPTER I.
8. Spherical Trigonometry treats of the various relations
between the sines, tangents, &c., of the known parts of a sphe¬
rical triangle, and those that are unknown; or, which is the
same thing, it gives the relations between the parts of a solid
angle formed by the inclination of three
planes which meet in a point, for the solid ?.
angle is composed of six parts, the incli- ; c
nations of the three plane faces to each \ \ jj/1 "v"--
other, and also the inclinations of the ' X/
three edges; in fact, a work might be writ- \ /
ten on this subject without using the /
spherical triangle at all, for the six parts \ \ /
of the spherical triangle are measures of the
six parts of the solid angle at 0. See fig.
9. If a spherical angle have one of its angles a right angle,
it is called, a^ right-angled triangle; if one of its sides be a
quadrant, it is called a quadrantal triangle ; if two of the sides
be equal, it is called an isosceles triangle, &c., as in Plane
Trigonometry.
10. To determine the sines and cosines of a spherical tri¬
angle in terms of the sines and cosines of the sides.
Let 0 be the centre of the sphere on which the triangle
A B 0 is situated, draw the radii OA, OB, 0 0; from 0 A
draw the perpendiculars A D and A E, the one in the plane
0 AB, and the other in the plane 0 AC, and suppose them to
b2
3: SPHEIUCAL TRIGONOMETRY.
meet the radii OB and 0 0 produced in D and E. The angle
D A E is equal to the angle A of the spherical triangle, and
taking the radius unity we have A D = tan C, 0 D = sec C,
A E = tan b, 0 E = sec b.
Then in triangles DAE and D 0 E we have
O D2 + 0 E2 - 2 0 D . 0 E cos E 0 D = D EJ
AD2 + AE2 —2AD . AE cos A = DE2
by subtracting the second equation from the first, observing
that OD2— AD2 = OE2— AE2= 1, and EOD is measured
by B C or a, we obtain
2 + 2 A D . A E cos A — 2 0 D . 0 E cos a — 0;
or by substituting the above values
1 + tan b . tan c cos A — sec b sec c cos a = 0
, 1 , sin b
but sec b7 - j-, tan o = :
cos 6 cos b
1 sin c
sec c , tan c = :
cos c cos c
sin b sin c cos A cos a
1 H 7
cos b cos c cos bj cos
= c 0;
hence cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A (1)
which is the fundamental formula in Spherical Trigonometry.
11. In the figure the sides b and c are less than 90°, but it is
easily seen that equation (1) is gene¬
ral. Let us suppose that one of the
sides, A C or b for example, is greater
than 90°; draw the semi-circum-
j.b ferences C A 0', 0 B C, and make the
v ... - triangle ABC of which the sidea
c7 a' and b', or B C and A C, are sup-
•*'" plements of a and b, and the angle:
B A C the supplement of A. Since
the sides b and c are less than 90°, the equation (1) can be
applied to the triangle A B C, and gives
cos a' = cos b' cos c -f- sin sin c cos B A C ... (2).
SrHERICAIi TRIGONOMETRY.
Now a! = 180°- o, V = 180°-b, B A C = 180°- A; these
values substituted in eq. (2) will give eq. (1), which shows
that it is true for the case where b is greater than 90°.
Let us now suppose that the two
sides b and c are both greater than
90°; produce AB and A C till they b, / ;
intersect in A', which forms the c ./ /c'
triangle B C A' in which the angle A' /
is equal to A, and the sides b' and c' /B
the supplements of b and c; by
making the substitutions in this
case, we still find that equation (1)
satisfied.
Lastly, we can verify equation (1) in the case where
I = 90° and c = 90° either both together or separately.
If we apply equation (1) to each of the sides of the triangle,
we shall have three equations by means of which we can
always find any three parts whatever of the triangle, when the
three others are given. But, for practice, it is necessary to
have separately the divers relations which exist between four
parts of the triangle taken in every possible manner. There
are in all four distinct combinations, which we proceed to
give.
12. 1st, Relation between the three sides and an angle.
By applying equation (1) to the three angles, we have
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A (1)
cos b — cos a cos c + sin a sin c cos B (2)
cos c = cos a cos b -f sin a sin b cos C (3)
13. 2nd, Relation between two sides and their opposite
angles.
From equation (1) we have
. cos a — cos b cos c
cos A = ;—7—;—
sin o sin c
tt
Hence . 2. A
sin A = -1 — cos22A
A = .1 — (cos .a —« ,cos. b» c)s
cos ~
sin'4 o sm-'c
(1 — cos2 6) (1 — cos2 c) — (cos a — cos b cos c)3
sin2 b sin2 c
6 . SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
sin A yi — cos2 a — cos2 b — cos2 c + 2 cos a cos b cos c
sin a sin a sin 6 sin c
We must take the radical with the positive sign, seeing
that the angles and the sides are less than 180°; their sines
are positive. As the second member remains constant when
we change A and a into B and b, &c., we have
sin A sin B sin 0
sin a sin b sin c
Hence in any spherical triangle, the sines of the angles
are to each other as the sines of their opposite sides.
14. 3rd, Relation between the two sides and their included
angle, and the angle opposite one of them.
In considering the combination a, A, 0; first eliminate
cos c, between the equations (1) and (3) and we have
cos a = cos a cos2 b + cos b sin a sin b cos 0 + sin b sin c cos A
transposing cos a cos2 b, and observing that cos a—cos a cos2 b
= cos a sin2 b; and, dividing the whole by sin b sin a, it
becomes
cos a sin b , ^ , sin c cos A
; = cos b cos 0 H ; ,
sm a sin a
sin c sin 0 , . , , .
but —r-; and consequently we have for the relation
sin a sin A
sought
cot a sin b = cos b cos 0 + sin 0 cot A.
By permuting the letters, we have in all the following six
equations:
cot a sin b = cos b cos 0 + sin 0 cot A (5)
cot b sin a = cos a cos 0 + sin 0 cot B (6)
cot a sin c = cos c cos B + sin B cot A (7)
cot c sin a = cos a cos B + sin B cot 0 (8)
cot b sin c = cos c cos A + sin A cot B (9)
cot c sin b = cos b cos A 4- sin A cot 0 (10)
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 7
15. 4:th, Relation between one of the sides and the three
angles. Eliminate b and c from the equations (1) (2) (3) : to
do this we have by the last article
cos a sin & _ ^ sin c cos A
; = cos o cos (J — . ,
sin a sin a
sin b sin B _ sin c sin 0
and since ——=-—- and ——=-—
sin a smA sin a sin A
we have
cos a sin B = cos b sin A cos 0 + cos A sin C;
and changing a and A into b and B, and vice versa, we obtain
cos b sin A = cos a sin B cos 0 + cos B sin C.
We have only now to eliminate cos b by the two preceding
equations. We find after reduction the relation sought
between ABO and a, which, applied to the three angles
successively, will give the three equations
cos A = — cos B cos 0 + sin B sin 0 cos a (11)
cos B = — cos A cos 0 + sin A sin 0 cos b (12)
cos 0 = — cos A cos B + sin A sin B cos c (13)
16. The analogy of these equations with the fundamental
formula is striking, and conducts us to a remarkable conse¬
quence. Let us imagine a spherical triangle A' B' 0', of which
the sides a' V c' are the supplements of the angles A, B, C;
then from equation (1) we shall have
cos a' — cos V cos c' + sin b' sin b1 cos A'.
Now sin a'= am A, cos a = — A, sin U = sin B, &c., then
— cos A = cos B cos 0 + sin B sin 0 cos A!.
From this equation we find for cos A! a value equal but of
a contrary sign to that which we find for cos a in equation
(11); then a = 180° — A', similarly b — 180 — B', and c =
180 — C. Hence, having given any spherical triangle, if
we describe another triangle,, the sides of which are the sup¬
plements of the angles of the first, then the sides of the first
will be the supplements of the angles of the second. From
this property the two triangles are called supplementary, and
eometimes the triangles are said to be polar to each other.
8 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
NAPIER S ANALOGIES.
17. We now proceed to deduce the formulse known by the
name of the analogies of Napier, which are employed to sim¬
plify some of the cases of spherical triangles.
The equations (1) and (2) give
cos a — cos b cos c = sin b sin c cos A;
cos b — cos a cos c = sin a sin c cos B.
By division, observing that S^n a ^^
sin b sin B '
we have cos b — cos a cos c sin A cos B
cos a — cos b cos c sin B cos A *
By subtracting and adding unity to both sides of this
equation and again dividing
cos b — cos a 1 -f cos c sin (A — B)
cos b + cos a 1 — cos c sin (A + B)"
But by Plane Trigonometry, page 30, (12),
cos b — cos a
= tan (a 4- b) tan J (a — b)
cos b + cos a
but1 + 003 c
1 — cos c tan2 ^ c
and sin (A + B) = 2 sin % (A + B) cos J- (A + B)
sin (A — B) = 2 sin ± (A — B) cos J (A — B)
Substituting these values, the above equation becomes
tan J (a + b) tan (a — b) =
tan2 i ccos j(A-B)\_ (a)
\8in J (A + B) cos | (A + B) /
, . sin a sin A
ana since-:—-—-
sin b sin B
sin a h
we have + _ sin A + sin B
sin a — sin b sin A — sin B*
By Plane Trigonometry, page 30,
tan | (q + b) sin | (A + B) cos | (A — B)
tan j (a — b) cos £ (A + B) sin | (A — B)'
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 9
Multiply th^se two equations together, and then dividing
one by the other and extracting the root, observing that
tan £ (a + 5) and cos J (A + B) ought to have the same
sign,
t™ + ^~g - (H)
<15)
= (17)
My able and talented friend, Mr. Eeynolds, of Chelsea Hos¬
pital, has sent me the following very neat method of deducing
Napier's Analogies, which he says was communicated to him
by Mr. Adams, the celebrated astronomer of Cambridge.
T , sin A sin B sin A + sin B
Let m= = = — ;——.
sin a sm b sm a + sin b
Then by the formula (11) page 7,
cos A + cos B cos C = sin B sin C cos a
= m sin C sin b cos a...(I)
cos B + cos A cos 0 = sin A sin 0 cos b
= m sin C sin a cos b...(2)
Add (1) and (2), then
{cos A + cos B} (1 + cos 0) = m sin 0 sin (o + b).
Also sin A + sin B = m (sin a + sin b)..
Dividing and reducing we have
a—b
10 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Again, subtracting (2) from (1)
(coa B — cos A) (I — cos 0) = vi . sin (a — b) sin 0
and sin B + sin A = m (sin a + sin 6);
dividing
sm
a—b
j^q 2
tan . tan _ = —— (Anal. 2)
8m
—2—
The other two follow of course from the polar triangle.
ON RIGHT-ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIANGLES.
18. The preceding formulae will apply to right-angled
triangles, if we make any one of the angles = 90°.
If A = 90° we have
cos a = cos b cos c (1)
sin b = sin a sin B (2) sin c = sin a sin 0 (7)
tanb = tan a cos C (3) tanc = tana cos B..;... (8)
tan b = sin c tan B (4) tan c = sin b tan 0 (9)
cos B = sin 0 cos b (5) cos C^= sin B cos c (10)
cos a = cot B cot 0 (6)
These six independent formulae are all adapted to logarith¬
mic calculation.
The first gives a relation between the hypothenuse and the
two sides containing the right angle; the second, one side
and angle opposite; the third, between the hypothenuse, a
side, and the adjacent angle; the fourth, between the two
sides and the angle opposite to one of them; the fifth, between
one side and the two oblique angles; lastly, the sixth, between
the hypothenuse and the oblique angles.
19. The formula (1) requires that cos a must have the same
sign as the product cos b cos c, or that the three cosines must
be positive, or that only one must be so. Therefore in any
right-angled spherical triangle the tnree sides must be less
than 90°; or two of them must be greater than 90°, and the
third less. The formula (4) shows that tan b has the same
sign as tan B, and tan c the same sign as tan 0. Therefore
each side containing the right angle is of the same kind or
affection as the angle opposite, that is, the angle and the side
are both less than 90° or both greater.
SPHERICAL ^TRIGONOMETRY. 11
CHAPTER II.
SOLUTION OF OBLIQUE-ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIANGLES.
29. Case 1. Given the three sides a> b, c to find the angles
A, B, 0.
To find A, we have by equation (1)
. cos a — cos b cos c
COS A = ; = ; >
sin o sin c
but we obtain an expression better adapted to logarithms by
finding sin J A, cos % A, &c., as in Plane Trigonometry.
Since 2 sin2 i A = 1 — cos A, we have by substituting the
above value of cos A,
_ . - . ^ cos a — cos b cos c
2 sm20 i A 1 :— —;
^ sin u7 sin c
cos b cos c + sin b sin c — cos a
sin b sin c
cos (b — c) —cos a
sin b sin c
(by equation (8) page 30, Plane Trigonometry,)
2 sin ^ (a + 6- c) sin -J- (a — b + c)
5
sin b sin c
sin | a^ /si'iSsin^A-S)
V sin B sin U
• cos i a = A /sin (B - 8). ein (G--S)
V sin B sm 0
tan J a = a // -^-7^ sin S sin (A — S)7 >.-'
gx \ /n Q
V sin (B — S) sm (0 — o)
By using the polar triangle in Case 1, we have
. 1 / — cos S . cos (S — A)
sm a = a / . t> • n
V sin B sm 0
/cos (S-B) cos (S —0)
COS -hJ a = x / ^ ; =r^ ^
V sm B sm 0
- /— cos S . cos (S — A)
tan & a ios (S _ B) cos (SC)
^ C is U
the angle A by Art. 19; then, when A is acute, C D is the
ghortest distance from the point 0 to the semi-circumference
A E, and it is the greatest when A is obtuse.
In the first hypothesis the triangle will be impossible if
we have a < C D, which gives sin a < sin C D, and in the
second it will be impossible if we have a > C D, which gives
again sin A > sin 0 D.
Now, in the right-angled sj)herical triangle A CD, we have
sin 0 D = sin b sin A;
then, in both hypotheses we shall have sin a < sin b sin A.
On the other hand, when we seek the angle B of the unknown
triangle ACB, we have
. B
sin -D = sin b;sin A;
sin a
then this value of sin B will be > 1, which is impossible.
If we have a = 0 D, there will be only one right-angled
triangle, A C D, which will be possible, and it is that which
again indicates the value of sin B, which becomes sin B=l.
It is understood that the angle A is not equal to 90°.
Let us now examine the different relations of magnitude
which the given quantities a, b, A can represent.
Let A < 90° and b < 90° (fig. p. 23). Since A and b
are < 90°, A D is also < 90° by Art. 19 ; then A D D E ;
if now we have besides a b, it is clear that we can place
between C A and C D an arc 0 B = a, and that on the other
side, between 0 D and OE, we can put another C B' = C B =
a ; that is to say, there are two triangles ACB and ACB'
which have the same quantities given, viz., a b A.
When a — b, the triangle ACB disappears, and there re¬
mains only the triangle A C B'.
When a -f- b = 180, or when a + b > 180, the point B'
coincides with E, or passes beyond it, and then no triangle
can exist.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
We can discuss in the same manner the other ^hypotheses.
The results are all contained in the following table. The
sign ^ signifies equal to or greater than; and the sign
eignifies equal to or less than.
a<& two solutions,
b <90° { a>6 0 one solution,
a + &>180 no solution.
A<90°- a + 5<180o two solutions,
b>90° J a + &>1800 one solution,
a%b no solution.
two solutions,
) = 90o| a>6 no solution.
a + 6 > 180° two solutions,
b <90° a + b < ^180° one solution,
a < Cb no solution.
two solutions,
A>90o- a
&>90o ^Cb one solution,
a-\-b :i8oo no solution.
ja>5 two solutions,
& = 90( no solution.
a^b one solution,
b <90° a<& no solution,
a+b^b no solution.
A == 90° \ f «<6 one solution,
b >90° no solution,
I a + 6 <180o no solution.
> = 90° | a = 90° solutions ad infinitum.
a<[or >90° no solution.
By the properties of thfc polar triangle, we can apply the
results to the fifth case, where A, B, a, are given, only taking
care to change a, b, A into A, B, a, the sign > into <, and
the sign < into j>.
When the given quantities fall in a case where we ought
to have only one solution, the calculation will still indicate
two. But to discern which ought to be taken, it is sufficient
to observe; that the greater angle must be opposite to the
greater side, and conversely.
See Lefebure De Fourcy's Trigonometry.
2G SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Suppose,Tor example, that we have given A=112°, a—102°,
b = 106°. In the preceding table, among the cases which
correspond to A > 90°, we consider that where b 90°, and
among these that where a<j^6. We may observe besides, that
a -j- b = 208°, therefore a + b > 180°, we conclude from the
table that there is only one solution, and since b is > a, the
angle B is greater than A, therefore B is obtuse.
sintA=A/ein(*-\)s.in-<l^;
* V sin 6 sin c '
where A = BAG; b = BAD; c = GAD; s = ^ (a + b -}-c).
Let a = 4:7° 45' 39", b = 69° 49' 19", c = 80° 17' 36". We
shall have 2 s=1970 52' 34", s = 98056' 17"; 8-6=29° 6'58";
3 - c = 180 38' 41".
8PHERI0AL TRIGONOMETKY. 27
log Bin (s — 5) 9*6871552
log sin (s — c) 9 •50474:12
comp. log sin b 0*0275078
comp. log sin c 0*0062623
2 log sin J A 19*2256665
log sin A 9*6128332
I A = 24° 12' 27"*9, or A = 48° 24' 56".
QUADKANTAL TRIANGLES.
39. Quadrantal triangles can be solved by the same rules as
right-angled triangles for using the polar triangle; we see that
since one side is a quadrant, and that in the polar triangle
A/= 180 — a;
.-. A'=180° - 90° = 90.
In the polar -triangle, since A' have by the equa¬
tions, page 10,
cos a' = cos b1 cos d
sin b1 = sin a' sin B' sin c' = sin a1 sin C;
tan b1 = tan a' cos C tan cf = tan a' cos B'
o3
34 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
tan V = sin c' tan B' tan c' = sin V tan 0'
cos B' = sin 0' cos V cos 0' = sin B' cos d
cos a' = cot B' cot c'
From these by substituting these values
a! = 180° - A; V = 180° - B; c' = 180° - 0;
A' = 180° - a; B' = 180° ~ 6; 0' = 180° - c;
we get these results,
cos A = — cos B cos C
sin B = sin A sin b sin 0 = sin A sin b
tan B = — tan A cos c tan 0 = — tan A cos I
tan B = tan b sin c tan 0 = sin B tan c
cos b — sin c cos B cos c = sin b cos 0
cos A = cot b cot c
Or without using the polar triangle,
. cos a — cos b cos c
cos A = :—— make a = quadrant,
sm o sin c ^ '
then cos a = 0, and we have
» cos b cos c
cos A :—-—: cot b cot c:
sin 6 sm c '
i} cos b — cos a cos c cos b
cos B =
sm a sm c sm a
cos c — cos a cos b cos c
cos 0 =
sin a sin b sin b
From these equations, and the equation S?n ^ = s^n a We
sin B sin V
can deduce all the cases of quadrantal triangles.
Given A B = c = 32° 57' 6" and A 0 = b = 66° 32' to
find B and A, '
cos A = — cot b cot c
log cos A = log cot b + log cot c — 10
= 10-1882850 + 9-6376106 - 10
= 9*8258956, which is the cosine of 47° 57' 16"
but since cos A is negative, A must be greater than 90°.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 35
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
40. Case 1. Given the three sides, viz.
AB = 79° 17' M" \
BO = 110° (to find the rest.
AC =r 58° j
To find the angle A.
sin
By page 18, sin J A = A/ - 6 ) sil1 ("-").
V sin b sin c '
hence we have the following rule :
From half the sum of the three sides subtract each of the
two sides which contain the required angle.
Add the log sines of these two remainders, and the arith¬
metical complement logs of the sines of the sides which
contain the angle.
Half the sum of these four logarithms will give the log
sine of half the required angle. Thus:
79° 17' 14"
110
58
2)247 17 14
123 38 37 = J sum of the three sides.
79 17 14
44 21 23 first remainder log sin = 9,8445513
123 38 37
58
65 38 37 second remainder log sin = 9,9595173
comp log sin 58° 0,0715795
comp log sin 79° 17' 14/' 0,0076359
2)19,8832840
log sin = 60° 57' 28" = 9,9416420
2
121 54 56 equals the required angle A.
36 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
By a similar operation the angles B and 0 may be found;
but when one angle is known, the other two are easily deter¬
mined by Art. 13, page 6.
Case 2. Given the angle A = 32° 20' 30", the side
5 = 72° 10' 20", and the side a = 78° 59' 10", to find B, 0
and c.
tt ,
Here by page• 6, sm Br, = sin A;. sin 6
sm a
log sin B = log sin A + log sin b — log sin a
log sin A = 9*7283269
log sin b = 9*9786283
19*7069552
log sin a = 9-9919261
log sin B == 9*7150291
B = 31° 15' 15"
By page 9, equation (16)
cot J2 + B)J CQS % (a +
O = tan J v(A n
cos | (a — b)
log cot J 0 =
log tan § (A + B) + log cos J (a + b) — log cos J (a — b)
log tan J (A + B) = log tan 31° W 52" = 9-7217470
log cos J (a +5) •-= log cos .75° 34/ 45" = 9*3962727
19-1180197
log cos -J- (a — 6) = log cos 3° 24/ 25" = 9*9992318
log cot J 0 = 9*1187879
... jo = 82° 30' 39";
or O = 165° 1' 18".
We might find c from the equation
sin C
sin c = sm a . -—r,
sm A
but we can find it directly from Napier's Analogies.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 37
By page 9, equation (14:), we have
log tan 50 =
log tan J (a + 6) + log cos i (A + B) — log cos |(A — B)
log tan J (a + 5) = log tan 75° 34/ 45" = 10-5898236
log cos | (A + B) = log cos 3104:7' 52" = 9-9293745
20-5191981
log cos i (A — B) = log cos 1° 5' 15" = 9-9999218
log tan 50 = 10-5192763
and tan i
2 (A
v — B) = cot ^ 0 . 8laf{a~^
^ sin 5 (o + 6)
| 0 = 18° 22'44" log cot = 10-4785395
i (o - 6) = 20° 0° 22" log cos = 9-9729690
20-4515085
£ (a + 6) = 64° 14' 7" log cos = 9-6381663
To find 0.
sin A sin G
sin a sin c
. « . sin A
or, sin U = sin c . ~—
sin a
log sin 0 = log sin c + log sin A — log sin a
log sinA=log sin 129° 58' 30" = 9*8844129
log sin c = log sin 50° 6'20" = 9*8849241
19-7693370
log sin a = log sin 85° 59' = 9*9989319
19-8750914:
log sin A = log sin 70° 39' = 9*974:7475
201660574:
log cos £ (A — B) = log cos 11° 1' 30" = 9-9919097
log tan | c = 10-1741477
£ c = 56° ir 29",
or c = 112° 22' 58/,.
By equation (16), page 9, we have
cot 10 = tani(A+B) ^
cos ^ (a — ft)
** SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
log COt ^ 0 log =
log tan J (A + B) + log cos J (a + b) — log cos J {a—b}
log tan £ (A -f B) — log tan 59°- 37' 30" = 10-2320208
log cos i (a + b) log cos 70° 57' 59" = 9-5133811
19-74:54019
log cos £ (a — b) = log cos 18° 18' 54" = 9-9774233
Half the sum of these four logarithms will give the cosine
of half the required side; thus
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 43
121° 54:' 56"
50
62 34 6
2)234 29 2
117 14 31
62 34 6
CHAPTER III.
x+
2 180
*+Q=! • ^andz+P + Q + R^
a: + R=— •
consequently, by addition,
2 * + <a: + P + Q+ R) or 2a: + | = | . ^d±±cj
*' X = 4 (180) ^ ^ c —
) j=a+&+c — 180°;
or r* (a + 6 + c — 180°).
Hence the area of a spherical triangle is equal to the ex¬
cess of the sum of its three angles above two right angles,
which is called the spherical excess.
The late Professor Woodhouse, in his able work on Tri¬
gonometry, observes that—" This expression for the value
of the area was merely a speculative truth, and continued
barren for more than 150 years, till 1787, when General Eoy
employed it in correcting the spherical angles of observation
made in the great Trigonometrical Survey."
In a biographical sketch of the life of Isaac Dalby, late
Professor of Mathematics at the Eoyal Military College,
Sandhurst, in Leybourne's Mathematical Repository, it is
stated that he had sent some years previously to his death
an account of the principal events of his life after reaching
maturity. The following is a quotation from himself given
in the above-named excellent periodical:—
"General Koy^ account of this measurement is in the
Philosophical Transactions ; but it is not altogether what it
ought to have been. His description of the apparatus, de¬
tail of occurrences, &c., are all well enough; but he should
not have meddled with the mathematical part, for Ms know¬
ledge did not extend beyond Plane Trigonometry. I drew up
46 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
the computations in that form which I thought the most pro¬
per for publication, but he was continually making alterations.
He didnot even understand the rule I made use offor finding
the excess of the sum of the three angles of a spherical triangle
above 180° (which since that timehas been quoted as General
Roy's theorem), and would not insert it until he had consulted,
the Hon. Henry Cavendish. For conducting the business in
the field, however, few persons could have been better qua¬
lified than the General. . .
" I believe he was the best topographer in England, and
knew the situation of every barrow, cairn, and hillock in
Great Britain. He had something of an observatory in the
upper part of his dwelling, and could regulate a clock or
watch by means of transits. In fact, he was ready enough at
calculations which depended merely on the use of the tables.
But the rules which he published for measuring the heights
of the barometer all came from Mr. RamsdenV
A note is given to this extract in the Repository, which is
as follows:—" It is not until very recently that Mr. Dalby
has had justice done him with regard to this ingenious rule.
At page 138 of the new edition of Yol. III. of Hutton's
Course of Mathematics, published by Dr. Gregory in 1827,
we find this note :—' This is commonly called General Roy's
rule, and given by him in the Philosophical Transactions for
1790, p. 171; it is, however, due to the late Mr. Isaac Dalby,
who was then General Roy's assistant in the Trigonometrical
Survey, and for several years the entire conductor of the
mathematical department.'"
tan I (A + B) = cot £ 0 . —^
- v 7 ^ cos f (a + 6)
an
tan f 1 (A
/A T»\
+ B) + J 0 })
= ^1 _-"f" "I" ^an "i" ^
tan ^ (A+B) tan ^ c
C0S
cot i 0 . r I""?? + tan 4 0
cosJ(a + 6)
1—cot!2 0 . C03|(a-°j . tan i 0
cos 5 (a+6)
cot i 0 . (a ~ H + tan 10
cos J (a + 6)
^ cosJ-(a — b)
cos -g" (& -j- 5)
1+cosC 1—cosO ,,
—=—cos i{a—b)
2 v yH . ^ cos i (a + o)N
sm 0 sm 0 a\ » /
cos % (a + 6) — cos -J- (a — 6)
(by expanding the cosines and reducing)
fiq
COt4b=
cot! a cot J 6 + cos 0
siiTO '
l + cot2|S=:T 21
sin JS •
cot2-Ja cot21-6 + 2 cot J a cot £ b cos O+l
£in2 0 '
2 cotiacot^
2 3 cos C = + 2_
sm2^asin2|6
1— 1 — sin2 \ c or
2
sin J S sin? ^ a sin2 J b sin2 0'
GIKARD'S THEOEEM.
43. By page 45,
ISO0
a 4- b + c — 180° = r x, or reducing a, 6, c to seconds,
TT T*
180° x 60 x 60
the excess m seconds = 5 x.
TT H
Now, on the earth's surface, the length of 1° taking a
mean measurement = (60859*1) x 6 feet, and an arc =
' 360
radius = -— ;
A TT
360
.*. (60859*1) x 6 x —— = radius of the earth in feet;
A TT
. , 2 ir 60 x 60
the excess m seconds = x . r-— • 2
360 6 x (60859-1)2
2s- x 10
.x.
36 x (60859-1)2n'
log . excess =
log x —12 (log 6 -4- log 60859-l)—log 2 tt x 10^
= log * - (11-1249536 - 1-7981799)
= log x - 9-3267737.
d2
52 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence the following rule:—
From the logarithm of the area of the triangle, considered
as a plane one, in feet, subtract the constant logarithm
9,3267737, and the remainder is the logarithm of the excess
above 180°, in seconds nearly.
Observed angles.
Ex. Hanger Hill Tower . (а) 42° 2' 32"
Hampton Poor-house, (б) 67 55 39
King's Arbour (c) 70 1 48
Distance from (a) to (b) = 3,84:61*12 feet, .
from (a) to (c) = 24704:-7.
Taking the distance from (a) to (c) for the base of the
triangle, the //perpendicular on the base will be 38461 *12 x
sin 4:2° 2' 32 , and therefore the area of the triangle
base perpendicular
2
= 24:704:-7 x 19230*56 x sin 42° 2' 32",
log area = log 24704: 7 + log 19230*56
+ log sin 42° 2' 32" - 10
= 4-3927761 + 4-2839906 + 9-8258661
= 8*5026328 = logarithm of the area in feet ;
hence, 8*5026328 — 9*3267737 = — 1*1758591 ,*
the corresponding natural number is *14992, the spherical
excess in seconds.
therefore, S =
. a+£+y
1 . a+€—y Sin
Sln . «+y—€ 3111
. €+y —«
zfgh's/1sin g ~2— 2 —'
S + »S-=S+2,
n 2
2nS + 2mS = m?iS -f-
2 n S + 2 m S — m nS = 4/1,
S|2(7i + m) — m n} =
g_ ^71
2 (n + m) — m n
Now this must be a positive whole number, and in order
that it may be so 2(m + n) must be greater than mn; and,
therefore, — + — > or — > J - —; but m cannot be
Tfl 7b 7b TTL
less than 3, therefore — cannot be so small
ffl J as A — 4-3) or 4
consequently, since n must be an integer and cannot be less
than 3, it can only be 3, 4, or 5. In the same manner m
cannot be less than 3, therefore the values of m can only be
3, 4, or 5.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 63
52. To find the inclination of two adjacent a
faces of a polyhedron to each other.
Let A B be the edge common to the two
adjacent faces of a polyhedron, C and E the c
centres of the faces. Draw CO, EO, per¬
pendicular to the faces meeting each other
in 0; and CD and ED, perpendicular to
AB, the intersection of the planes ABC,
ABE, then the angle 0DE is the required
inclination.
Let n be the number of sides in each
face, m the number of plane angles in each
solid angle if from the* centre 0, and
radius equal to unity, describe a spherical triangle meeting
the lines OA, 0 0, 0 D in p, q, r, we shall have spherical
triangle p q r, in which we have the angle r a right angle,
the angle p = and the angle q = —
m n
cos p
and by right-angled triangles, cos qr = —- ;
but cos qr = cos COD = sin CDO =sin J C, C being the
angle CDE; then
TT
cos —
m
•in
sin | 0=
TT
sm —
n
This equation is general, and applies successively to the
five polyhedrons, by substituting the values of m and n in
each case.
Tetrahedron m = 3, n =. 3. Hexahedron m — 3, n = 4.
Octahedron m = 4, n ass 3. Dodecahedron m = 3, n = 5.
Icosahedron m = 5, n = 3.
From the triangle pqr from which we have deduced the
inclination of the two adjacent faces, we have
CO TT TT
cos pq~ cot p cot q2 : or ——- = cot — cot — :
OA m n
64 ^ SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
therefore, if we call R the radius of the sphere which cir¬
cumscribes the polyhedron, and r the radius of the sphere
inscribed in it, we shall have — = tan tan —:
r m n
la
and, by making the side AB = a, we have 0 A = —^— ;
TT
sin —
n
2 2
JL a2
and, consequently, R = r H—-—
sin2—
n
These two equations give for each polyhedron, the values
of the radii R and r for the circumscribed and inscribed
sphere. We have, supposing 0 known,
r = i-2 a cot — tan \20 and R2 = ir tan — tan ^2 0.
n m
R
In the dodecahedron and icosahedron, — has the same
r
TT TT
value for both ; viz., tan — tan —. Therefore, if R be the
o O
same for both, r will also be the same; that is to say, if
these two solids are inscribed in the same sphere, they will
also circumscribe the same sphere, and vice versd.
The "same property holds with regard to the hexahedron
R
and octahedron, since the value of — is the same for one as
r
1 n* X T
the other; viz., tan — tan -j- •
= !i
^C0t2^tan^c (2)
66 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
From either of these equations we can find the solid
content.
We shall here use the first. Taking the equations
H. tt TT cfi
— = tan
/V*
r /M tan and R2 — r2
—/V*>
m n , ^
4 sm2 —
n
we can find r and R.
(3 }•)2 — r2 = or 8 r2 = y;
, a2 a R
• • ^ = ht.
24:' »' 2?=■
v/6• Also
3 ——r
9 3
2^6
In the hexahedron m = 3, n = 4,
—
r = tan 60 tan 45 = v 3 -: r = 2 = a
^R 2 .
Examples.
1. Prove that the sine of the sun's declination (S) is a
mean proportional between the sines of its altitude at six
o'clock (A) and its altitude when due east "(A').
The circles being projected on the
meridian, S'M=altitude at six o'clock
= A; SC = altitude when due east,
cos S'Z = cos Z P . cos P S', or sin
A = sin lat. sin b; similarly cos S P =
cos SZ cos ZP, or sin 2 = sin A'sin
lat.; dividing one by the other we have
sin A sin 2 or
———T.J
sin S sin A' , sin A : sin S ::
sin S : sin A'.
2. Find at what latitude the azimuth of a star, whose de¬
clination = 30°, is equal to 45° at the time of rising. (See
last figure.)
Let Z be zenith; P the pole; C H horizon; then cos P M =
cos P H cos M H, or sin d = sin lat. cos M Z P; but cos M Z P =
an< s n
y=> l i ^ ; .'.•£■ = sin lat. —, and sin lat. =
Latitude = 45°.
68 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
3. Find the sun's zenith distance when due east on a day
whose declination (S) is given, in a given latitude (X). (See
fig. p. 67.)
Let z c be the prime vertical, P the pole, and S the sun;
then cos S P = cos S z cos z P, or sin B = cos S z sin. lat.j
, ~ sin $
whence cos S z = —
sin X
4. Find latitude of place from given declinations of two
stars, and the difference of their altitudes when they are on
the prime vertical.
Let S and 0 be two stars on the prime vertical; S C =
difference of altitudes, and from the three given sides of the
A S P 0 we can find the Z. 0, which, with C Po in the right-
angled triangle zP C, will give us 2 P = 90 -latitude, and
the latitude is readily found.
nation offi ^ =
the orbit) sin AS-AN) •
tan Qo
8. Explain Flamstead's method of finding the sun's right
ascension.
Let b and o be the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
m n When the sun,
—-j ] —between b and o,
S passing in the
ecliptic b m n o,
has equal declinations (ms and nv), its distances from the
equinoxes (sb and ov) are equal also. We can find when
the sun has equal declinations by observing zenith distances
for two or three days soon after the vernal equinox, and for
two or three days about the same distance of time before the
autumnal equinox, and then, by proportion, ascertain the
precise time when the sun's declinations are equal; also we
can find by proportion the differences of the right ascension
of the sun.and some star by observing the differences at noon'
for some days. Let E = bs — right ascension of sun after
vernal equinox; then 180° — E = b v = right ascension
when it has equal declination. A — right ascension of star
in former case, and A + P = right ascension of star in
latter case. Then we obtain by observation A — E and
(180° — E) — (A + P). Let these differences of right as¬
censions be D and D', that is, A — E = D; (180° — E) —
(A + P) = D'. Adding these, we have 180° — 2 E — P =
18QO
D +D'; E = ~(D + I)/
) — P; whence A = D+E
Z
is known; the value of p, or the change in right ascension
of a star between the times of observation, is given by
tables.
9. In finding the longitude at sea by the lunar method, to
correct the observed distance of the moon from a fixed star
from parallax and refraction.
This is a useful application of the case 1 of oblique angled
spherical triangles. (See page 18.)
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETKY. 71
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