Accepted Manuscript

Performance enhancement of solar still through efficient heat exchange mech-

anism- A review

A.E. Kabeel, T. Arunkumar, D.C. Denkenberger, Ravishankar Sathyamurthy

PII: S1359-4311(16)34017-0
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.12.044
Reference: ATE 9664

To appear in: Applied Thermal Engineering

Received Date: 30 June 2016

Revised Date: 24 November 2016
Accepted Date: 10 December 2016

Please cite this article as: A.E. Kabeel, T. Arunkumar, D.C. Denkenberger, R. Sathyamurthy, Performance
enhancement of solar still through efficient heat exchange mechanism- A review, Applied Thermal Engineering
(2016), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.12.044

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 Performance enhancement of solar still through efficient heat exchange mechanism- A review
A.E. Kabeel1, T. Arunkumar2, D.C. Denkenberger3, Ravishankar Sathyamurthy4
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tanta University, Egypt
2
Institute for Energy Studies, Anna University, Chennai-600 025, Tamilnadu, India
3
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Tennessee State University, Nashville,
TN, USA
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, S.A. Engineering College, Chennai, Tamilnadu,
India

Abstract
The available water sources are insufficient to meet long-term requirements. People can
survive for days, weeks, or months without food, but cannot live for more than a week without
water. The requirements of water for domestic and industrial use have also increased
substantially over the years. Also the limited supply of fresh water in many parts of the world
has also resulted in purification of sea water, waste water and brackish water for fresh water
production. So fresh water production has rightly been accorded a high priority in many
countries’ development. This review article analyzes the effect of various heat exchange
mechanisms adopted by researchers to augment the water production from different solar still
designs. Many authors have designed and tested conventional solar stills, modifications in the
basin geometry and integration with collectors. It is also possible to augment the output of
solar distillation systems with internal energy storage. The energy storage of the basin can be
further increased by phase change materials (PCM), thermal energy storage materials (TESM)
and inducing a larger temperature difference between the water in the basin and the glass. The
present paper describes a comprehensive review on modifications done on solar stills to
improve the productivity. Also the percentage improvement in the productivity of the
modifications stills are shown in these articles.

Keywords: top cover cooling, solar still, phase change material, thermal energy storage
material

1
Corresponding author: kabeel6@hotmail.com
1
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Mechanism of Phase Change Materials (PCM)
3. Mechanism of Thermal Energy Storage Materials (TESM)
4. Mechanism of Top Cover Cooling
5. Effect of phase change materials
5.1 solar still with Lauric acid
5.2 solar still with Myristic acid
5.3 solar still with Stearic acid
5.4 solar still with Bitumen
5.5 solar still with Paraffin wax
6. Effect of absorbing materials
6.1 Solar still with dye in the basin
6.2 Solar still with wick in the basin
6.3 Solar still with charcoal in the basin
6.4 Solar still with baffles in the basin
6.5 Solar still with gravel in the basin
6.6 Solar still with sponge cubes in the basin
6.7 Solar still with fins in the basin
6.8 Solar still with sand in the basin
6.9 Solar still with nano materials in the basin
7. Effect of top cover cooling methods
7.1 Effect of top cover cooling in conventional solar stills
7.2 Double slope solar still
7.3 Wick type solar still
7.4 Stepped solar still
7.5 Solar still with external air cooler
76 Concentrator assisted solar still
77 Tubular solar still
2
 7.8 Solar still with flat plate collectors
 Conclusion

1. Introduction
The worldwide demand for potable water is continuously growing because of industrial,
population and agricultural growth; the result is insufficient supply in many places of the
world. A solar still is a valuable device that can be used for purifying brackish water and salt
water for drinking water purpose [1]. But the main drawback is solar still is a low productivity
device. Heat exchange mechanisms play an important role to enhance the productivity of the
solar still systems. The productivity of any solar distillation system is depends on the basin
water temperature. The productivity increases with increasing water temperature in the basin.
Many authors have researched solar stills to improve the performance by various methods.
Heat exchange mechanisms are some of the key factors to obtain appreciable improvements in
the system [2]. The internal energy of the solar distillation system is further increased by the
thermal energy storage (TES) materials and phase change materials (PCM). Top cover cooling
is also one of the successful methods to induce the evaporative heat transfer by increasing the
temperature difference between basin water temperature and glass cover. Some experimental
studies include: single slope solar stills [3-4], evacuated tube collectors [5-6], PV-integrated
solar distillation systems [7-9], built-in evaporation/condensation segment solar still [10],
parabolic trough and reflector solar energy collectors [11-18], heat pump assisted distillation
[19], vacuum membrane distillation [20], multi-effect absorption distillation [21], membrane
desalination system [22], active solar distillation [23-26] and triangular pyramid solar stills
[27-28].
In this review, the influence of PCM, TESM and the effect of top cover cooling is presented.
The different designs of solar still with PCM, TESM and cover cooling techniques are
analyzed. Phase change materials and thermal energy storage materials play an important role
to enhance the internal energy of the system. Top cover cooling is also one of the methods to
induce faster condensation inside the solar still.

2. Mechanism of Phase Change Materials (PCM)

Solar radiation is transmitted through the cover and is absorbed by the opaque basin; hence, the
basin temperature increases. Heat is transferred by convection to the basin water and by
3
conduction to the cooler PCM resting on the basin. Eventually, the PCM starts to melt and
after complete melting of the PCM, the heat will be stored in the melted PCM as sensible heat.
Later in the day, the still components start to cool down and the liquid PCM transfers heat to
the basin and basin water until the PCM is completely solidified. The PCM acts as a heat
source for the basin water during low intensity solar radiation periods as well as during the
night; consequently, the solar still continues to produce fresh water after sunset even with thin
layers of basin water.

3. Mechanism of Solar Energy Absorbing Materials (SEAM)

Suitable solar energy absorbing materials are placed in the bottom of the solar still. The
materials enhance the absorption of the solar radiation and increase the basin water
temperature without change in phase. So the internal energy of the system is increased and this
enhances the overall efficiency of the system.

4. Mechanism of Top Cover Cooling

The evaporative heat transfer can be further induced by flowing cold water over the top cover.
The temperature difference between the water in the basin and glass temperature is increased
due to flow the cold water. Dust particles on the top cover may reduce the transmittance of
sunlight into the basin. The cold water flow may sweep the dust off the top cover as well.

5. Effect of phase change material

5.1 Solar still with Lauric acid
Water distillation using Lauric acid was analyzed by Al-Hamadani and Shukla [29]. A
mathematical model was also used to calculate the water temperature, air temperature,
productivity and instantaneous efficiency of the system. The two solar stills are designed with
same area of 1 m2. The phase change material was placed beneath the solar still in a gap of
width 0.05 m. It was reported that the higher mass of PCM with lower mass of water in solar
still basin increased the daily productivity and efficiency. The maximum yield of 2.63
L/m2/day was achieved during the experimental study. Swetha and Venugopal [30]
experimentally studied a single slope solar still with Lauric acid as a phase change material,
Fig. 1. The phase change material was incorporated beneath the solar still. The results showed

4
that the increment in productivity was 36%. Also they suggested that the solar still is more
effective when highest masses of PCM used in the basin.

5.2 Solar still with Myristic acid

Al-Hamadani and Shukla [31] evaluated a solar still integrated with Lauric acid and
Myristic acid as a phase change material. The PCM was loaded in the bottom of the solar still
to store the heat energy. The results showed that the Lauric acid integrated solar still enhanced
the solar still productivity by 36%.
5.3 Solar still with Stearic acid
El-Sebaii et al. [32] studied a single slope solar still with stearic acid as the storage
medium. A computer simulation was also used to investigate the performance of the solar still.
The area of the solar still was 1m2. The stearic acid was put in the basin liner with thickness
0.2 cm. Commercial grade stearic acid was used because of its low cost and availability. The
thermal resistance networks of still elements (charging and discharging) were studied. They
concluded that distillate productivity (9.005 kg/m2/day) with a daily efficiency of 85.3% was
obtained compared to 4.998 kg kg/m2/day when the still is used without phase change material.
Also they suggested that the PCM was more effective for lower masses of basin water in the
winter season.
Ajithkumar and Vivek [33] experimentally studied the tubular solar still with stearic
acid as a phase change material. The absorber area of the solar still was 0.77 m2. Copper
constantan thermocouples were used to measure the temperature profile of the solar still. The
results showed that the daily energy efficiency of 21.87% was obtained.

5.4 Solar still with Bitumen

Kantesh [34] performed a study on a solar still with bitumen as a phase change
material. The used PCM was loaded in the separate tray in the basin liner of the solar still. The
area of the solar still is 0.54m2. The results showed that the efficiency of the PCM used solar
still is 27% as compared to 25.19% for solar still without PCM.

5.5 Solar still with Paraffin wax

A phase change energy storage mixture (PCESM) has been devised and constructed by
Naim and Kawi [35]. The used PCM was paraffin wax with sodium chloride solution. About 70
5
ml of aqueous sodium chloride solution with paraffin was placed beneath the solar still at 0.5
cm gap thickness. The temperatures of the saline water, energy storage material and ambient air
temperatures were recorded at hourly intervals. The results showed that energy storage material
increases the productivity of the solar still significantly. Also, the solar still productivity
increases with ambient temperature, but decreases with windy conditions. They found a
maximum productivity of 4.536 L/m2 and the corresponding efficiency was 36.2%.
Radhwan [36] conducted an experimental work in a stepped solar still with paraffin
wax that acts as a latent heat thermal energy storage material. The schematic view was shown
in Fig. 2. The proposed system was designed with five stepped basins and an inclined glass
cover. The paraffin wax was placed beneath the stepped absorber. A mathematical model was
developed to analyze the performance of the components used. The maximum recorded
paraffin wax temperature was 55°C, while the phase change occurred around 40°C. The results
showed that the stepped solar still with latent heat storage had an efficiency of 57% and the
productivity was 4.6L/m2.
Arunkumar et al. [37] experimentally studied a concentrator assisted solar still with
thermal energy storage materials (Fig. 3). The hemispherical part of the still was separately
designed and attached to the basin bottom of the still. To avoid the paraffin wax from coming
out of the copper balls, the balls were not completely filled at ambient temperature. The balls
lay in the solar still basin. The entire system was placed on the focal point of the concentrator.
It was found that the productivity of the system was been improved by 26% with the influence
of phase change material.
Asbik et al. [38] conducted an experiment on a solar still combined with phase change
material. A mathematical model was also developed to investigate the experimental results.
Paraffin wax was used as a phase change material in the solar still. The PCM was placed under
the basin liner of the system. The entire system was insulated to minimize the heat loss to
surroundings. The results showed that the latent heat storage increases the distilled
productivity and enhanced the efficiency of the system.
A modified solar still using hot air injection and PCM has been experimentally studied
by Kabeel et al. [39], Fig. 4. 17.5 g of paraffin wax was used in the basin. The hot air passed
through the solar still driven by a blower which was connected to the double pass solar air
collector. So the water in the basin heated up quickly and hence increased the evaporation. The

6
results showed that the PCM integrated hot air injection modified solar still productivity was
9.36 L/m2/day and 4.5 L/m2/day for convention solar still.
Kabeel and Abdelgaied [40] performed experiments in a solar still with paraffin wax as
the phase change material. The pictorial view of the experimental arrangement is shown in Fig.
5. Two identical solar stills are constructed in the area of 0.615 m2. The paraffin wax was
loaded in one of the basin liners of one of the solar stills. 17.5 g of paraffin wax was used in
this study. The daily fresh water productivity was measured for solar still with PCM 7.54 L/m2
and 4.51 L/m2 for solar still without PCM. The PCM enhanced the overall productivity by
60%.
Dashtban and Tabrizi [41] conducted an experiment in a weir type cascade solar still
with paraffin wax as the latent heat thermal energy storage (Fig. 6). 18 g of paraffin wax was
used beneath the solar still to store the thermal energy. A mathematical model was developed
and the theoretical values were compared with the experimental results. A water tank was used
to feed the continuous saline water supply into the solar still. The results showed that the PCM
enhanced the productivity by 31%.
Chaichan and Kazem [42] studied a solar distiller using a concentrating solar water
heater and phase change material. The paraffin wax was selected as a phase change material
and it was placed beneath the basin liner. A parabolic dish of 1.5 m diameter was used to heat
the saline water and the heated water went through a heat exchanger before reaching the
conical shaped distiller. The pictorial view of the experimental arrangement was shown in Fig.
8. The results showed that proper tracking with a phase change material in the distiller
improved the system productivity by 307%.
Rajasekar and Easwaramoorthy [43] conducted experiments on a solar still integrated
with nano-composite phase change materials. A mixture of Al2O3 and paraffin wax was
selected as the phase change material. The area of the solar still was 1m2 and the PCM is stored
below the absorber plate. The results showed that, Al2O3 with paraffin wax mixture (nano-
composites) enhanced the system efficiency was 45%, paraffin wax alone 40% and solar still
without thermal storage is 38%.
Saravanan and Manikandan [44] studied the thermal performance of a single slope
stepped solar still with and without paraffin wax in the basin. The area of the solar still was
0.78 m2. The phase change material was incorporated in the basin liner of the solar still. The

7
results concluded that the solar still with paraffin wax had slightly higher productivity than the
still without PCM.
Sathyamoorthy et al. [45] experimentally studied a triangular solar still with paraffin
wax as a storage medium. The paraffin wax was loaded in the basin liner of the solar still.
From the experimental results, the paraffin wax enhanced the productivity by 35% as
compared with conventional solar still. Also, the productivity of with and without PCM in the
triangular solar stills was 5.5 L/m2 day and 3.5 L/m2 day.
Arunkumar et al. [46] experimentally analyzed the effect of heat removal on a tubular
solar distillation system. Five concentric tubular arrangements are placed at the focal point of
the compound parabolic concentrator (CPC). The cold water was allowed to pass through the
concentric tubular segments. The water that extracts heat from the tubular solar still was
directly coupled with a single slope solar still. The area of the single slope solar still is 0.25 m2.
Each copper ball is filled with 25 g of paraffin wax and put inside the basin of the solar still.
The results showed that the paraffin wax enhanced the overall performance of the solar
distillation system. Comparison of various phase change materials used in the solar still was
shown in Table. 1.

6. Effect of absorbing materials in the basin

6.1 Solar still with dye in the basin
Various researchers have studied adding dyes into the basin water. These dyes are non-
toxic and are not evaporated, so they do not end up in the distilled water.
Sodha et al. [47] studied the effect of dye on solar still productivity. Different colored
dyes were tested and the results showed that black and violet dyes were more effective than
other dyes. Pandey [48] conducted experiments in a double basin solar still with dye in the
water solution. The dye solution in the water was incorporated in the lower basin of the solar
still. The results showed that the dye solution mixed in the water enhanced the productivity of
the double basin solar still. Dutt et al. [49] studied a double basin solar still with black dye in
the water. The black dye was used in the lower basin of the absorber. The results showed that
the black dye enhanced the system efficiency. The effect of reflectors and black dye has been
experimentally studied by Tamimi [50], Fig. 8. The experiments carried out by different
combinations including water without dye and without mirror, water without dye with mirror,

8
water with dye and without mirror and water with both dye and mirror. The results showed that
the combined effect of dye and mirror enhanced the solar still productivity.
Akash et al. [51] conducted an experiment in single basin solar still with different
absorbing materials in the basin. Black rubber mat, black ink and black dye were used as
absorbing materials in the basin. The results showed that the black dye in the water solution
enhanced the distillate productivity by 60%. Rajvanshi [52] experimentally and theoretically
studied the effect of various dyes on the solar still basin. A finite difference method was used
in solving the partial differential equations. Two identical solar stills were constructed to
analyze the performance of dyes with various concentrations. The dyes used were black
napthylamine, red cermoisine and dark green. The results showed that black napthylamine dye
was most suitable for solar still. Also they concluded that the dye solution enhanced the
productivity by 29%.

6.2 Solar still with wick in the basin

Minasian and AL-Karaghouli [53] conducted experiments in a conventional solar still
and a wick-basin type solar still (Fig. 9). The dimension of the conventional solar still was 1.5
m×0.67 m and the area of wick-basin type solar still is 1 m2. The results showed that the wick-
basin type solar still enhanced the productivity.
Shukla and Sorayan [54] conducted experiments in a single slope and a double slope
multi wick solar distillation system. The wet jute cloth pieces were dipped at one end and
spread over the absorber in other end. The area of the single slope multi wick solar still was 1
m2. The same experimental procedure was followed in the double basin multi wick solar still.
The area of the multi wick solar still was 1.1 m2. The results showed that the single slope solar
still gave higher efficiency in winter season due to more reflection losses in the double basin
solar still. However, in the summer, the double basin solar still gave higher efficiency due to
more reflection losses in single slope solar still. Janarthanan et al. [55] conducted experiments
in a tilted wick type solar still. The blackened wick was spread over the basin with an angle of
15° and remaining part of the wick was floated inside the water reservoir of the still with a
sheet 2.5 cm thick with thermocouples. The tested results showed that the tilted wick enhanced
the system efficiency. Anburaj et al. [56] have done experiments in inclined solar still with
black cotton cloth, jute cloth and waste cotton pieces in the basin. The results showed that

9
black cotton cloth enhanced the system performance and the measured yield rate was 4.21
L/day.
Rajaseenivasan et al. [57] conducted experiments in a double basin solar still with black
cotton cloth, jute cloth and waste cotton pieces to increase the productivity. The pictorial view
of the experimental setup was shown in Fig. 10. Additionally, to enhance the heat storage
capacity in the basin, mild steel pieces were incorporated in the solar still. The results showed
that the double basin solar still with mild steel pieces enhanced the solar still performance.
Kabeel [58] conducted experiments in a pyramid solar still with wick material on the basin,
Fig. 11. The basin of the pyramid shaped solar still was modified into a concave shape and the
wick is spread over the surface. The experimental results showed that the solar still with wick
produced a distillate yield of 4.1 L/m2 and the efficiency was 45%.
Sakthivel et al. [59] conducted experimental works in a regenerative solar still with jute
cloth. The conventional solar still was modified and the jute cloth is kept vertically placed in
the middle of the basin water. Also part of the jute cloth is fixed at the backside wall of the
solar still. The effective basin area of the solar still was 1 m×0.5 m. From the results, solar still
daily yield with jute cloth increases about 12%. Srivastava and Agarval [60] have done
experiments with multiple porous absorbers on the basin water (Fig. 12). The porous absorbers
were made up of ordinary blackened jute cloth. Two identical solar stills were constructed and
the experimental results were compared. The dimension of the solar still basin was 0.8 m×0.65
m. From the results, the jute cloth enhanced the distilled productivity by 68%. El-Sebaii and
Shalaby [61] have done experiments in a single basin solar still with a corrugated basin liner.
The results showed that the corrugated basin enhances the system performance and gives a
higher distillate productivity.
Janarthanan et al. [62] have done experiments in a tilted wick type solar still with top
cover cooling. The area of the tilted-wick surface was 0.79 m2 and the floating surface was
0.27 m2. The floating wick surface was always connected with the upper water level in the
basin. A water tank was used to flow the water over the glass cover. The results showed that
the basin with floating wick and top cover cooling enhanced the performance of the solar still.
Hansen et al. [63] have done experiments in an inclined solar still with various absorbing
materials in the basin (Fig. 13). The basin absorbing plates were flat absorber, stepped
absorber and wire-mesh absorber. The different wick materials in the basin were wood pulp
paper, coral fleece and polystyrene. Three different combinations of experiments have been
10
performed. The results demonstrated that an inclined solar still with wire-mesh absorber gave
the maximum distillate productivity of 4.28 L/day.

6.3 Solar still with charcoal in the basin

Okeka et al. [64] conducted an experiment in a single slope solar still with charcoal and
coal as an absorber. The results showed that both absorbing materials enhanced the
productivity of the solar still. Tris et al. [65] studied the solar still integrated with various
absorbing materials. The used absorbing materials were charcoal, black-paint and blackened
rock-bed. The results showed that charcoal incorporated solar still with flat plate gives higher
productivity than blackened and black-paint. Abu-Hijleh and Rababa’h [66] conducted
experiments in solar still with sponge cubes in the basin. Fig. 14 showed the schematic view of
the experimental setup. The dimension of the solar still is 0.50 m×0.5 cm. Two identical solar
stills were used with and without sponge cubes. The sponge cubes were used to increase the
surface area of the solar still. They concluded that the sponge cubes were more effective than
the black steel and coal.

6.4 Solar still with baffles in the basin

Arjunan et al. [67] experimentally studied a single slope solar still with various
thicknesses of absorbing materials in the basin. The different thicknesses of the sponge cubes
were 3, 5, 7, 10 and 12 mm. A mathematical model was also developed to predict water
temperature, glass temperature and distillate productivity. The result shows that the sponge
cubes increased the distillate productivity.
El-Sebaii et al. [68] conducted experiments in a single slope solar still with a baffle
suspended absorber. The schematic view of the solar still with baffles was shown in Fig. 15.
The area of the solar still is 1 m2. The baffle suspended absorber was immersed in the water.
Theoretical calculations were also done to analyze the performance of the solar still. The
results showed that the baffle suspended absorber enhanced the distillate productivity by 20%.
Sathyamurthy et al. [69] conducted experiments in a semicircular trough solar still and it was
shown in Fig. 16. The dimensions of the semi-circular trough were 0.1 m×1.2 m. The baffles
were suspended in the semi-circular trough. The results showed that the efficiency of the semi-
circular trough solar still with baffles gives the higher efficiency of 38% while the without
baffles it was 32%.
11
6.5 Solar still with gravel in the basin
Nafey et al. [70] conducted experiments in a single basin solar still with different
thicknesses of black rubber and gravel materials. The dimensions of the single basin solar still
were 0.5 m×0.5 m. Four identical solar stills were constructed for comparison. The first three
solar stills were tested with three different thicknesses of black rubber material and the fourth
one was free from a rubber sheet. The same methodology was followed in the different
thickness of gravel. The results showed that black gravel and 20 L of brine enhanced the
system performance by 19%. Sakthivel and Shanmugasundaram [71] conducted experiments
in single basin solar still with black granite gravel as the thermal energy storage medium. The
black granite gravel of 6 mm size was used to absorb the energy from solar radiation. A
mathematical model was also developed and was used to analyze the performance of the
system. The results showed that the black granite gravel enhanced the productivity by 17-20%.
Panchal [72] did experiments on a vacuum tube integrated double basin solar still (Fig 17).
Additionally black granite gravels are used to enhance the thermal energy storage in the solar
still basin. The dimensions of the solar still basin were 1006 mm×536 mm×100 mm. Two
modes of operation were performed, (1) vacuum tube integrated double basin solar still with
black granite gravel and (2) vacuum tube integrated double basin solar still without black
granite gravel. The results showed that the vacuum tube integrated double basin solar still with
black granite gravel enhanced the system productivity by 65%.
Shanmugan et al. [73] developed a single slope solar still with different basin materials.
The used basin absorbing materials were white marbles, stones, pebbles, black stones, Calcium
stones, and iron scraps. The area of the solar still was 1 m2. The materials were placed in the
basin liner of the solar still. The tested results concluded that the calcium stones in the basin
augment the system performance. Abdullah et al. [74] developed a solar still with different
absorbing materials in the basin, Fig. 18. The used solar absorbing materials were coated and
uncoated porous media and black volcanic rocks. They designed four identical solar stills using
locally available materials. The first three solar stills contained coated, uncoated and black
volcanic rocks. The fourth still was used for reference. The overall productivity of the coated,
uncoated and black volcanic rock was 28%, 43% and 60% respectively.

6.6 Solar still with sponge cubes in the basin

12
 Velmurugan et al. [75] conducted experiments in single basin solar still with sponge
cubes, wick and fins (Fig. 19). In this work, 450 sponges of dimensions 20 mm×35 mm ×35
mm were used. Also five fins with the dimensions of 35 mm×900 mm×1 mm were used in the
basin. The results showed that the solar still with fins enhanced the productivity. Kannan et al.
[76] studied the vapor absorption solar still with different absorbing materials in the basin. The
schematic view of the solar still design was shown in Fig. 20. The used materials were
sponges, gravels, sand, and black rubber pieces. The area of the solar still was 1 m2. To
increase the temperature of the saline water, an absorbent bed pipe with activated carbon-
methanol pair was incorporated in the basin. The results showed that the combination of vapor
absorption still with sponge, sand, and black rubber pieces enhanced the system productivity.
Sathyamurthy et al. [77] conducted experiments on a solar still with low cost energy
storage materials. Fig. 21 showed the pictorial view of the experimental arrangement. The used
absorbing materials are spherical ball and different colored sponges. Each spherical ball was
filled with 127 g of rock salt. The area of the experimented solar still was 1 m2. The test results
showed that the solar still with spherical balls enhanced the system performance and gave the
highest productivity of 3.7 kg/m2. A single slope solar still with an asphalt basin liner was
studied by Barden [78]. Asphalt is produced as a byproduct in refining petroleum or found in
tar beds. The area of the solar still is 1 m2. Asphalt is used in the basin liner to increase the
absorptivity of the basin to increase the water temperature. Two modes of operation were
studied. They are solar still incorporated asphalt with top cover cooling and solar still with
asphalt alone. The results showed that the combinations of asphalt with top cover cooling
enhanced the solar still productivity by 29%. In addition, the author concluded that
productivity decreases with increasing mass of the water in the basin.

6.7 Solar still with fins in the basin

Ayuthaya et al. [79] have done experiments in a solar still with six stainless-steel fins.
The dimension of the solar still was 0.70 m×0.70 m. The results showed that the fins in the
basin increase the productivity. Adding fins into the basin decreases the warm up time and
increases the absorptance of the basin. Murugavel and Srithar [80] conducted an experiment on
a double slope solar still with different wick materials in the basin, Fig. 22. Different wick
materials included cotton cloths, jute cloths, sponge sheets, coir mates, and waste cotton pieces
are used in the solar still basin. In addition, the basin with aluminum rectangular fins were
13
arranged in different configurations and covered with wicks. The dimension of the inner basin
is 2.08 m ×0.84 m×0.075 m. The results showed that fins covered with cotton cloth enhanced
the overall productivity of the solar still. Omara et al. [81] conducted experiments in solar still
with fins and corrugated absorbers in the basin (Fig. 23). Three solar stills were designed and
tested in the same climatic conditions. Two solar stills were filled with fins and corrugated
absorbers and the third one was a conventional type for comparison. The area of the solar still
was 1 m2. The used fins were made from iron sheets with the dimensions of 50 mm×490
mm×1 mm. The results showed that the solar still with finned absorber enhanced the
productivity by 40% as compared to other designs.
Alaian et al. [82] performed experiments in a solar still with pin-finned wick. They
constructed two identical solar stills, one was conventional and other has a pin-finned wick
surface. The dimension of the solar still was 0.8 m×1.25 m. The pin-finned wick has 294
elements and it was immersed into the water. The results showed that the pin-finned wick
enhanced the productivity by 23%. Velmurugan et al. [83] conducted experiments on a single
slope solar still with fins, black rubber, sand, pebbles and sponges as a solar absorption
materials, Fig. 24. The area of the solar still was 1.2 m2. The absorbing materials were placed
in the basin liner of the solar still and tested in different climatic conditions. The results
showed that the combination of sand-sponge in the solar still enhanced the system performance
by 75%.

6.8 Solar still with sand in the basin

El-Sebaii et al. [84] have done experiments on a single slope solar still with sand. A
transient mathematical model was made to analyze with and without a sensible storage
material under the basin liner. The effect of mass flow rate and different masses of basin were
also studied. The results showed that solar still with 10 kg of sand enhanced the productivity
by 8.5% relative to the still without the storage element.

6.9 Solar still with nano materials in the basin

Kabeel et al. [85] studied the performance of a solar still with nano fluids and providing
a vacuum in the basin. Cuprous and Aluminum Oxide nano particles were used in the solar
still. This study was investigated at different weight fraction concentrations of nano particles in
the water with and without providing a vacuum. Two identical solar stills were constructed in
14
this study (Fig. 25). The first solar still was modified with the condensation unit through the
vacuum fan and second one is a conventional type solar still to compare the results. The area of
the solar still was 0.5 m2. The experimental results showed that nano fluids improved the heat
transfer characteristics and evaporative properties of water. The modified solar still with nano
fluids enhanced the productivity by 134%. Elango et al. [86] have done experiments in single
basin single slope solar still with different nano particles in the basin. The used nano particles
are aluminum nano particles (Al2O3), zinc nano particles (ZnO), iron oxide nano particles
(Fe2O3) and tin oxide nano particles (SnO2) of different concentrations. The area of the tested
solar still is 0.25 m2. The experimental results showed that Al2O3 nano fluid enhanced the
productivity by 30%.
Sahota and Tiwari [87] have done experiments in a double slope solar still with Al2O3
nanoparticles in the basin. The analyses have been carried out for without and with nano
particles with three different concentrations (0.04%, 0.08% and 0.12%). The area of the solar
still was 2 m×1 m. The nano particles in the basin absorb the solar radiation due to matching
between their optical absorption spectrum and the solar radiation spectrum. The results showed
that 0.12% of Al2O3 with 35 kg and 80 kg of base fluid the productivity increased 12.2% and
8.4% respectively.
Comparison of various absorbing materials used in the solar still is shown in Table. 2.

7. Effect of top cover cooling

7.1 Effect of top cover cooling in conventional solar stills
Mousa Abu-Arabi [88] conducted experiments on regenerative, conventional and
double glass cover cooling solar still. They specifically used two glass covers to flow the water
between them. The heat of condensation on the lower glass evaporates water flowing on the
upper side of this glass. The regenerative solar still had 70% higher productivity than the other
two designs. Abu-Hijleh [89] conducted an experiment on a solar still with top glass cover
cooling. A mathematical model was also used to investigate the performance of the solar still
with cooling effect. The water flow can clean the dust on the glass cover (self-cleaning). So
naturally the temperature difference between the glass cover and water was increased and this
paves a path for higher yield. The results show that the proper use of flow can increase the still
performance by 6%. However, the poor regulation of water flow reduced the productivity.
Arunkumar et al. [90] designed and fabricated a hemispherical shaped solar still with and
15
without top cover cooling. The hemispherical solar still with the top cover cooling arrangement
was shown in Fig. 26. The overall dimension of the hemispherical solar still was 1.10 m×1.10
m×0.25 m. The water tank was connected with pressure head for uniform water flow over the
top cover. The fixed flow of 10 ml/min was used to run the water over the cover. The results
showed that the efficiency of the hemispherical solar still was increased to 42% from 34%.

7.2 Double slope solar still

Mord et al. [91] performed an experiment on a double slope solar still coupled to a flat
plate collector with top cover cooling. Fig. 27 showed the double slope solar still
configuration. The still basin was a rectangular box shape of 170 cm×70 cm. The performance
of the solar still was studied by measuring the change in basin depth. A fixed flow rate of 0.8
L/h was used to cool the glass cover of the solar still. Intermittent cooling was used (5 minutes
on and 5 minutes off). The distillate yield of the tested unit per day was 7.80 L/m2 (with
cooling) and 10.06 L/m2 was achieved when the system was integrated with a flat plate
collector (with cooling). The result showed that the productivity decreased with increasing the
cover thickness and brine depth. Tarawneh [92] conducted experiments on a solar still with top
cover cooling. The experimental setup was shown in Fig. 28. The area of the solar still was 1
m2. The obtained results showed the top cover cooling plays an important role in the
productivity.

7.3 Wick type solar still

Suneesh et al. [93] performed experimental work on a ‘V’ type solar still with cover
cooling. The dimensions of the rectangular basin were 2 m×0.75 m×0.05 m. An external water
tank was connected with a control valve to flow the cold water over the glass cover. The
results showed that the productivity of the ‘V’ type solar still without top cover cooling was
4300 ml/m2/day and 4600 ml/m2/day with top cover cooling. Fig. 29 showed a pictorial view
of this “V” type solar still.

7.4 Stepped solar still

Abdullah [94] performed experiments in a stepped solar still with top cover cooling. A
stepped solar still and a conventional solar still were compared. The schematic view of a
stepped solar still with top cover cooling configuration was shown in Fig. 30. The areas of the
16
stepped and conventional solar still were 0.5 m2. The five step-like structures acted as an
absorber for the solar still. The basin water was heated by the hot air from the solar air heater.
Also, to maintain the higher distillate output, thermal energy storage material (aluminum
filings) were placed beneath the absorber plate. The flow rate of cooling water was about 0.03
kg/s. The results showed that water productivity increased by 112% over conventional solar
still. El-Samadony and Kabeel [95] theoretically studied the stepped solar still with top cover
cooling with a FORTRAN program. A mathematical model was also developed to investigate
the performance of the system. Based on the deep analysis, the proper combinations played an
important role in the distillate productivity. The values investigated were of the film thickness
from 2.5×10-4 to 5.5 ×10-4 m, cooling water from volumetric flow rate from 4.5×10-5 to 8.5×10-
5
m3/s, and glass cover length from 2 to 2.8 m. The water film cooling increased the stepped
still daily distillate productivity by about 8.2%. Fig. 31 showed the schematic view of the
stepped solar still.

7.5 Solar still with external air cooler

Aneesh and Kumar [96] designed and theoretically studied the single basin solar still
top cover cooling using an air cooler. The authors additionally installed a desert (evaporative)
cooler to cool the water that was run over the glass cover. A fixed flow rate of 1.5 m/s was
used for the water. Two different cooling methodologies were followed: (1) the cold water
from the evaporative cooler and (2) the cooling water at ambient temperature. The water that
has been warmed by the glass cover was recirculated back to the air cooler. From the
experimental results, they concluded that the increase in annual yield was 41.3% to 56.5% with
water from the evaporative cooler, and the increase was between 30.1% and 21.8% with water
at ambient temperature. The schematic view of the experimental setup was shown in Fig. 32.

7.6 Concentrator assisted solar still

A standalone triple basin solar still with cover cooling was experimentally tested by
Srither et al. [97]. The performances of three systems were compared: conventional triple basin
solar still (TBSS), integrating TBSS with cover cooling (CC) and TBSS with parabolic dish
(PD). The pictorial view of the experimental setup was shown in Fig. 33. The dimensions of
the system were 0.3 m×0.36 m×0.33 m. The five different flow rates examined were 20 ml/s,
25 ml/s, 30 ml/s, 35 ml/s, and 40 ml/s. They concluded that the flow rate of 40 ml/s gave the
17
highest distillate productivity. In addition, the cover cooling enhanced the overall productivity
by 32.8%. Sangeetha and Tiwari [98] performed experiments on an inverted absorber solar still
with top cover cooling. The absorber of the solar still was heated by the reflector assembly.
The results showed that the evaporative heat loss coefficient was a strong function of the
operating temperature range; while the convective and radiative heat loss coefficients were
more or less temperature independent. Further, the evaporative heat loss decreases/increases
with the decrease/increase of the operating temperature range.

7.7 Tubular solar still

Arunkumar et al. [99] designed and fabricated a novel compound parabolic
concentrator- concentric tubular solar still (CPC-CTSS). Fig. 34 showed the schematic view of
the tubular solar still with the cooling arrangement. The effect of cooling air and water flowing
over the condensation surface was studied. The results showed that the efficiency of the CPC-
CTSS with air flow and flowing water over the cover, were improved by about 40% and 43%
respectively, due to effect of cooling. Arunkumar et al. [100] studied the compound parabolic
concentrator-concentric tubular solar still (CPC-CTSS) coupled to a pyramid solar still. Fig. 35
showed the pictorial view of the entire design. A rectangular saline water trough of dimension
2 mx0.03 mx0.025 m was designed and fabricated. The effective collector area of the still was
2 mx1 m with five sets of tubular still - CPC collectors placed horizontally with north-south
orientation. Hot water taken from the CPC-CTSS was injected into a pyramid type solar still.
The results showed that the productivity of the unaugment CPC-TSS and CPC-CTSS were
3,710 ml/day and 4,960 ml/day, respectively. With the heat extraction technique, the
productivity of CPC-CTSS with a pyramid solar still was found to be 7,770 ml/day,
respectively.

7.8 Solar still with flat plate collector

Hasan and Abu-Arabi [101] conducted an experimental work on top cover cooling solar
still productivity. The water in the basin was heated by two means: First by the absorbed solar
energy in the basin and second by the heat it received from the solar collector. As the water in
the basin was heated, evaporation took place. The vapor rose to the top and condensed on the
lower surface of the glass cover. The condensation process was enhanced by allowing cold
water to pass between the two layers of the glass cover. The condensate slid down the inner
18
glass surface and fell into a trough located at the lower end of the glass cover and then it was
withdrawn as fresh water. The results showed that the production rate was proportional to the
solar irradiation, ambient temperature, and cooling water flow rate. The comparison of various
cover cooling techniques was used shown in Table. 3.
Shalaby et al. [102] experimentally studied the effect of a v-corrugated absorber and
PCM on the productivity of basin still. They found that, the daily productivity for using the
still with a v-corrugated absorber with PCM was 12 % higher than that for a v-corrugated
absorber without PCM.
Lovedeep Sahota and Tiwari [103] studied the effect of different concentrations of
Al2O3 nanoparticle on the performance of double slope solar still. The results show that, at
0.12 concentrations of Al2O3 nanoparticles the still productivity improved by 12.2 % and
8.4% for 35 kg and 80 kg base water compared to the basr water without Al2O3 nanoparticles
respectively.
Sahota and Tiwari [104] conducted the effect of three different nanofluids on the
performance of double slope solar stills. They found that, at 0.25% nanofluid concentration the
still efficiency improved. The still thermal efficiency for using nanofluids were (Al2O3
50.34%; TiO2 46.10%; and CuO 43.81%) in comparison to base fluid (37.78%).
Arun Kumar et al. [105] studied the effect of external condenser on the performance of
basin stills. They found that, the productivity of the modified still with exhaust fan and
external condenser was 39.49% higher than that of the conventional still.
Hiroshi and Koji [106] experimentally studied the effect of vertical single-effect
diffusion solar still integrated with a tilted wick still. The result showed that, the maximum
productivity was about 4.88 kg/m2 day when daily global solar radiation on a horizontal
surface and daily solar radiation incident on still were 13.6 and 18.4 MJ/ m2 day, respectively.

Mohamed Asbik et al. [107] conducted the performance of basin still coupled with
PCM. The results showed that, PCM minimize the exergy destruction and hence improve the
solar still performance for using PCM coupled with basin still.
Omara et al. [108] described the effects of the reflectors, either external or internal on
the productivity of solar stills. The reflectors, either external or internal, were a good and
cheap modification to increase the solar irradiation directed to the basin liner or the water as
well as the distillate efficiency of the still.
19
 Table. 1
Comparison of various phase change materials in the basin
No. Author (s) and work Design PCM used Observations
place
1 Al-Hamadini and Single slope solar Lauric acid The maximum yield of
Shukla [29], India. still 2.63 L/m2/day was
achieved. The
productivity was
increased by 30-35%.
2 Swetha and Single slope solar Lauric acid The productivity was
Venugopal [30], India. still increased by 36%.
3 Al-Hamadini and Single slope solar Myristic and The Myristic acid
Shukla [31], India. still enhanced the
productivity by 35-
40%.
4 El-Sebaii et al. [32], Single slope solar Stearic acid The productivity
Egypt. still increases with
increasing mass of the
PCM. The
productivity was
increased by 80%.
5 Ajit kumar Rai and Tubular solar still Stearic acid Stearic acid enhanced
Vivek Sachan [33], the system daily
India. efficiency. The
productivity was
increased by 20%.
6 Kantesh [34], India. Single basin double Bitumen The efficiency of the
slope solar still PCM used solar still is
27% and 25% without
PCM in the basin.
7 Naim and Kawi [35], Single slope solar Sodium Chloride The maximum

20
 Egypt. still solution (70ml) productivity of 4.536
L/(m2day) was
achieved. The
productivity was
increased by 36.2%.
8 Radhwan [36], Saudi Stepped solar still Paraffin wax The efficiency of 57%
Arabia. and the productivity of
4.6 L/(m2day) were
observed.
9 Arunkumar et al. [37], Concentrator assisted Paraffin wax The productivity of
India. solar still the system was
improved by 26% by
the wax.
10 Asbik et al. [38], Single slope solar Paraffin wax The PCM enhanced
Morocco. still the productivity.
11 Kabeel et al. [39], Modified single Paraffin wax Modified solar still
Egypt. slope solar still enhanced the
productivity as
compared with
conventional solar
still.
12 Kabeel and Single slope solar Paraffin wax The PCM enhanced
Abdelgaied [40], still the productivity by
Egypt. 67%.
13 Dashtban and Tabrizi Stepped solar still Paraffin wax (18 g) PCM enhanced the
[41], Iran. productivity by 31%.
14 Chaichan & Kazem Concentrator assisted Paraffin wax The paraffin wax
[42], Iraq. solar distiller enhanced the
productivity by 308%
15 Rajasekar & Single slope solar Al2O3 with paraffin wax Nano composites had
Easwaramoorthy [43], still (nano composites) efficiency of 45%,

21
 India. paraffin wax alone
40% and without PCM
show 38%.
16 Saravanan and Single slope stepped Paraffin wax The solar still with
Manikandan [44], solar still PCM slightly
India. enhanced the
productivity compared
to without PCM. The
productivity was
increased by 9.8%.
17 Sathyamoorthy et al. Pyramid solar still Paraffin wax The solar still with
[45], India. and without Latent
Heat Thermal Energy
Storage System were
found to be 5.5
L/m2day and 3.5
L/m2day. The paraffin
wax improved the
productivity by 57.1%
18 Arunkumar et al. [46], Tubular solar still Paraffin wax Paraffin wax enhanced
India. integrated with the system
single slope solar productivity. The
still productivity was
increased by 33.7%.

22
 Table. 2 Comparison of various absorbing materials in the basin
.No. Author(s) and
Design Absorbers used Observations
experiment location
Black and violet dyes
Sodha et al. [47], Single basin solar 1. Black dye
1 are more effective in
India. still 2. Violet dye
the solar still basin.
Black dye enhanced
Double basin solar
2 Pandy [48], India. Black dye the system
still
performance.
Black dye enhanced
Double basin solar
3 Dutt et al. [49], India. Black dye the system
still
performance.
The black dye and
Timmi [50], Jordon. Single basin solar Black dye with reflector
4 reflector enhanced the
still mirror
system performance.
Akash et al. [51], 1. Black rubber mat Black dye enhanced
Single basin solar
5 Jordon. 2. Black ink the system
still
3. Black dye performance by 60%.
The black
1. Black napthylamine
Single basin solar napthylamine
6 Rajavanshi [52], USA. 2. Red cermoisine
still enhanced the system
3. Dark green
performance by 29%.
The results showed
that the wick-basin
Minasian and AL- Single basin solar type solar still
7 Wick
Karaghouli [53], Iraq. still enhanced the
productivity.

Shukla & Sorayan Single basin solar The results showed

8 [54], India. still & double slope Wick that the wick-basin
solar still type solar still

23
 enhanced the
productivity.

The results showed

that the wick-basin
Janarthanan et al. [55],
Tilted type solar type solar still
9 India. Wick
still enhanced the
productivity.

The productivity of
inclined solar still
1. Black cotton cloth
Anburaj et al. [56], with black cotton
10 Inclined solar still 2. Jute cloth
India. cloth was 4.21 L/day.
3. Cotton pieces
The productivity was
increased by 11.7%.
1. Black cotton cloth
Mild steel pieces in
Rajaseenivasan et al. Double basin solar 2. Jute cloth
11 the basin enhanced the
[57], India. still 3. Cotton pieces
system performance.
4. Steel pieces
The daily productivity
12 Kabeel [58], Egypt. Pyramid solar still Wick
is 4.1 L/m2.
Jute cloth enhanced
Sakthivel et al. [59], Single basin solar
13 Jute cloth the performance of the
India. still
system by 12%.
Jute cloth enhanced the
Srivastava and Single basin solar performance of the
14 Jute cloth
Agarval [60]. still system. The productivity
was increased by 79%.
The corrugated basin
El-Sebaii and Shalaby Single basin solar liner enhanced the
15 Corrugated basin liner
[61], Egypt. still solar still productivity
.
24
 The combination of
Janarthanan et al. [62], Tilted type solar Wick and top cover wick and top cover
16
India. still cooling cooling enhanced the
system performance.
1. Flat absorber
Coral fleece with
2. Stepped absorber
wire-mesh stepped
3. Wire-mesh
Hansen et al. [63], Inclined type solar absorber gives the
17 absorber
India. still maximum
4. Wood pulp
productivity of 4.28
5. Coral fleece
L/day.
6. Polystyrene
The results showed
that both absorbing
materials enhanced
Okeka et al. [64], Single basin solar
18 Charcoal and coal the productivity of the
Nigeria. still
solar still. The
productivity was
increased by 16.5%.
Integration of solar
collector with
Tris et al. [65], 1. Black paint
Single basin solar absorbing materials
19 Turkey. 2. Charcoal
still enhanced the system
3. Blackened rock bed
performance by
194%.
The yellow sponge
1. Black sponges
Abu-Hijleh & cubes enhanced the
Single basin solar 2. Black coal
20 Rababa’h [66], system productivity.
still 3. Black steel
Jordon. The productivity was
4. Yellow sponges
increased by 18%.
Arjunan et al. [67], Single basin solar Sponges (Thickness: The sponge liner
21
India. still 3, 5, 7, 10, 12 mm) enhanced the system

25
 performance.
Baffles enhanced the
El-Sebaii et al. [68], Single basin solar
22 Baffles system performance
Egypt. still
by 20%.
Sathyamurthy et al. Baffles enhanced the
Semi-circular
23 [69], India. Baffles system performance
trough solar still
by 17%.
The results showed
1. Black rubber with
that black gravel with
Nafey et al. [70], Single basin solar different thickness
24 20 L of brine
Egypt. still 2. Black gravel with
enhanced the system
different thickness
performance by 19%.
Solar still with black
Sakthivel and
Single basin solar granite gravel
25 Shanmugasundaram Black granite gravel
still enhanced the system
[71], India.
performance 17-20%.
Vacuum tube coupled
solar still with black
Double basin solar
26 Panchal [72], India. Black granite gravel granite gravel
still
enhanced the system
performance by 65%.
1. White marble
2. Stones
The Calcium stones
Shanmugan et al. [73], Single basin solar 3. Pebble
27 enhanced the system
India. still 4. Black stones
performance.
5. Calcium stones
6. Iron scraps
1. Uncoated metallic
Black volcanic rock
Abdullah et al. [74], Single basin solar wiry sponges
28 enhanced the system
Jordon. still 2. Coated metallic wiry
performance by 20%.
sponges

26
 3. Black volcanic rock
Velmurugan et al. 1. Sponge Solar still with fins
Single basin solar
29 [75], India. 2. Wick enhanced the system
still
3. Fins performance by 46%.
1. Sponge The combinations of
Kannan et al. [76],
Single basin solar 2. Gravel all materials enhanced
30 India.
still 3. Sand the system
4. Black rubber performance.
The spherical ball
with salt rocks
enhanced the system
1. Spherical ball with performance and
Sathyamurthy et al. Single basin solar
31 salt rock yielded the highest
[77], India. still
2. Sponges productivity of 3.7
kg/m2/day. The
productivity was
increased by 68%.
Asphalt with top
1. Asphalt
Single basin solar cover cooling
32 Badran [78], Jordon. 2. Asphalt with top cover
still enhanced the system
cooling
performance by 29%.
Adding fins to the
basin decreases the
warm up time and
Ayuthaya et al. [79], Single basin solar increases the
33 Fins
Thailand. still absorptance of the
basin. The
productivity was
increased by 15.5%.
Murugavel & Srither Double basin solar 1. Aluminum fins Light black cotton
34
[80], India. still 2. Jute cloth cloth enhanced the

27
 3. Coir mate system performance.
4. Sponge sheet
5. Light black cotton
cloth
6. Waste cotton pieces
Fins enhanced the
Omara et al. [81], Single basin solar 1. Fins
35 performance of the
Egypt. still 2. Corrugated cloth
system by 40%.
Pin-finned wick
Alaian et al. [82], Single basin solar
36 Pin-finned wick enhanced the system
Egypt. still
performance by 23%.
1. Fin type solar still
2. Fin with black rubber
Fin with sand sponge
Velmurugan et al. Single basin solar 3. Fin with sand
37 enhanced the system
[83], India. still 4. Fin with pebble
performance by 75%.
5. Fin with sponge
6. Fin with sand sponge
Sand layer enhanced
El-Sebaii et al. [84], Single basin solar
38 Sand the still productivity
Egypt. still
by 24%.
Nano fluids enhanced
Kabeel et al. [85], Single basin solar
39 Nano fluids the system
Egypt. still
performance by 53%.
1. Aluminum nano
particles (Al2O3)
2. Zinc nano particles
Al2O3 nano particles
Elango et al. [86], Single basin solar (ZnO)
40 enhanced the
India still 3. Iron oxide nano
productivity by 30%.
particles (Fe2O3)
4. Tin oxide nano
particles (SnO2)

28
 The nano particles
enhanced the system
performance. The
Sahota and Tiwari. Double slope solar
41 Al2O3 nano particles nano particles
[87], India. still
enhanced the
productivity by
12.2%.

Table.3
Comparison of various cover cooling techniques
S.No. Author(s) and
Design Observations
experiment location Flow rate
Regenerative,
conventional Regenerative solar still had 70% higher
Mousa Abu-Arabi
1 and double glass - productivity than double glass cover solar
[88], Oman
cover cooling still and conventional solar still.
solar still
Single slope Cooling water increased performance by
2 Abu-Hijleh [89] 5 x10-7 m3/s
solar still 6%.
Arunkumar et al. Hemispherical
3 10 ml/min Increase in productivity of 34% to 42%.
[90], India. solar still
Productivity was 10.06 L/m2/day with
Morad et al. [91], Double slope
4 0.075 kg/s cover cooling. The productivity was
Egypt solar still
increased by 29%.
Tarawneh [92], Four slope solar
5 - Productivity improved by 75%.
Jordon still
Productivity was 4600 ml/m2/day with top
Suneesh et al. [93], ‘V’ type solar
6 150ml/min cover cooling. The productivity was
India still
increased by 39.4%.
Abdullah [94], Stepped solar 0.03 kg/s Productivity increased by 112% over
7
Egypt still conventional solar still.

29
 El-Samadony & Stepped solar
8 4.1 x10-5 m3/s Productivity improved by 8.2%.
Kabeel [95], Egypt still
Aneesh and Anil Single basin 0.075 kg/s
9 Increase in annual yield was 41% to 57%.
Kumar [96], India solar still
Srithar et al. [98], Triple basin 20, 25, 30, 35 The flow rate of 40 ml/s gives higher
10
India. solar still and 40 ml/s. productivity than other flow rates.
Sangeetha Suneja Inverted Evaporative heat transfer increases with
11 and Tiwari [99], absorber solar 0.075 kg/s increase in operating temperature. The
India. still productivity was increased by 144%.
Arunkumar et al
12 CPC-TSS 10ml/min Productivity improved by 41%.
[100], India.
Arunkumar et al. CPC-pyramid
13 10 ml/min High productivity recorded (7 L/day)
[101], India. solar still
Production rate was proportional to the
solar irradiation, ambient and cooling
Mousa & Arabi Single slope
14 10 ml/s water flow rate. The productivity was
[102], Jordon. solar still
increased by 12%.

8. Conclusion
Several different types of enhancement methodologies are presented and analyzed. In
the present paper shows a comprehensive review on modifications done on solar stills to
improve the distillate water productivity. Tables 1, 2, and 3 summarizes the percentage
improvements in the distillate water productivity of all modifications described in these
articles. The following observations are arrived at from the various configurations.

o The phase change material and thermal energy storage materials increased the
internal energy storage of the solar distillation system.
o The fresh water productivity was increased by increasing water temperature in
the basin.
o Additives to enhance solar absorption increased productivity.

30
 o Glass cover cooling improves the performance of the solar still.
o The glass cover temperature plays a significant role in the productivity.
Increasing the brine depth decreased the system productivity.
o The distillate output increases with an increasing mass flow rate over the glass
cover.
o The effective heat extraction from the tubular solar still significantly increased
the productivity.
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40
 Fig. 1 Solar still with Lauric acid in the basin [30]

Fig. 2 Stepped solar still with paraffin wax [36]

41
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of a parabolic collector solar still with PCM [37]

Fig. 4 A photo of the double pass solar air heater with solar still [39]

42
 Fig. 5 A photograph of experimental setup with PCM [40]

Fig. 6 Schematic view of the stepped solar still with PCM [41]

43
Fig. 7 Schematic view of the solar still [43]

Fig. 8 Schematic view of single slope solar still [50]

44
 Fig. 9 Schematic view of wick-basin solar still [53]

Fig. 10 (a) Pictorial view of single basin solar still. (b) Double basin solar still [57]

Fig. 11 Schematic view of pyramid solar still with black wick concave surface [58]

45
Fig. 12 Modified solar still with blackened jute cloth [60]

Fig. 13 Pictorial view of inclined solar still [63]

46
Fig. 14 Schematic view of single slope solar still with sponge cubes in the basin [66]

Fig. 15 Schematic view of single slope solar still with baffle suspended absorber [68]

Fig. 16 Pictorial view of semi-circular trough solar still [69]

47
 Fig. 17 Pictorial view of the double basin solar still with vacuum tubes [72]

Fig. 18 (a) uncoated metallic wiry sponge, (b) coated metallic wiry sponge and (c) black
volcanic rocks [74]

48
Fig. 19 (a) single slope solar still with sponge, (b) solar still with wick and, (c) solar still with
fin [75]

Fig. 20 Schematic view of single slope solar still with absorber bed [76]

49
Fig. 21Pictorial view of single slope solar still with spherical balls and sponges [77]

Fig 22 Pictorial view of different basin wick materials [80]

Fig. 23 Pictorial view of absorbing materials in the solar still [81]

50
Fig. 24 Schematic view of single slope solar still with external water tank [83]

Fig. 25 Pictorial view of solar still with vacuum fan [85]

Fig. 26 Hemispherical solar still cooling arrangement [90]

51
 Fig. 27 Pictorial view of top cover cooling still set up [91]

Fig. 28 Schematic view of solar still with top cover cooling using sprinkler [92]

Fig. 29 Top cover cooling arrangement of V type solar still [93]

52
 Fig. 30 Schematic diagram of experimental setup [94]

Fig. 31 Schematic view of stepped solar still with top cover cooling [95]

53
Fig. 32 Schematic representation of a solar still coupled to a desert (evaporative) cooler [96]

Fig. 33 Pictorial view of triple basin solar still with top cover cooling arrangement [98]

54
 Fig. 34 Tubular solar still with cover cooling arrangment [100]

Fig. 35 Cover cooling of tubular solar still coupled with pyramid solar still [101]

55
Highlights
 The paper analyzes the effect of various heat exchange mechanisms to augment the water
production from different solar still designs
 It is possible to augment the output of solar distillation systems with internal energy storage
 The effective heat extraction from the tubular solar still significantly increased the
productivity

56