Chemosphere 177 (2017) 334e338

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Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere

Physico-chemical and genotoxicity analysis of Guaribas river water in

the Northeast Brazil
~o Marcelo de Castro e Sousa a, b, Ana Paula Peron a,
Joa
Felipe Cavalcanti Carneiro da Silva a, b, Ellifran Bezerra de Siqueira Dantas a,
Ataíde de Macedo Vieira Lima a, Victor Alves de Oliveira a, Leoma  Albuquerque Matos c,
Marcia Fernanda Correia Jardim Paz , Marcus Vinicius Oliveira Barros de Alencar b,
b

Muhammad Torequl Islam b, d, *, Ana Ame lia de Carvalho Melo-Cavalcante b,

udia Costa Bonecker e, Hora
Cla cio Ferreira Júlio Jr. e
a
Departamento de Ci^ gicas, Universidade Federal do Piauí, Campus Senador Helvídio Nunes de Barros, Av. Cícero Duarte, Picos, Piauí, CEP -
encias Biolo
64600-000, Brazil
b
Programa de Pos-Graduaça~o em Ci^encias Farmac^ euticas, Universidade Federal do Piauí, Campus Ministro Petro^nio Portela, Bairro Ininga, Teresina, Piauí,
CEP - 64049-550, Brazil
c
Departamento de Ci^ gicas, Universidade Federal do Piauí, Campus Ministro Petro
encias Biolo ^nio Portela, Bairro Ininga, Teresina, Piauí, CEP - 64049-550,
Brazil
d
Department of Pharmacy, Southern University Bangladesh, Mehedibag (Chittagong)-4000, Bangladesh
e
Departamento de Ci^ gicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Limnologia, Ictiologia e Aquicultura, Universidade Estadual de Maringa
encias Biolo , Av. Colombo 5790,
Maringa, Parana
, CEP - 87020-900, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

Guaribas river carries polluted water.

Guaribas river water exhibited genotoxic effects in Oreochromis niloticus.

Heavy metal-induced significant toxic effects.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: River pollution in Brazil is significant. This study aimed to evaluate the physico-chemical and genotoxic
Received 29 November 2016 profiles of the Guaribas river water, located in Northeast Brazil (State of Piauí, Brazil). The study con-
Received in revised form ducted during the dry and wet seasons to understand the frequency of pollution throughout the year.
19 February 2017
Genotoxicity analysis was done with the blood of Oreochromis niloticus by using the comet assay. Water
Accepted 3 March 2017
Available online 3 March 2017
samples were collected from upstream, within and downstream the city Picos. The results suggest a
significant (p < 0.05) genotoxic effect of the Guaribas river water when compared to the control group. In
Handling Editor: A. Gies comparison to the control group, in the river water we found a significant increase in metals such as - Fe,
Zn, Cr, Cu and Al. In conclusion, Guaribas river carries polluted water, especially a large quantity of toxic
Keywords: metals, which may impart the genotoxic effect.
Ecotoxicology © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Genotoxicity
Guaribas river
Pollution

1. Introduction

Environmental pollution is a major concern as it directly affects

* Corresponding author. Programa de Po s-Graduaça~o em Cie^ncias Farmace^uticas,
Universidade Federal do Piauí, Campus Ministro Petro ^ nio Portela, Bairro Ininga,
Teresina, Piauí, CEP - 64049-550, Brazil.
E-mail address: rbiotufpi.br@gmail.com (M.T. Islam).
the livelihoods (Manzano et al., 2015). River pollution is one of the
major consequences of environmental pollution (Goulart and
Callisto, 2003). Pollutants impart chronic or acute toxic effects on

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.03.010
0045-6535/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J.M. de Castro e Sousa et al. / Chemosphere 177 (2017) 334e338
organisms (Farmer and Singh, 2008) and can change the cell divi-
sion rate, DNA structure and even hamper the reproductive system,
which may lead to the devastation of that particular organism.
However, by monitoring the physico-chemical variables, it is
possible to evaluate the toxicological status of a system
(Muangthong and Shrestha, 2015).
Nowadays, a number of test systems have been widely recog-
nized for the toxicogenetic monitoring of environment (Mazzeo
et al., 2013). Oreochromis niloticus is a species that is used in one
of those systems, which serve to biomonitor aquatic environments
(Osman et al., 2010).
The municipality of the Picos is in the Central/South region of
the state of Piauí (7 040 3700 S; 41280 0100 O), with an approximate
area of 803 km2 and a population of 76,309 inhabitants. The
Guaribas river is the main river draining this region. Unfortunately,
day by day it is overloaded with improper disposal of agricultural,
domestic, hospital and industrial wastages (PLANAP, 2014).
This study’s aim was to evaluate the physico-chemical and
genotoxic status of the above mentioned river water.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area, sampling sites and test groups
Water sample from upstream, middle and downstream was
collected from the river banks of the city Picos (Brazil). A negative
control (NC) was considered at Bocaina Reservoir, 32 km upstream
of the same city (06 560 33” S and 41 190 21” W), while P1: up-
stream of the city (municipality of Sussuapara) (07 030 86400 S and
Fig. 1. Geographical location of the study area and sampling sites. [P1: Upstream of the city; P2 to P4: Middle of the city; P5: Downstream of the city; NC: Negative control].
335
41 250 78800 W), P2: 1st site within the city (07 040 96400 S and 41
270 87900 W), P3: 2nd site within the city (07  C 050 313500 S and
041  C 280 00700 W), P4: 3rd site within the city (07 050 48700 S and
41 280 67800 W), and P5: downstream of the city (municipality of
Aroeira) (07 060 04700 S and 41 290 14500 ). Each site has been shown
in Fig. 1.
Sampling was done during the summer and rainy seasons from
2013 to 2015. Samples were collected in plastic bottles of 1.5 L and
gallons of 150 L, previously decontaminated through several
washings with distilled water and disinfectant (10% HCl). Small
containers stored in coolers with ice were immediately taken to the
laboratory for the subsequent physico-chemical analysis of the
water, while 150 L gallons were used for Oreochromis niloticus test.
2.2. Physico-chemical analysis of water
After collection, on the spot, we immediately measured the
electrical conductivity (mS cm1), total dissolved solids (ppm), pH,
dissolved oxygen (ppm), and temperature ( C). The other param-
eters were determined in the Central Public Health Laboratory by
Dr. Costa Alvarenga - LACEN, of the State of Piauí, Brazil, including:
turbidity (NTU), color (UHz), nitrate (mg L1), nitrite (mg L1),
sulfate (mg L1), and chlorine (mg L1) using a spectrophotometer
(DR 2500, ODYSSEY - HACH), while the total phosphorus (mg L1)
by persulfate digestion method. Levels of iron, nickel, cadmium,
zinc, copper and chromium were determined using a flame atomic-
absorption spectrophotometer (APHA et al., 2005), while
aluminum was determined by the method described by Rice et al.
(2012). Each test was triplicated.
336 J.M. de Castro e Sousa et al. / Chemosphere 177 (2017) 334e338

2.3. Oreochromis niloticus test
Collected fish were acclimated (temperature: 29 ± 2  C and pH:
7.8 ± 0.3) and subsequently transferred into the previously dis-
infected aquaria, maintaining the same condition. Each tank
received a specimen (3 per sample) with an exposure time (ET) of
72 h. The cyclophosphamide (CPA) at a dose of 4 mg L1 was
injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) as a cytotoxic and mutagenic agent
(Bolognesi and Hayashi, 2011). After the ET, blood (0.5 mL) was
collected by gill puncture, with the aid of heparinized syringes to
perform the comet assay and the fish were placed in a container for
deep anesthesia, sedation and death, according to CEUA (2008) (the
Ethics Committee for Animal Experimentation/Brazil). This study
was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Federal Univer-
sity of Piauí (UFPI)/Brazil with the number: 108/14.
was carried out at 40 by using an optical microscope to count
200 cells per fish (600 per group) with the identification of 5 classes
of damages: class 0 (C0, genetic material without damage or intact);
class 1 (C1, mild damage, class 2 (C2, moderate damage), class 3 (C3,
severe damage) and class 4 (C4, maximum damage), respectively.
In order to determine the index of damage (ID), the total score
for the sample gel was between 0 and 400 arbitrary units, and was
defined as: ID: 0  (C0) þ 1  (C1) þ 2  (C2) þ 3  (C3) þ 4  (C4).
Each image was scored according to the extent of DNA migration
based on a visual analysis in 100 cells of each slide. Frequency of
damage (FD) analysis, varying from 0 to 100 (%), was define as:
FD ¼ 100 - C0, in which C0 represents the number of class 0 (C0)
cells out of 100 cells evaluated.
We analyzed the index of damage (ID) and frequency of damage
(FD) in 200 cells per fish (600 cells per group).

2.4. Comet assay 2.5. Statistical analysis

The alkaline version of the comet assay was performed according
to the protocol of Singh et al. (1988), with some modifications.
Briefly, 5 mL of gill blood was mixed with 100 mL of low melting
agarose (0.5%) at 37  C. Then, the mixture was spread on a slide
previously coated with normal melting point agarose (1.5%), and
covered with a coverslip. After solidification (drying in a refrigerator
for 10 min), the coverslips were removed. Slides were then pro-
tected from light and dipped vertically into a cold lysis solution (89%
stock lysis solution, 1% Triton X-100, 10% DMSO, pH 10; stock lysis
solution 2.5 M NaCl, 100 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris, pH 10), for at least
12 h. The slides were then subjected to electrophoresis in an alkaline
solution (1 mM EDTA, 300 mM NaOH, pH > 13) under the following
conditions: 20 V (0.74 V cm1), 300 mA, 20 min in a low light
environment and followed by neutralization with Tris-HCl (0.4 M,
pH 7.5 for 15 min), washing with ice-cold distilled water, and air
drying. Finally, the slides were fixed with cold absolute methanol for
3 min, air dried, and stained with silver nitrate. Photomicrography
We used Kolmogorov Smirnov test for normality and distribu-
tions and Levene test for homogeneity of variances prior to statis-
tical analysis to select parametric or non-parametric tests. To detect
statistical differences between periods and between samples,
ANOVA followed by one way Tukey post-hoc test was performed for
the physico-chemical and toxicogenetic analyses. Pearson correla-
tion was used to determine the relationship between genotoxic
damage and accumulated metals. All data were analyzed with the
STATISTIC 6.0 software by considering p < 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physico-chemical characterization of water
The results of water quality of the sampling sites were compared
with the indices proposed by the resolution of the National Envi-
ronmental Council (CONAMA- 357/2005) and showed that the total

Table 1
Physico-chemical profile of Guaribas river water in dry and rainy (wet) seasons.

Variables MVA Dry/2013 (23.6e37.4  C; RH: 37.3%; RF: 0 mm3) Dry/2014 (23.8e38.3  C; RH: 42.6%; RF: 0 mm3)

NC P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 NC P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

Cond. (mScm1) e 75 98 321 384 413 400 89 127 990 960 970 980
TDS <500(ppm) 139 126 149 193 193 510a 186 193 508a 485 493 490
pH 6e9 7.3 6.8 6.7 6.5 6.4 7.1 7.4 6.5 7.8 7.5 8.1 7.2
OD >5(ppm) 6.4 6.1 2.1a 0.8a 2.6a 1.3a 6.1 3.7 4.2a 0.8a 2.0a 1.5a
Turbidity <5 (NTU) 3.9 4.7 25.9a,b 38.1a,b 10.7a 52.3a,b 3.9 4.4 47.6a,b 51.4a,b 27.4a 50.7a,b
Color <75(UHz) 58 65 419a,b 448a,b 442a,b 496a,b 67 72 476a,b 392a,b 472a,b 486a,b
Nitrate <10(mg L1) 1.1 1.2 4.0 7.7b 2.5 5.6b 1.3 1.5 4.3a 8.0a 2.5 6.0b
Nitrite <1 (mg L1) 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.1b 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.1 0.05 0.1
Sulfate <250(mg L1) 13.6 6.3 14 27b 19.7 55.3b 13.6 3.9 27 43.6b 39.3b 43b
Chlorine <0.01(mg L1) 0.11a 0.09a 0.5a,b 0.7a,b 0.2a 0.5a,b 0.1a 0.1a 0.6a,b 0.7a,b 0.3a 0.6a,b
PT <0.05(mg L1) 0.03 0.04 2.2a,b 1.5a,b 1.4a,b 2.8a,b 0.03 0.07a 2.4a,b 1.6a,b 1.4a,b 2.9a,b

Variables MVA Rainy/2014 (23.4e33.2  C; RH: 61.1%; RF: 109.6 mm3) Rainy/2015 (23.6e34.3  C; RH: 66.1%; RF: 64 mm3)

Cond.mS/cm e 85 82 337 374 472 405 90 96 996 721 822 809

SDT <500(ppm) 143 126 174 185 236 229 163 138 496 360 411 405
pH 6e9 7.30 7.50 7.20 7.4 7.40 7.60 7.10 8.80 7.90 7.70 7.60 8.00
DO >5(ppm) 6.90 5.10 2.20a 2.1a 2.50a 2.80a 5.20 5.00 1.90a 1.50a 1.40a 2.00a
Turbidity <5(NTU) 3.70 4.50 4.80 4.7 30.70a,b 3.90 3.90 2.10 4.90b 5.90a,b 5.90a,b 28.70a,b
Color <75(UHz) 48 27.3 156a,b 86.6a,b 100a,b 378.30a,b 73a 31.30 88a 103a,b 102.60a,b 367.80a,b
Nitrate <10(mg L1) 0.90 0.03 0.40 0.2 0.40 6.50b 1.40 0.03 0.50 0.30 0.30 5.50b
Nitrite <1(mg L1) 0.01 Nd Nd 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.01 Nd 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.04
Sulfate <250(mg L1) 15.67 Nd 0.01c 1.8c 1.10c 2.10c 2.10 0.01 0.01 2.10 1.20 2.10
Chlorine <0.01(mg L1) 0.19a 0.05a 0.17a 0.09a 0.06a 0.50a,b 0.19a 0.06a 0.20a 0.10a 0.10a 0.50a,b
TP <0.05(mg L1) 0.02 0.09a 2.60a,b 1.6a,b 1.40a,b 2.90a,b 0.03 0.04 2.20a,b 1.50a,b 1.30a,b 2.60a,b

MVA: Maximum value allowed by the Brazilian law; Nd: Non-detected; [RH: relative humidity & RF: rain fall by INMET e National Meteorology Institute e Brazil (2015)].
a
Values above the water quality standards set by the Brazilian law - CONAMA 357/05.
b
Higher values compared with the negative control (NC) and P1, for the same parameter and period (p < 0.05).
c
Lower values compared with NC and P1, for the same parameter and period (p < 0.05).
 J.M. de Castro e Sousa et al. / Chemosphere 177 (2017) 334e338 337

dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, color, chlorine, total phosphorus Heavy metals have toxic effects and can cause DNA damage
were above the acceptable limits (VMP) in both periods. The elec- (Korpinen et al., 2012). Rank et al. (2005) found positive correla-
trical conductivity, turbidity, color, nitrate, sulfate, chlorine, total tions between the levels of Ni and Cr in sediments and DNA damage
phosphorus (TP) and metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr and Al) increased in mussels. In another study, Achary et al. (2008) suggested that Al
significantly (p < 0.05) at P2 to P5 sites when compared to the NC has DNA damaging effects in Allium cepa meristematic cells. It may
and P1 (Table 1). be due to its interference on cell division kinetics, induction of
The increased electrical conductivity is a sign of the presence of chromosomal adhesion and nuclear fragmentation capacities
dissolved materials (Marinelli et al., 2000). According to the Envi- (Duarte et al., 2012). Moreover, Cu and Zn are also evident for
ronmental Sanitation Technology Company-CETESB (2005), elec-
trical conductivity values greater than 100 mS cm1 has a negative
Table 3
impact on environments. On the other hand, dissolved oxygen (DO)
DNA damage level measured by the comet assay in Oreochromis niloticus erythro-
should exceed 5 ppm (Bianchi et al., 2011). In our study, the DO cytes exposed to the Guaribas river water.
value at the P2 to P5 sites was found to decrease. This may be due to
Sites Dry/2013 Dry/2014
the release of organic matter and industrial wastages into the river
(Dusmann et al., 2014). An increase in TP level is a sign of artificial ID FD ID FD
eutrophication of that part of the river (Wetsel, 2001), although it NC 43.6 ± 6.8 27.5 ± 3.6 32.6 ± 7.8 23.3 ± 4.3
can be derived from the direct sewage discharge. P1 47.6 ± 8.8 28.4 ± 6.3 39.8 ± 6.3 26.8 ± 3.2
Sewage and industrial effluents increase the concentration of P2 94.2 ± 8.4a,b 61.3 ± 11.6a,b 85.3 ± 12.8a,b 50.4 ± 4.7a,b
P3 106.1 ± 15.2a,b 71.6 ± 8.4a,b 108.2 ± 6.7a,b 65.1 ± 4.5a,b
TDS in the aquatic environment, which is a complex mixture of
P4 123.5 ± 8.6a,b 77.3 ± 4.8a,b 100.3 ± 6.1a,b 65.8 ± 8.1a,b
chlorides, sulfates, bicarbonates and other substances (Barbosa P5 95.4 ± 7.1a,b 62.5 ± 3.5a,b 82.4 ± 7.7a,b 55.6 ± 5.1a,b
et al., 2010), which are known to impart potential toxic effects in PC 141.1 ± 10.1a,b 78.2 ± 4.7a,b 128.1 ± 12.4a,b 80.4 ± 5.5a,b
livelihoods (Mihaljevic et al., 2011). On the other hand, metals, Rainy/2014 Rainy/2015
especially the toxic metals are well-known for their toxicogenetic
ID FD ID FD
effects on organisms (Klobucar et al., 2012). In this study, we also
found an increase in the levels of investigated metals at P2 to P5 NC 28.3 ± 6.5 19.8 ± 6.8 35.1 ± 9.2 24.2 ± 5.7
P1 42.1 ± 6.3 28.3 ± 3.5 48.5 ± 7.1 32.8 ± 5.6
sites when compared to the NC and P1 (Table 2).
P2 57.2 ± 8.1a 38.5 ± 8.1a 53 ± 6.4 35.4 ± 6.6
P3 89.6 ± 7.1a,b 53 ± 3.7a,b 92.5 ± 11.1a,b 53.1 ± 7.1a,b
3.2. Comet assay P4 41.4 ± 4.1 24.3 ± 3.1 75.8 ± 10.7a,b 52.7 ± 5.4a,b
P5 49.6 ± 6.8 32.7 ± 2.2 69.7 ± 6.1a 47.2 ± 4.5a
PC 128.8 ± 9.2a,b 72.7 ± 5.8a,b 116.6 ± 10.3a,b 70 ± 7.7a,b
In the comet assay, a significant difference (p < 0.05) of ID and
FD was observed between dry and rainy seasons, with a higher Values are mean ± standard deviation; NC: Negative control; PC: Positive control
(cyclophosphamide at 4 mg L1); ID: Index of damage; FD: Frequency of damage;
value in the dry season, where P2 to P5 showed as a significant ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test.
increase in the above mentioned parameters as compared to the NC a
p < 0.001 when compared to the NC.
b
and P1 (Table 3). p < 0.001 when compared to the P1.

Table 2
Levels of metals in the sampling analyzed by the flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

Seasons Metals (mg L1)

Fe Ni Cd Zn Al Cu Cr

MVA 0.3 0.025 0.001 0.18 0.1 0.009 0.05

Samples

Dry/2013 NC 0.01 ± 0.00 Nd Nd 0.04 ± 0.02 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.005 ± 0.003
P1 0.19 ± 0.10 Nd Nd 0.025 ± 0.01 0.003 ± 0.004 0.009 ± 0.003 0.002 ± 0.00
P2 0.33 ± 0.06a Nd Nd 0.03 ± 0.006 0.07 ± 0.04 0.02 ± 0.001 0.017 ± 0.008a
P3 0.48 ± 0.18a Nd Nd 0.04 ± 0.006 0.083 ± 0.07 0.015 ± 0.002 0.06 ± 0.02a
P4 0.15 ± 0.03 Nd Nd 0.23 ± 0.03a 0.2 ± 0.06a 0.055 ± 0.003a 0.015 ± 0.003a
P5 0.09 ± 0.004 Nd Nd 0.19 ± 0.02a 0.126 ± 0.04a 0.013 ± 0 0.02 ± 0.00a
Rainy/2014 NC 0.01 ± 0.004 Nd Nd 0.02 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.003 0.001 ± 0.00 0.006 ± 0.004
P1 0.07 ± 0.02 Nd Nd 0.035 ± 0.003 0.00 ± 0.004 0.016 ± 0.009a 0.012 ± 0.005
P2 0.15 ± 0.00 Nd Nd 0.08 ± 0.007 0.07 ± 0.02 0.005 ± 0.003 0.055 ± 0.01a
P3 0.13 ± 0.006 Nd Nd 0.075 ± 0.02 0.24 ± 0,03a 0.08 ± 0.00a 0.052 ± 0.03a
P4 0.15 ± 0.02 Nd Nd 0.195 ± 0.01 0.16 ± 0.04a 0.01 ± 0.00a 0.042 ± 0.02
P5 0.6 ± 0.05a Nd Nd 0.21 ± 0.07 0.13 ± 0.05a 0.02 ± 0.006a 0.055 ± 0.01a
Dry/2014 NC 0.01 ± 0.004 Nd Nd 0.049 ± 0.02 0.01 ± 0.02 0.005 ± 0.003 0.005 ± 0.00
P1 0.01 ± 0.004 Nd Nd 0.055 ± 0.03 0.03 ± 0.04 0.001 ± 0.00 0.004 ± 0.001
P2 0.04 ± 0.00 Nd Nd 0.05 ± 0.01 0.15 ± 0.00 0.02 ± 0.006a 0.004 ± 0.002
P3 0.01 ± 0.007 Nd Nd 0.10 ± 0.00 0.22 ± 0.07a 0.035 ± 0.00a 0.077 ± 0.002a
P4 0.05 ± 0.003 Nd Nd 0.35 ± 0.01a 0.156 ± 0.02a 0.49 ± 0.21a 0.055 ± 0.001a
P5 0.08 ± 0.008 Nd Nd 1.215 ± 0.01a 0.16 ± 0a 0.1 ± 0.02a 0.03 ± 0.006
Rainy/2015 NC 1.1 ± 0.004 Nd Nd 0.007 ± 0.003 0.002 ± 0.001 0.00 ± 0.00 0.002 ± 0.001
P1 0.08 ± 0.01 Nd Nd 0.02 ± 0.01 0.003 ± 0.003 0.004 ± 0.001 0.006 ± 0.004
P2 0.33 ± 0.07a Nd Nd 0.05 ± 0.03 0.07 ± 0.02 0.002 ± 0.001 0.031 ± 0.005
P3 0.13 ± 0.006 Nd Nd 0.10 ± 0.06 0.13 ± 0.05a 0.066 ± 0.01a 0.041 ± 0.038
P4 0.17 ± 0.005 Nd Nd 0.13 ± 0.04 0.09 ± 0.004 0.019 ± 0.01a 0.06 ± 0.01a
P5 0.71 ± 0.03a Nd Nd 0.20 ± 0.005 0.113 ± 0.04a 1.1 0.01a 0.055 ± 0.01a

MVA: Maximum value allowed in mg L1. Nd: non-detected.

a
Noncompliance with water quality standards by the Brazilian law - CONAMA 357/05.
338 J.M. de Castro e Sousa et al. / Chemosphere 177 (2017) 334e338
Fig. 2. Correlation between conjugated heavy metals and index of damage (ID) for dry
and rainy seasons.
genotoxic effects in a number of test systems (Kang et al., 2014).
Herein, we also found a positive correlation (p ¼ 0.0001; r ¼ 0.60 in
the rainy season and p ¼ 0.001, r ¼ 0.670 in the dry season) be-
tween conjugated metals and ID (Fig. 2).
Rising of temperature facilitates the metal-DNA interaction
(Phelps et al., 1999). Thus, the more DNA damaging effects in
summer may be linked to it (Table 1). However, heavy metals are
capable to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Chakraborty
et al., 2009), those are evident to impart damaging effects on cell
macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and genetic
materials (e.g. - DNA, RNA) (Islam, 2016).
4. Conclusion
According to the physico-chemical and genotoxic biomonitoring
of the Guaribas river (state of Piauí, Brazil) evidences for the
presence of higher levels of toxic metals during dry and wet sea-
sons at the sampling points is evident. Water from different sites
and seasons caused genotoxic effects in O. niloticus erythrocytes.
The presence of higher levels of heavy metals and high temperature
may facilitate DNA damage in O. niloticus erythrocytes.
Conflict of interest
None declared.
Acknowledgements
We are owed to the NUPELIA (Center for Research in Limnology,
Ichthyology and Aquaculture), UFPI, LACEN-PI (Central Public
Health Laboratory of the State of Piauí) and CNPq/CAPES for logistic,
laboratory and funds, respectively.
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