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Article history: Using a finite element analysis (FEA) model, the residual stress (RS) formation in an autogenous GTA
Received 29 September 2014 dissimilar weld between austenitic stainless steel (304) and low carbon steel (A36) are analyzed. The
Received in revised form 13 March 2015 effect of material properties on RS formation was determined by first considering a similar weld of 304
Accepted 14 March 2015
plates, and then changing only a selected mechanical property of the 304 plate on one side of weld to that
Available online 24 March 2015
corresponding to an A36 plate. Enforcing one set of mechanical property to be different at a time helped
to isolate the role of these individual properties on the RS formation in the dissimilar weld. The effect of
Keywords:
mechanical tensioning on dissimilar welds is then investigated. Results show that the longitudinal RS in
Residual stress
Similar weld
both the similar and dissimilar welds can be reduced in the weld zone (WZ) by an amount equal to the
Dissimilar weld stress corresponding to the applied mechanical tensioning load, as the tensioning load is removed after
Mechanical tensioning cooling. The mechanism of RS formation in dissimilar weld, and its mitigation by mechanical tensioning
Residual stress reduction are determined by comparing the longitudinal stress evolution on a cross-section of the dissimilar weld
plates under the mechanically tensioned and free conditions.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.03.021
0924-0136/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355 345
RS mitigation techniques have received increased attention over possesses greater yield strength and thermal expansion. In case of
the past two decades. Most of these techniques, however, are appli- ferritic steel and austenitic steel dissimilar weld, the latter under-
cable to similar weld. Zhang et al. (2005) have discussed the adapta- goes higher RS. The belief behind this is that materials cannot hold
tion and optimization of some of these techniques, such as anneal- RS beyond their yield point. Once stress magnitude at any location
ing and peening processes, for its use on similar welded joints. of weld plate reaches to its corresponding yield point, that par-
There also exist specific welding methods such as in-process cool- ticular location starts deforming plastically. Since austenitic steel
ing and global mechanical tensioning (GMT), which are designed has greater yield point, the magnitude of RS in this metal will be
to work by influencing the thermal strain mechanism that drives larger. Thermal expansion of austenitic steel has a big role to play
RS formation in the weld. Altenkirch et al. (2008) experimentally in this development, as well. Since this property is again greater in
investigated the relationship between the final RS stress, distortion, austenitic stainless steel, area undergoing tensile RS will be larger.
and the level of GMT applied in situ during welding. The mechan- Overall, even though in the past decades, significant amount of
ical tensioning technique, where a tensile stress is introduced progress on RS modeling was made, the mechanism of various mit-
before welding and maintained throughout the welding and cool- igation techniques, mechanical tensioning in particular, in terms of
ing phases, was also found to be very effective by Richards et al. its dependence on material properties of the two plates, is not well
(2008) in relieving the large longitudinal RS in similar welds. Wen understood. In the present study, we first used a FEA model to track
et al. (2010) demonstrated that rolling the weld as an effective way the evolution of stress field at various locations during the weld-
to improve the mechanical properties, and minimize distortion. ing and cooling periods, providing a better understanding of the
Studies with regard to mitigating RS in dissimilar welds are mechanism of RS formation in dissimilar welds, particularly the
limited. Sedek et al. (2003) demonstrated that the thermal stress influence of the difference in various material properties. Then the
relieving techniques, such as the furnace annealing of welded mechanism of the influence of tensioning load on RS reduction in
joints, were not only ineffective for mitigating RS in dissimilar similar and dissimilar welds was determined.
steel welds, but actually increased RS as well. This is due to the
considerable difference in the thermal expansion coefficient of
the joined steels, producing large misfit stresses. Hurrell et al. 2. Methodology
(2006) discussed a number of mechanical mitigation techniques in
a review article. Broadly, they classified the mechanical mitigation In the experiment, the GTAW process without filler metal was
techniques under three main categories: (a) surface mechanical considered for three butt-welded joints of type 304 stainless steel
treatment to induce compressive skin stress, (b) mechanical stress and A36 low carbon steel. The welding parameters used for the sim-
relief through thickness, and (c) weld design optimization to pro- ulations conducted in this work are shown in Table 1. The chemical
duce low/favorable RS levels and minimize distortion. Among all compositions of 304 and A36 plates are provided in Table 2.
the techniques in these three categories, Song et al. (2010) identi- The temperature fields and the evolution of the RS were inves-
fied weld overlay technique as the most effective for protecting a tigated by means of a sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical
structural dissimilar metal weld. Kim et al. (2009) found that both formulation available in the ABAQUS commercial package. The
the longitudinal and the transverse stress components decreased details of the model are shown in Fig. 2. A weld plate of dimen-
as the number of layers increased. The effectiveness of mechani- sions 72 mm × 50 mm × 5 mm was considered. Linear 8-node brick
cal tensioning technique has not been studied on a dissimilar weld elements, with relatively finer elements in the 5 mm region on both
where the RS is not the same on the two base plates. sides of the weld path, were used for the model. Simulation of weld-
In summary, it can be stated that RS in dissimilar weld is ing was realized by introducing a moving volumetric heat source
asymmetric and its highest magnitude occurs in the plate which region into the plate at the desired speed in the desired direction.
346 H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355
Table 1
Welding parameters used in this study.
Welding voltage (V) Welding current (A) Welding speed (mm/s) Arc efficiency Shielding gas, CFM (cubic feet per min)
Table 2
Chemical compositions (wt%) of A36 and 304 steels.
A36 0.08–0.29 0.40–1.20 0.15–0.40 0.04 Max. 0.05 Max. None None Fe
304 Max 0.08 Max 2 Max 1 Max 0.045 Max 0.03 18–20 8–10 Fe
Table 3
Temperature dependent convection coefficients for the steel (Attarha and Sattari-
Far, 2011).
h [W/m2 K] T − To [K]
1.85 56
9.079 278
18.5 556
52.6 2778
Fig. 4. Comparison between the measured and simulated temperatures for the sim-
ilar welding of 304.
Fig. 5. Temperature distribution at the instance when the welding torch reaches the
middle of the weld path in 304 similar weld. (For interpretation of the references to
color in the text, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 3. Properties of A36 and 304: (a) thermal properties, and (b) mechanical prop-
erties.
The FEA model was validated by comparing the predicted tem- Fig. 6. Longitudinal stress at the instance when the welding torch reaches the mid-
dle of the weld path in 304 similar weld.
perature with experimental data obtained for the similar weld with
304 steel. The temperature histories at three different locations
were measured using K-type thermocouples spot welded to the This could be attributed to the difference in the proximity of these
upper and lower surfaces of the weld plate (Fig. 2). The thermo- locations to the fusion boundary (FB). Being the nearest to the FB,
couples T1, T2, and T3 were placed at 3, 5 and 8 mm away from T1 experiences the largest temperature change and the associated
the weld line (boundary), respectively. The temperature data was property changes, thereby being the most sensitive to the underly-
acquired at a rate of 10 readings per second. ing assumptions and input properties.
For the computational model validation, the temperature histo-
ries predicted by the computational model throughout the heating 3.2. RS formation
and cooling stages were compared to the experimentally mea-
sured values (Fig. 4). Overall, the model predictions agree well Figs. 5 and 6 present the typical temperature and longitudinal
with the measurements. Near the peak, agreement was relatively stress distribution, respectively, on the surface of the plate during
stronger for locations T2 and T3, when compared to location T1. welding at the instance when the welding torch (arc) reaches the
348 H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355
Fig. 7. Longitudinal stress in 304 similar weld after cooling (longitudinal RS).
Fig. 9. Temperature distribution at the instance when the welding torch reaches
the middle of the weld path in A36-304 dissimilar weld.
Fig. 10. Longitudinal stress at the instance when the welding torch reaches the
middle of the weld path in dissimilar weld of A36 and 304.
far from line A–A (Fig. 14). As the welding torch reaches the loca-
tion corresponding to the 8 s instance from the start, compressive
longitudinal stress began to evolve, but mostly in the region close
to WZ. As the welding torch traveled forward and reached A–A ,
and the temperature increased, a W shaped stress profile with a
relatively low tensile stress in the WZ, large compressive stress
next to the WZ, and large tensile stress away from the WZ, devel-
oped for both the similar and dissimilar welds. Subsequently, as
the welding torch crossed the section A–A and continued to travel
forward, the tensile stress in the WZ increased in magnitude. The
compressive stress magnitude remained the same, but spread into
the outer tensile region. The evolution of stress during the cool-
ing stage, where thermal mismatch and the associated stresses
gradually changed the non-uniform plastic deformation, eventu-
ally resulted in a drastically different stress profile(@2500 s). The
outer region (±20 mm) with substantial tensile stress completely
changed to large compressive stress while the tensile stress in the
WZ increased significantly, reaching the yield strength in 304.
Fig. 12. Longitudinal RS after cooling in similar A36, similar 304, and their combi- 3.3. Sensitivity of RS to various material properties
nation for dissimilar weld, which is shown by blue color, (left half is A36 and right
half is 304).
A sensitivity study was performed to identify the impact of the
dissimilarity in various material properties of 304 and A36, namely
thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, yield strength, and
coefficient of thermal expansion, on the formation of RS. This was
achieved by characterizing the RS formation in the WZ of a 304
plate, with the particular property under consideration changed to
the corresponding A36 property, but only for material on one side
of the weld (referred to as A36 plate in this section, as shown in
Fig. 15). This approach, where only a single material property was
dissimilar across the weld at a time, permitted to study the impact
of individual material properties qualitatively (not quantitative
because of elasto-plastic constitutive model which is nonlinear and
hence history dependent) without being influenced by the dissim-
ilarity of other material properties. The results are summarized in
Fig. 16. In case 1, since material properties are exactly the same on
both sides of the weld, longitudinal RS is symmetric with respect
to the weld path, as discussed earlier. In case 2, bell shaped RS
distribution shifted slightly toward the right due to the difference
in thermal conductivity between the plates. A36 has a much higher
thermal conductivity coefficient than that of 304 in the tempera-
ture range below 1000 K (Fig. 3). Since higher thermal conductivity
leads to higher thermal diffusivity for a given mass density and
Fig. 13. Normalized Longitudinal RS (RS/YS) in dissimilar A36-304 weld (left-A36
specific heat capacity (˛ = k/Cp ), heat diffusion is faster in the A36.
and right- 304).
Therefore, the temperature distribution is relatively more uniform
in this region when compared to the locations away from the weld
weld), A36 (similar weld) and their combination (dissimilar weld). path where temperature gradient is relatively large. In effect, the
As discussed above, for the same heat input and BM dimensions, the temperature across the plate becomes uniform more quickly in
magnitude of RS in the dissimilar weld around the WZ (±7 mm) is A36. Therefore, the lower temperature gradient in the A36 plate
relatively higher in 304 than that in A36 due to the fairly larger induced less tensile RS which was limited to a smaller region near
yield strength and thermal expansion of 304 when compared to the weld path. Since the specific heat capacity was similar for the
A36. The RS profiles of A36 and 304 similar welds, when compared A36 and 304 in the temperature range below 1000 K, the obtained
to that of their dissimilar weld (A36-304 weld), show a significant stress field for case 3 was very similar to case 1. The yield strength
difference in the longitudinal RS magnitude, as shown in Fig. 12. was varied in case 4, resulting in the lowering of RS in A36, which
The maximum value the longitudinal RS in 304 of the dissimilar has the lower yield strength. This can be attributed to the depen-
weld is 50 MPa more than that of the 304 similar weld, while the dence of the RS on the plastic strains in the WZ, which essentially
maximum longitudinal RS in the A36 is significantly lower than limits the maximum stress to the yield strength of the weld mate-
the A36 similar weld. The longitudinal RS normalized with its yield rial. Compared to thermal conductivity, specific heat, and yield
strength (YS) is presented in Fig. 13 for the dissimilar weld, which strength, the effect of thermal expansion coefficient showed the
shows that the RS in 304 reached its yield strength in the WZ. largest sensitivity to the RS in the WZ (case 5). Since the thermal
The formation of longitudinal RS in similar welds of 304, A36, expansion coefficient of A36 was small compared to the 304, the RS
and the dissimilar welds of 304-A36 plates, is studied by capturing dropped to a remarkably low value in A36, and increased to a larger
the evolution of longitudinal stress distribution along line A–A , for a value in 304 reaching its yield strength. The results corresponding
few selected times (Fig. 14). After 3 s from the start (location shown to the original dissimilar weld between A36 and 304, were also
as 3 s in Fig. 14b), the longitudinal stress is very low due to the provided as case 6 in Fig. 16 for comparison purposes. Interest-
low temperature gradient since the welding torch (arc) is relatively ingly, cases 5 and 6 produced very similar longitudinal RS states,
350 H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355
Fig. 14. (a) Predicted longitudinal RS profiles across the mid-plane of the weld at different times (red square for similar weld, blue circle for dissimilar weld with left half
A36 and right half 304), (b) locations of welding heat source at different time. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)
Fig. 15. Schematic illustrating how the variation in thermal expansion coefficient
in a dissimilar weld can introduce mutual tension/compression loading conditions 3.4. Effect of tensioning load on RS
that influence the RS formation.
Price et al. (2007) and Richards et al. (2008) have shown that the
indicating that the coefficient of thermal expansion plays the most application of global, or far field, mechanical tensioning externally
dominant role in the evolution of RS in the dissimilar welds of A36 during similar welding process can greatly reduce the longitudi-
and 304. Following the calculation shown by Deng et al. (2009), nal tensile RS in FSW joints. In our case, the effectiveness of their
within the temperature range from room temperature (298 K) to method was investigated for RS mitigation in similar weld and
H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355 351
Fig. 16. Effect of thermal properties on formation of RS by making only one set of property dissimilar at a time. Case 1: similar weld; Case 2: thermal conductivity; Case 3:
specific heat; Case 4: yield strength; Case5: thermal expansion; Case 6: fully dissimilar weld.
Fig. 18. Longitudinal RS distribution after similar welding of 304 with a 100 MPa
tensioning load.
Fig. 17. Longitudinal stress distribution during similar welding of 304 with a
100 MPa tensioning load.
Fig. 19. Development of longitudinal RS during welding and cooling at a location in the WZ subjected to a 100 MPa tensioning load at an arbitrary location in the weld path
(point P shown in Fig. 2).
352 H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355
Fig. 20. Longitudinal RS after cooling for un-tensioned and tensioned case, similar 304 weld.
(Fig. 7), a significant reduction of about 100 MPa in the tensile RS cooling cycle, i.e. after 2500 s. Upon releasing the tensioning load,
stress in the WZ region, at the expense of some increase in tensile the stress stored in the weld plate was reduced by an amount of the
stress away from the WZ, is obtained. stress corresponding to the applied tensioning load. The reduction
In Fig. 19, the evolution of longitudinal stress at a given node in the tensile stress in the WZ is further illustrated by compar-
(location P in Fig. 2), is displayed. Before the welding begins, longi- ing its distribution on the A–A cross-section in Fig. 20. Overall, the
tudinal stress at this location is the applied tensile stress, which is obtained results are consistent with those reported in the literature
100 MPa in this case. However, as time progressed, and the heat for similar welds (Chakravarti et al., 1990).
source approached to the location P, tensile stress continued to The mechanism of stress reduction through mechanical ten-
decrease, eventually reaching a compressive stress of −200 MPa. sioning can be explained as follows: as the arc moves along the
Interestingly, this maximum compressive stress was the same for weld path, material behind the torch expands, and develops
the case of un-tensioned sample (Fig. 8). As time progressed fur- compressive stress, due to the constraining of its free thermal
ther, the evolution of the longitudinal stress followed almost the expansion by the surrounding material (Fig. 21a). As the material
same path, until the tensioning load is released at the end of the reaches its yield strength, which is very low at high temperature,
Fig. 21. Schematic illustrating the mechanism of RS mitigation using mechanical tensioning in similar weld: (a) longitudinal thermal stresses during welding, (b) longitudinal
thermal stresses after cooling, (c) longitudinal thermal stresses during welding in the presence of tensioning load, (d) longitudinal thermal stresses after welding and prior
to the releasing of the tensioning load, and (e) longitudinal thermal stresses after releasing the tensioning load.
H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355 353
Fig. 22. Predicted longitudinal stress during welding and cooling phases at different times in the dissimilar weld of A36 and 304. Red square: un-tensioned sample, blue
circle: tensioned sample. Left half is A36 and right half is 304. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
it yields plastically producing a large plastic strain. As the material superimposed tensioning load on the weld RS profile, therefore,
cools down to the room temperature and the yield strength of the reduces the stress field uniformly by an amount equal to the tensile
material increases, a significant amount of elastic (misfit) strain stress corresponding to the tensioning load (Fig. 21e).
evolves due to this nonhomogeneous plastic strain in the material For RS reduction in dissimilar weld, only tensioning load was
even when all the thermal strains are relieved. This explains applied to the plate which experiences highest RS, (304 steel for this
the large tensile RS distribution in the WZ with the maximum study). The reason is that the tensioning stress caused by tensioning
in the welding direction, balanced by the far field compressive load will combine with the RS that is developing in the weld as it
stress (Fig. 21b). When the tensioning load is applied to the weld cools. Thus this will increase the tensile RS by 100 MPa (amount of
samples, as shown in Fig. 21c, the surrounding materials are being stress caused by tensioning load). This will mean that, there will
stretched elastically. The behavior of material behind the torch is be a much greater overlap between RS and their corresponding
similar to the un-tensioned sample, with the tensile stress limited yield stress limit (Price et al., 2007). Therefore, if the developing RS
by the yield strength. As a result, the resulting ellipsoidal stress profile was not of a sufficient magnitude to cause plastic yielding
distribution that is present after cooling to the room temperature, in un-tensioned weld plate, but it will in tensioned weld plate. In
but before the removal of the tensioning load, is slightly larger dissimilar weld, the highest RS happens in 304 steel while RS in A36
than that of the un-tensioned sample (Fig. 21d). Unloading the is no longer near yield limit. If a uniform tensioning load is applied
Fig. 23. Longitudinal RS after cooling for un-tensioned and tensioned cases in dissimilar A36-304 welds.
354 H. Eisazadeh et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 222 (2015) 344–355
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