History of photography

The history of photography began in remote antiquity

with the discovery of two critical principles; the camera
obscura image projection and the observation that some
substances are visibly altered by exposure to light. Apart
from a very uncertain process used on the Turin Shroud
there are no artefacts or descriptions that indicate any
attempt to capture images with light sensitive materials
prior to the 18th century. Around 1717 Johann Heinrich
Schulze captured cut-out letters on a bottle of a light-
sensitive slurry, but he apparently never thought of making
the results durable. Around 1800Thomas Wedgwood made
the first reliably documented, although unsuccessful
attempt at capturing camera images in permanent form. His
Retouched version of the earliest surviving camera
experiments did produce detailed photograms, but photograph, 1826 or 1827, known asView from the Window
Wedgwood and his associateHumphry Davy found no way at Le Gras
to fix these images.

In the mid-1820s, Nicéphore Niépce first managed to fix an image that was captured with a camera, but at least eight hours or even
several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépce's associate
Louis Daguerre went
on to develop the daguerreotype process, the first publicly announced and commercially viable photographic process. The
daguerreotype required only minutes of exposure in the camera, and produced clear, finely detailed results. The details were
introduced as a gift to the world in 1839, a date generally accepted as the birth year of practical photography.[1][2] The metal-based
daguerreotype process soon had some competition from the paper-based calotype negative and salt print processes invented by
William Henry Fox Talbot. Subsequent innovations made photography easier and more versatile. New materials reduced the required
camera exposure time from minutes to seconds, and eventually to a small fraction of a second; new photographic media were more
economical, sensitive or convenient, including roll films for casual use by amateurs. In the mid-20th century, developments made it
possible for amateurs to take pictures innatural color as well as in black-and-white.

The commercial introduction of computer-based electronic digital cameras in the 1990s soon revolutionized photography. During the
first decade of the 21st century, traditional film-based photochemical methods were increasingly marginalized as the practical
advantages of the new technology became widely appreciated and the image quality of moderately priced digital cameras was
continually improved. Especially since cameras became a standard feature on smartphones, taking pictures (and instantly publishing
them online) has become an ubiquitous everyday practice around the world.

Contents
Etymology
Early history of the camera
Before 1700: Turin Shroud and light sensitive materials
1700 to 1802: earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results
Schulze's Scotophorus: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717)
De la Roche's fictional image capturing process (1760)
Scheele's forgotten chemical fixer (1777)
Thomas Wedgwood & Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790?-1802)
Jacques Charles: Fleeting silhouette photograms (circa 1801?)
 1816 to 1833: Niépce's earliest fixed images
1830 to 1840: early monochrome processes
1850 to 1900
Popularization
Early photography in India
Colour process
Development of digital photography
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Etymology
The coining of the word "photography" is usually attributed to Sir John Herschel in 1839. It is based on the Greek φῶς (phōs),
[3]
(genitive: phōtós) meaning "light", andγραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light".

Early history of the camera

A natural phenomenon, known as camera obscura or pinhole image, can project a
(reversed) image through a small opening onto an opposite surface. This principle
may have been known and used in prehistoric times. The earliest known written
record of the camera obscura is to be found in Chinese writings calledMozi, dated to
the 4th century BCE. Until the 16th century the camera obscura was mainly used to
study optics and astronomy, especially to safely watch solar eclipses without
damaging the eyes. In the later half of the 16th century some technical
improvements were developed: a (biconvex) lens in the opening (first described by
Gerolamo Cardano in 1550) and a diaphragm restricting the aperture (Daniel
Principle of a box camera obscura
Barbaro in 1568) gave a brighter and sharper image. In 1558 Giambattista della
with mirror
Porta advised using the camera obscura as a drawing aid in his popular and
influential books. Della Porta's advice was widely adopted by artists and since the
17th century portable versions of the camera obscura were commonly used - first as a tent, later as boxes. The box type camera
obscura was the basis for the earliest photographic cameras when photography was developed in the early 19th century
.

Before 1700: Turin Shroud and light sensitive materials

The notion that light can affect various substances - for instance the suntanning of skin or fading of textile - must have been around
since very early times. Ideas of fixing the image seen in mirrors or other ways of creating images automatically may also have been
in people's mind long before anything like photography was developed.[4] However, there seem to be no historical records of any
ideas even remotely resembling photography before 1725, despite early knowledge of light-sensitive materials and the camera
obscura.[5]

It has been suggested that some lost type of photographic technology must have been applied before 1357: the Shroud of Turin
contains an image that resembles a sepia photographic negative and is much clearer when it is converted to a positive image. The
actual method that resulted in this image has not yet been conclusively identified. It first appeared in historical records in 1357 and
radiocarbon dating tests indicate it was probably made between 1260 and 1390.[6] No other examples of detailed negative images
from before the 19th century are known.
Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–80) discovered silver nitrate and noted
that it could blacken skin.[7] Silver nitrate would later be used as a
light sensitive material in thephotographic emulsionon photographic
glass plates and film.

Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride, later used to

make photographic paper.[8]

In 1614 Angelo Sala wrote in his paper Septem Planetarum

terrestrium Spagirica recensio:[9] "When you expose powdered
silver nitrate to sunlight, it turns black as ink". He also noted that
[10]
paper wrapped around silver nitrate for a year had turned black. The Shroud of Turin: modern photo of the face,
positive left, digitally processed negative image
Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals right
(photochemical effect) in 1694.[8]

1700 to 1802: earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results

Schulze's Scotophorus: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717)

Around 1717[11] German polymath Johann Heinrich Schulzeaccidentally discovered that a slurry of chalk and nitric acid into which
some silver particles had been dissolved was darkened by sunlight. After experiments with threads that had created lines on the
bottled substance after he placed it in direct sunlight for a while, he applied stencils of words to the bottle. The stencils produced
copies of the text in dark red, almost violet characters on the surface of the otherwise whitish contents. The impressions persisted
until they were erased by shaking the bottle or until overall exposure to light obliterated them. Schulze named the substance
"Scotophorus", when he published his findings in 1719. He thought the discovery could be applied to detect whether metals or
minerals contained any silver and hoped that further experimentation by others would lead to some other useful results.[12][13]
.[14]
Schulze's process resembled laterphotogram techniques and is sometimes regarded as the very first form of photography

De la Roche's fictional image capturing process (1760)

The early science fiction novel Giphantie[15] (1760) by the French Tiphaigne de la Roche described something quite similar to
(colour) photography, a process that fixes fleeting images formed by rays of light: "They coat a piece of canvas with this material,
and place it in front of the object to capture. The first effect of this cloth is similar to that of a mirror, but by means of its viscous
nature the prepared canvas, as is not the case with the mirror
, retains a facsimile of the image. Themirror represents images faithfully,
but retains none; our canvas reflects them no less faithfully, but retains them all. This impression of the image is instantaneous. The
canvas is then removed and deposited in a dark place. An hour later the impression is dry
, and you have a picture the more precious in
that no art can imitate its truthfulness."[16] De la Roche thus imagined a process that made use of a special substance in combination
with the qualities of a mirror, rather than the camera obscura. The hour of drying in a dark place suggests he possibly thought about
the light sensitivity of the material, but he attributes the ef
fect to its viscous nature.

Scheele's forgotten chemical fixer (1777)

In 1777, the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was studying the more intrinsically light-sensitive silver chloride and determined that
light darkened it by disintegrating it into microscopic dark particles of metallic silver. Of greater potential usefulness, Scheele found
that ammonia dissolved the silver chloride but not the dark particles. This discovery could have been used to stabilize or "fix" a
camera image captured with silver chloride, but was not picked up by the earliest photography experimenters.

Scheele also noted that red light did not have much effect on silver chloride (a feature that would later be applied to be able to see
[17]
while printing black and white photographs in darkrooms).
Although Thomas Wedgwood felt inspired by Scheele's writings in general, he must have missed or forgotten these experiments: he
[17]
found no method to fix the photogram and shadow images he managed to capture around 1800 (see below).

Thomas Wedgwood & Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790?-1802)

Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805) is believed to have been the first person to have thought of creating permanent pictures by capturing
camera images on material coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He originally wanted to capture the images of a camera obscura,
but found they were too faint to have an effect upon the silver nitrate solution that was advised to him as a light-sensitive substance.
Wedgwood did manage to copy painted glass plates and captured shadows on white leather as well as on paper moistened with a
silver nitrate solution. Attempts to preserve the results with their "distinct tints of brown or black, sensibly differing in intensity"
failed. It is unclear when Wedgwood's experiments took place. He may have started before 1790; James Watt wrote a letter to
Thomas Wedgwood's father Josiah Wedgwood to thank him "for your instructions as to the Silver Pictures, about which, when at
home, I will make some experiments". This letter (now lost) is believed to have been written in 1790, 1791 or 1799. In 1802 an
account by Humphry Davy detailing Wedgwood's experiments was published in an early journal of the Royal Institution with the title
An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver.
Davy added that the method could be used for objects that are partly opaque and partly transparent to create accurate representations
of for instance "the woody fibres of leaves and the wings of insects". He also found that solar microscope images of small objects
were easily captured on prepared paper. Davy, apparently unaware or forgetful about Scheele's discovery, concluded that substances
should be found to get rid of (or deactivate) the unexposed particles in silver nitrate or silver chloride "to render the process as useful
as it is elegant".[17] Wedgwood may have prematurely abandoned his experiments due to his frail and failing health. He died aged 34
in 1805.

Davy seems not to have continued the experiments. Although the journal of the small, infant Royal Institution probably reached its
very small group of members, the article eventually must have been read by many more people. It was reviewed by David Brewster
in the Edinburgh Magazine in December 1802, appeared in chemistry textbooks as early as 1803, was translated into French, and
published in German in 1811. Readers of the article may have been discouraged to find a fixer, because the highly acclaimed scientist
Davy had already tried and failed. Apparently the article was not noted by Niépce or Daguerre, and by Talbot only after he had
developed his own processes.[17][18]

Jacques Charles: Fleeting silhouette photograms (circa 1801?)

French balloonist/professor/inventorJacques Charles is believed to have captured fleeting negative photograms of silhouettes on light
sensitive paper at the start of the 19th century, prior to Wedgwood. Charles died in 1823 without documenting the process, but
purportedly demonstrated it in his lectures at the Louvre. It was not publicized until François Arago mentioned it at his introduction
of the details of the Daguerreotype to the world in 1839. He later wrote that the first idea of fixing the images of the camera obscura
or the solar microscope with chemical substances belonged to Charles. Later historians probably only built on Arago's information
and much later the unsupported year 1780 was attached to it.[19] Since Arago indicated the first years of the 19th century and a date
prior to Wedgwood's process published in 1802, this would mean that Charles' demonstrations took place in 1800 or 1801 - assuming
Arago was this accurate almost 40 years later
.

1816 to 1833: Niépce's earliest fixed images

In 1816 Nicéphore Niépce, using paper coated withsilver chloride, succeeded in photographing the images formed in a small camera,
but the photographs were negatives, darkest where the camera image was lightest and vice versa, and they were not permanent in the
sense of being reasonably light-fast; like earlier experimenters, Niépce could find no way to prevent the coating from darkening all
over when it was exposed to light for viewing. Disenchanted with silver salts, he turned his attention to light-sensitive organic
substances.[21]
 The oldest surviving
photograph of the image formed
in a camera was created by
Niépce in 1826 or 1827.[1] It
was made on a polished sheet of
pewter and the light-sensitive
substance was a thin coating of
bitumen, a naturally occurring

The earliest known surviving petroleum tar, which was "Boulevard du Temple", a
heliographic engraving, made in 1825. It dissolved in lavender oil, daguerreotype made by Louis
was printed from a metal plate made by applied to the surface of the Daguerre in 1838, is generally
Joseph Nicéphore Niépcewith his pewter and allowed to dry accepted as the earliest photograph
"heliographic process".[20] The plate was to include people. It is a view of a
before use.[23] After a very long
exposed under an ordinary engraving busy street, but because the
exposure in the camera
and copied it by photographic means. exposure lasted for several minutes
(traditionally said to be eight the moving traffic left no trace. Only
This was a step towards the first
permanent photograph from nature hours, but now believed to be the two men near the bottom left
taken with a camera obscura. several days),[24] the bitumen corner, one of them apparently
was sufficiently hardened in having his boots polished by the
other, remained in one place long
proportion to its exposure to
enough to be visible.
light that the unhardened part could
be removed with a solvent, leaving
a positive image with the light areas
represented by hardened bitumen
and the dark areas by bare
pewter.[23] To see the image
plainly, the plate had to be lit and
viewed in such a way that the bare
metal appeared dark and the
bitumen relatively light.[21]

In partnership, Niépce in Chalon-

Robert Cornelius, self-portrait,
October or November 1839, an
approximately quarter plate size
daguerreotype. On the back is
written, "The first light picture ever
taken".
measured in hours.[21]
sur-Saône and Louis Daguerre in
Paris refined the bitumen
process,[25] substituting a more
sensitive resin and a very different
post-exposure treatment that One of the oldest photographic
yielded higher-quality and more portraits known, 1839 or 1840,[22]
made by John William Draper of his
easily viewed images. Exposure
sister, Dorothy Catherine Draper
times in the camera, although
substantially reduced, were still

1830 to 1840: early monochrome processes

Niépce died suddenly in 1833, leaving his notes to Daguerre. More interested in silver-based processes than Niépce had been,
Daguerre experimented with photographing camera images directly onto a mirror-like silver-surfaced plate that had been fumed with
iodine vapor, which reacted with the silver to form a coating of silver iodide. As with the bitumen process, the result appeared as a
positive when it was suitably lit and viewed. Exposure times were still impractically long until Daguerre made the pivotal discovery
that an invisibly slight or "latent" image produced on such a plate by a much shorter exposure could be "developed" to full visibility
by mercury fumes. This brought the required exposure time down to a few minutes under optimum conditions. A strong hot solution
of common salt served to stabilize or fix the image by removing the remaining silver
iodide. On 7 January 1839, this first complete practical photographic process was
announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences,[26] and the news
quickly spread.[27] At first, all details of the process were withheld and specimens
were shown only at Daguerre's studio, under his close supervision, to Academy
members and other distinguished guests.[28] Arrangements were made for the
French government to buy the rights in exchange for pensions for Niépce's son and
Daguerre and present the invention to the world (with the exception of Great Britain,
where an agent for Daguerre patented it) as a free gift.[29] Complete instructions
were made public on 19 August 1839.[30] Known as the Daguerreotype process, it
was the most common commercial process until the late 1850s. It was superseded by
the collodion process.

After reading early reports of Daguerre's invention, Henry Fox Talbot, who had
succeeded in creating stabilized photographic negatives on paper in 1835, worked on
perfecting his own process. In early 1839, he acquired a key improvement, an
effective fixer, from his friend John Herschel, a polymath scientist who had
Not all early portraits are stiff and
previously shown that hyposulfite of soda (commonly called "hypo" and now known grim-faced records of a posing
formally as sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver salts.[31] News of this solvent ordeal. This pleasant expression was
also benefited Daguerre, who soon adopted it as a more efficient alternative to his captured by Mary Dillwyn in Wales in
original hot salt water method.[32] 1853.

Talbot's early silver chloride

A calotype showing the American
photographer Frederick Langenheim,
circa 1849. Note that the caption on
the photo calls the process
"Talbotype".
"sensitive paper" experiments required camera exposures of an hour or more. In
1841, Talbot invented the calotype process, which, like Daguerre's process, used the
principle of chemical development of a faint or invisible "latent" image to reduce the
exposure time to a few minutes. Paper with a coating of silver iodide was exposed in
the camera and developed into a translucentnegative image. Unlike a daguerreotype,
which could only be copied by rephotographing it with a camera, a calotype negative
could be used to make a large number of positive prints by simple contact printing.
The calotype had yet another distinction compared to other early photographic
processes, in that the finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper
negative. This was seen as a positive attribute for portraits because it softened the
appearance of the human face. Talbot patented this process,[33] which greatly limited
its adoption, and spent many years pressing lawsuits against alleged infringers. He
attempted to enforce a very broad interpretation of his patent, earning himself the ill
will of photographers who were using the related glass-based processes later
introduced by other inventors, but he was eventually defeated. Nonetheless, Talbot's
developed-out silver halide negative process is the basic technology used by
chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte Bayard had also developed a method of
photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not recognized as its inventor
.

In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to reproduce. Slovene Janez Puhar invented a
process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole,
Manufacturière et Commerciale.[34] In 1847, Nicephore Niépce's cousin, the chemist Niépce St. Victor, published his invention of a
process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia and John Whipple and William
[35]
Breed Jones of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass processes in the mid-1840s.

1850 to 1900
In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process.[36] Photographer and children's author Lewis Carroll used this
[37]
process. (Carroll refers to the process as "Tablotype" in the story "A Photographer's Day Out")

Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodion emulsions after Samman introduced the idea of adding
dithionite to the pyrogallol developer. Berkeley discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off
by the chemical dithionite in the developer, that dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881 he published his
discovery. Berkeley's formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula
alkaline. The new formula was sold by thePlatinotype Company in London as Sulpho-Pyrogallol Developer.[38]

Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary.The German-born, New Orleans
photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in
the Eastern District of Louisiana.

Roger Fenton's assistant seated on Fenton's photographic van, Crimea, 1855

The 1866 "Jumelle de Nicour", an early attempt at a small-format, portable camera

Popularization
The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the
Industrial Revolution.[39] This demand, which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the
development of photography.

Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording events, the first by his Crimean War pictures,
the second by his record of the disassembly and reconstruction of The Crystal Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century
photographers established the medium as a more precise means than engraving or lithography of making a record of landscapes and
architecture: for example, Robert Macpherson's broad range of photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding
countryside became a sophisticated tourist's visual record of his own travels.
In America, by 1851 a broadside by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington was advertising prices ranging from 50 cents to $10.[40]
However, daguerreotypes were fragile and difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many
copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot's process.

Ultimately, the photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 George
Eastman, of Rochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no
longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with
the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to
others, and photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the
Kodak Brownie.

General view of The Crystal Palace at Sydenham by Philip Henry Delamotte, 1854

A mid-19th century "Brady stand" armrest table, used to help subjects keep still during long exposures. It was
named for famous US photographer Mathew Brady.

An 1855 Punch cartoon satirized problems with posing for Daguerreotypes: slight movement during exposure
resulted in blurred features, red-blindness made rosy complexions look dark.
 In this 1893 multiple-exposure trick photo, the photographer appears to be photographing himself. It satirizes
studio equipment and procedures that were nearly obsolete by then. Note the clamp to hold the sitter's head still.

A comparison of common print sizes used in photographic studios during the 19th century. Sizes are in inches.

Early photography in India

Daguerreotype cameras were advertised in Calcutta a year after their invention in France — but photographic societies in Bombay,
Calcutta and Madras were beginning to pop up from the 1850s onward.[41] As the practice of photography evolved, a contrasting
style developed alongside the predominantly European influence on the artform. This turn is most notable in the work of Raja Deen
Dayal, India's most celebrated 19th-century photographer
, whose appointment as court photographer to he
t sixth Nizam of Hyderabad
[42]
allowed him unique access to the inner circles of aristocratic life.

In March 1858, the Venetian photographer Felice Beato traveled to Lucknow on assignment from the British War Department to
Secundra Bagh.[43]
document the massacres there. His most famous photograph is of corpses inside the walled garden of the

A European woman working in Calcutta in the early 1860s, E. Mayer, was likely the first woman to practice photography
[44]
professionally in India. She operated a portrait studio for women.

Colour process
A practical means of color photography was sought from the very beginning. Results were demonstrated by Edmond Becquerel as
early as 1848, but exposures lasting for hours or days were required and the captured colors were so light-sensitive they would only
bear very brief inspection in dim light.

The first durable color photograph was a set of three black-and-white photographs taken through red, green, and blue color filters and
shown superimposed by using three projectors with similar filters. It was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in a lecture by the
Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who had proposed the method in 1855.[45] The photographic emulsions then in use were
insensitive to most of the spectrum, so the result was very imperfect and the demonstration was soon forgotten. Maxwell's method is
now most widely known through the early 20th century work of Sergei Prokudin-
Gorskii. It was made practical by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel's 1873 discovery of a
way to make emulsions sensitive to the rest of the spectrum, gradually introduced
into commercial use beginning in the mid-1880s.

Two French inventors, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working unknown
to each other during the 1860s, famously unveiled their nearly identical ideas on the
same day in 1869. Included were methods for viewing a set of three color-filtered
black-and-white photographs in color without having to project them, and for using
them to make full-color prints on paper.[46]
The first durable color photograph,
The first widely used method of color photography was the Autochrome plate, a taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861
process inventors and brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière began working on in the
1890s and commercially introduced in 1907.[47] It was based on one of Louis Ducos
du Hauron's ideas: instead of taking three separate photographs through color filters, take one through a mosaic of tiny color filters
overlaid on the emulsion and view the results through an identical mosaic. If the individual filter elements were small enough, the
three primary colors of red, blue, and green would blend together in the eye and produce the same additive color synthesis as the
filtered projection of three separate photographs.

Autochrome plates had an integral mosaic filter layer with roughly five million
previously dyed potato grains per square inch added to the surface. Then through the
use of a rolling press, five tons of pressure were used to flatten the grains, enabling
every one of them to capture and absorb color and their microscopic size allowing
the illusion that the colors are merged. The final step was adding a coat of the light
capturing substance silver bromide after which a color image could be imprinted and
developed. In order to see it, reversal processing was used to develop each plate into
a transparent positive that could be viewed directly or projected with an ordinary
projector. One of the drawbacks of the technology is an exposure time of at least a
second was required during the day in bright light and the worse the light is, the time A color portrait of Mark Twain by
required quickly goes up. An indoor portrait required a few minutes with the subject Alvin Langdon Coburn, 1908, made
by the recently introduced
not being able to move or else the picture would come out blurry. This was because
Autochrome process
the grains absorbed the color fairly slowly and that a filter of a yellowish-orange
color was added to the plate to keep the photograph from coming out excessively
blue. Although necessary, the filter had the effect of reducing the amount of light that was absorbed. Another drawback was that the
film could only be enlarged so much until the many dots that make up the image become apparent.[47][48]

Competing screen plate products soon appeared and film-based versions were eventually made. All were expensive and until the
1930s none was "fast" enough for hand-held snapshot-taking, so they mostly served a niche market offluent
af advanced amateurs.

A new era in color photography began with the introduction of Kodachrome film, available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and
35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green, and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing
operation produced complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image.
Maxwell's method of taking three separate filtered black-and-white photographs continued to serve special purposes into the 1950s
and beyond, and Polachrome, an "instant" slide film that used the Autochrome's additive principle, was available until 2003, but the
few color print and slide films still being made in 2015 all use the multilayer emulsion approach pioneered by Kodachrome.

Development of digital photography

In 1957, a team led by Russell A. Kirsch at the National Institute of Standards and Technology developed a binary digital version of
an existing technology, the wirephoto drum scanner, so that alphanumeric characters, diagrams, photographs and other graphics could
be transferred into digital computer memory. One of the first photographs scanned was a picture of Kirsch's infant son Walden. The
resolution was 176x176pixels with only one bit per pixel, i.e., stark black and white
with no intermediate gray tones, but by combining multiple scans of the photograph
done with different black-white threshold settings, grayscale information could also
be acquired.[49]

The charge-coupled device (CCD) is the image-capturing optoelectronic component

in first-generation digital cameras. It was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and
George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs as a memory device. The lab was working on
the Picturephone and on the development of semiconductor bubble memory.
Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they
termed "Charge 'Bubble' Devices". The essence of the design was the ability to
transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor. It was Dr. Michael Tompsett
from Bell Labs however, who discovered that the CCD could be used as an imaging
sensor. The CCD has increasingly been replaced by the active pixel sensor (APS),
commonly used in cell phone cameras. These mobile phone cameras are used by Walden Kirsch as scanned into the
SEAC computer in 1957
billions of people worldwide, dramatically increasing photographic activity and
material and also fuelingcitizen journalism.

1973 – Fairchild Semiconductorreleases the first large image-capturing CCDchip: 100 rows and 100 columns.[50]
1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops theBayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors
1986 – Kodak scientists develop the world's firstmegapixel sensor.
The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim
Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Since then sites and apps such as Facebook,
Flickr, Instagram, Picasa (discontinued in 2016), Imgur and Photobucket have been used by many millions of people to share their
pictures.

See also
History of the camera
History of Photography(academic journal)
Albumen print
History of photographic lens design
Timeline of photography technology
Outline of photography
Photography by indigenous peoples of the Americas
Women photographers
Movie camera

References
1. Hirsch, Robert (2 June 2018)."Seizing the Light: A History of Photography"(https://books.google.com/books?id=vftT
AAAAMAAJ&q=Joseph+Nicephore+Niepce+V iew+From+the+Window+of+Gras&dq=Joseph+Nicephore+Niepce+V ie
w+From+the+Window+of+Gras&client=safari&cd=3) . McGraw-Hill – via Google Books.
2. The Michigan Technic 1882 The Genesis of Photography with Hints on Developing(https://books.google.com/book
s?id=XNXVAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA68&lpg=RA3-PA68&dq=birth+year+photography+1839&source=bl&ots=URk1n
do3Cz&sig=DHzKyTKpFDV_AGBCKztTuUMhlvc&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlnqXRx4rQAhWCdCwKHZh4Co0Q6
AEIcDAJ#v=onepage&q=birth%20year%20photography%201839&f=false)
3. "photography - Search Online Etymology Dictionary"(http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=photography&s
earchmode=none). www.etymonline.com.
4. Gernsheim, Helmut (1986). A concise history of photography(https://books.google.com/books?id=GDSRJQ3BZ5EC
&pg=PA3). Courier Dover Publications.ISBN 0-486-25128-4
 5. Batchen (1999). Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography(https://books.google.nl/books?id=n5EZ5UY
iQ
E4C&lpg=PP1&dq=%22Burning%20with%20Desire%3A%20The%20Conception%20of%20Photography%22&pg=P
A32#v=onepage&q&f=false).
6. Allen, Nicholas P. L. (11 November 1993)."Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph?"(http://repository.u
p.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2263/16857/Allen_Shroud%281993%29.pdf) (PDF). The South African Journal of Art
History: 23–32.
7. Szabadváry, Ferenc (1992). History of analytical chemistry(https://books.google.nl/books?id=53APqy0KDaQC&lpg=
PP1&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q=magnus&f=false). Taylor & Francis. p. 17.ISBN 2-88124-569-2.
8. Sloane, Thomas O'Conor (1895).Facts Worth Knowing Selected Mainly from the Scientific American for Household,
Workshop, and Farm Embracing Practical and Useful Information for Every Branch of Industry
. S. S. Scranton and
Company.
9. "Septem planetarum terrestrium spagirica recensio. Qua perspicue declaratur ratio nominis Hermetici, analogia
metallorum cum microcosmo, ..."(https://books.google.nl/books?id=qBdpAAAAcAAJ&pg=P A46#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se) apud Wilh. Janssonium. 2 June 2018– via Google Books.
10. Eder, Josef Maria (1932). Geschichte der Photographie[History of Photography]. p. 32.
11. The title page dated 1719 of a section (of a 1721 book) containing the original publication can be seen
here (http://di
gitale.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/vd18/content/pageview/4921255)
. In the text Schulze claims he did the experiment two
years earlier
12. Bibliotheca Novissima Oberservationum ac Recensionum(http://digitale.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/vd18/content/pagevie
w/4935943) (in Latin). 1721. pp. 234–240.
13. Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903).Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer, etc., London, Duckworth and Co. Out of
copyright and available free at archive.org(https://archive.org/details/tomwedgwoodfirst00litcrich)
. In Appendix A
(pp. 217-227), Litchfield evaluates assertions that Schulze's experiments should be called photography and includes
a complete English translation (from the original Latin) of Schulze's 1719 account of them as reprinted in 1727.
14. Susan Watt (2003). Silver (https://books.google.com/books?id=TYPyWkuRJqYC&pg=P A21). Marshall Cavendish.
pp. 21–. ISBN 978-0-7614-1464-3. Retrieved 28 July 2013. "... But the first person to use this property to produce a
photographic image was German physicist Johann Heinrich Schulze. "
15. de la Roche, Tiphaigne (1760). Giphantie (https://books.google.nl/books?id=0idP
AAAAcAAJ&dq=%22de%20la%20r
oche%22%20giphantie&pg=PA131#v=onepage&q&f=false) (in French).
16. "Tiphaigne de la Roche – Giphantie,1760"(https://artinfiction.wordpress.com/2015/07/07/tiphaigne-de-la-roche-gipha
ntie1760/). wordpress.com. 7 July 2015.
17. Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903).Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer(https://archive.org/stream/tomwedgwoo
dfirst00litcrich#page/184/mode/2up). Duckworth and Co. pp. 185–205.
18. Batchen, Geoffrey (1999). Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography
. MIT Press.
19. Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903).Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer - Appendix B(https://archive.org/stream/t
omwedgwoodfirst00litcrich#page/230/mode/2up) . Duckworth and Co. pp. 228–240.
20. "The First Photograph — Heliography"(http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/heliography.html).
Retrieved 29 September 2009. "from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography ," in History
of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ...In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate... The
sunlight passing through...
This first permanent example... was destroyed... some years later."
21. "Nicéphore Niépce House Museum inventor of photography - Nicephore Niepce House Photo Museum"
(http://www.
niepce.org/pagus/pagus-inv.html). www.niepce.org.
22. Folpe, Emily Kies (2002).It Happened on Washington Square. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 94.
ISBN 0-8018-7088-7.
23. [1] (https://books.google.com/books?id=qfak8nsMNGIC&pg=P
A42&lpg=PA42&dq=Bitumen+of+Judea+photography
+chemistry&source=bl&ots=G-imPF07xm&sig=aza5G2lVkTYIp5BE3Nqa6T yf6W4&hl=da&ei=f0PKTd_TJ8mhOvq9rd
AH&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=Bitumen%20of%20Judea%
20photography%20chemistry&f=false)By Christine Sutton
24. Niépce House Museum: Invention of Photography , Part 3 (http://www.niepce.org/pagus/invus3.html). Retrieved 25
May 2013. The traditional estimate of eight or nine hours originated in the 1950s and is based mainly on the fact that
sunlight strikes the buildings as if from an arc across the sky
, an effect which several days of continuous exposure
would also produce.
25. "Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography"(http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/dagu/hd_dagu.htm).
Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2004. Retrieved 2008-05-06.
26. (Arago, François) (1839)"Fixation des images qui se forment au foyer d'une chambre obscure"(http://gallica.bnf.fr/a
rk:/12148/bpt6k2967c/f8.image)(Fixing of images formed at the focus of acamera obscura), Comptes rendus, 8 : 4-
7.
27. By mid-February successful attempts to replicate "M. Daguerre's beautiful discovery", using chemicals on paper
, had
already taken place in Germany and England:The Times (London), 21 February 1839, p.6.
28. e.g., a 9 May 1839 showing toJohn Herschel, documented by Herschel's letter to WHF Talbot (http://foxtalbot.dmu.a
c.uk/letters/transcriptName.php?bcode=Hers-JF&pageNumber=66&pageT otal=&referringPage=3). See the included
footnote #1 (by Larry Schaaf?) for context. Accessed 11 September 2014.
29. Daguerre (1839), pages 1-4.
30. See:

(Arago, François) (1839)"Le Daguerreotype" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2968p/f250.image)

, Comptes
rendus, 9 : 250-267.
Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama
(https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=Ae4TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false) [History and description of the processes of the
daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France:Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839).
31. John F. W. Herschel (1839) "Note on the art of photography, or the application of the chemical rays of light to the
purposes of pictorial representation,"(http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k560980/f154.image)Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 4 : 131-133. On page 132 Herschel mentions the use of hyposulfites.
32. Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama (https://books.google.com/books?
id=Ae4TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false) [History and description of the processes of the
daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France:Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839).On page 11, for example, Daguerre
states: "Cette surabondance contribue à donner des tons roux, même en enlevant entièrement l'iode au moyen d'un
lavage à l'hyposulfite de soude ou au sel marin."(This overabundance contributes towards giving red tones, even
while completely removing the iodine by means of a rinse in sodium hyposulfite or in sea salt.)
33. Improvement in photographic pictures(http://www.google.com/patents?id=pIpDAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&#PPP1,M1), Henry Fox Talbot, United States Patent Office, patent no. 5171, June 26, 1847.
34. "Life and work of Janez Puhar | (accessed December 13, 2009)"(http://www.puhar.si/?J=202000004).
35. Michael R. Peres (2007).The Focal encyclopedia of photography: digital imaging, theory and applications, history
,
and science (https://books.google.com/?id=VYyldcYfq3MC&pg=PT70&dq=first+glass+negative+st-victor+1848+albu
men&cd=4#v=onepage&q=first%20glass%20negative%20st-victor%201848%20albumen) . Focal Press. p. 38.
ISBN 978-0-240-80740-9.
36. Richard G. Condon (1989). "The History and Development of Arctic Photography".
Arctic Anthropology. 26: 52.
JSTOR 40316177 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40316177).
37. The Complete Works of Lewis Carroll, from the Random House Modern Library
38. Levenson, G. I. P (May 1993). "Berkeley
, overlooked man of photo science".Photographic Journal. 133 (4): 169–71.
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Cambridge: Massachusetts: MIT Press.ISBN 0262334097, 9780262334099, 9780262034104, 0262034107Check
|isbn= value: invalid character (help).
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(https://qu
ery.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0DE5DD1F39F934A35754C0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&partner=permali
nk&exprod=permalink). The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
41. Silverman, Rena (18 June 2015)."India's Earliest Photographers"(https://lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/18/indias-
earliest-photographers/). nytimes.com.
42. "The New Medium: exhibiting the first photographs ever taken in India – British Journal of Photography"
(http://www.
bjp-online.com/2015/06/the-new-medium-exhibiting-the-first-photographs-ever-taken-in-india/#closeContactFormCus
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Retrieved 20 April 2018.
44. Ghosh, Siddhartha (Spring 2014)."Zenana Studio: Early Women Photographers of Bengal, from Taking Pictures:
The Practice of Photography by Bengalis"(http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.7977573.0004.202) . Trans-Asia
Photography Review (in Bengali originally from Ananda Publishers 1988). In rTanslation, Volume 4, Issue 2, Spring
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Further reading
Hannavy, John. Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 5 volumes
Clerc, L.P. Photography Theory and Practice, being an English edition of "Laechnique
T Photographique"

External links
"Photography". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 845–522.
The Silver Canvas: Daguerreotype Masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum Bates Lowry, Isabel Barrett Lowry
1998
A History of Photography from its Beginnings T ill the 1920s by Dr. Robert Leggat, now hosted by Dr Michael
Prichard
The First Photograph at The University of Texas at Austin
Photo Histories, the photographers' history of photography
The Photo History Timeline Collection
Niepce Museum
Video (09:03) – notable historical still images– now colorized.
cww2.colorado

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