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Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics and Their Recent

Developments
Chapter · August 2019

DOI: 10.1201/9780429446511-12
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12 Testing of Fibres, Yarns
and Fabrics and Their
Recent Developments
Anindya Ghosh
Government College of Engineering and
Textile Technology Berhampore
Prithwiraj Mal
National Institute of Fashion Technology Hyderabad
CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 222
12.2 Testing of Fibres ........................................................................................... 223
12.2.1 Identification of Fibres ..................................................................... 223
12.2.2 Fibre Fineness Testing ......................................................................... 223
12.2.2.1 Terms and Definitions (With Reference to Cotton Fibre).......223
12.2.2.2 Measuring Principle 224
12.2.3 Fibre Length Testing............................................................................ 226
12.2.3.1 Terms and Definitions 226
12.2.4 Fibre Strength Testing ......................................................................... 227
12.3 Testing of Yarns ........................................................................................... 228
12.3.1 Testing of Yarn Count and Twist ........................................................... 228
12.3.2 Tensile Testing of Yarn ..................................................................... 230
12.3.2.3 Effect of Extension Rate 232
12.3.2.4 Effect of Gauge Length 232
12.3.3 Evenness Testing of Yarn ................................................................. 233
12.3.3.3 Diagram and Spectrogram ................................................. 234
12.3.4 Hairiness Testing of Yarn ................................................................. 235
221
222 Fibres to Smart Textiles
12.3.4.1 Terms and Definitions ....................................................... 235

12.3.4.2 Measuring Principle ........................................................... 235
12.4 Testing of Fabrics ......................................................................................... 236
12.4.1 Structural Properties ......................................................................... 236
12.4.1.1 Fabric Count 236
12.4.1.2 Crimp 237
12.4.2 Dimensional Properties .................................................................... 237
12.4.2.1 Length and Width 237
12.4.2.2 Thickness 237
12.4.2.3 Shrinkage 238
12.4.3 Areal Density 239
12.4.4 Fabric Strength 239
12.4.4.1 Tensile Strength 239
12.4.4.2 Tearing Strength 240
12.4.4.3 Bursting Strength 241
12.4.5 Abrasion Resistance ......................................................................... 242
12.4.6 Serviceability Tests ...................................................................................243
12.4.6.1 Snagging 243
12.4.6.2 Pilling 243
12.4.7 Comfort 245
12.4.7.1 Air Permeability 245
12.4.7.2 Thermal Conductivity, Resistance and Absorptivity ......... 245
12.4.7.3 Absorbency 246
12.4.7.4 Moisture Vapour Transmission Rate.................................. 247
12.4.7.5 Wicking 248
12.4.8 Colour Fastness Testing ....................................................................... 248
12.4.8.1 Colour Fastness to Rubbing/Crocking ............................... 251
12.4.8.2 Colour Fastness to Washing............................................... 251
12.4.8.3 Colour Fastness to Dry Cleaning ....................................... 252
12.4.8.4 Colour Fastness to Perspiration ......................................... 252
12.4.8.5 Colour Fastness to Water ..................................................... 253
12.4.8.6 Colour Fastness to Chlorine Water...................................... 254
12.4.8.7 Colour Fastness to Seawater .............................................. 254
12.4.8.8 Colour Fastness to Light .................................................... 254
12.5 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................ 255
References ............................................................................................................. 255
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Testing of textile materials refers to the methodical assessment of fibre, yarn and fab-
ric characteristics such as fibre length, fineness, strength, yarn count, twist, strength,
evenness and hairiness, fabric thickness, weight, strength, durability, serviceability,
comfort, colour fastness, aesthetic and low stress mechanical properties. The basic
objectives of textile testing are the checking of raw materials, monitoring of produc-
tion, assessment of final product, investigation of faulty materials, product devel-
opment and research. In a textile industry, testing has occupied a very important
Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 223
position nowadays. It has become a routine practice for every textile industry to
subject its products for systematic testing before being released to the market. The
saleability of a textile product is primarily assessed by means of testing. Process and
quality control turn out to be meaningless without testing. A sound testing system
ensures the prevention of excessive amount of faulty materials from passing through
before detection. Thus, testing of textiles is analogous to the fact that prevention is
better than cure. With the increasing globalization and overgrowing competition,
there is a high demand for rapid, automatic and accurate testing of products using
high-tech instruments in the textile industries worldwide.
12.2 TESTING OF FIBRES

12.2.1 identifiCation of fiBres
The identification of textile fibres may be done by means of solubility test or burning
test. However, solubility of fibres in some specific solvents provides a confirmative
means of identification (Kothari 1999). A step-by-step procedure for identification of
an unknown fibre is mentioned later.
• Step 1: Put the fibre sample in water. If it floats, it is polypropylene. If it

sinks, go to the next step.
• Step 2: Treat the fibre with 18% sodium hydroxide. If soluble, it may be silk
or wool. To distinguish between the two, treat it with lead acetate. If a black
precipitate of lead sulphide is observed, it is wool, otherwise silk. If the
fibre is insoluble in sodium hydroxide solution, go to the next step.
• Step 3: Treat the fibre with dimethyl formamide. If soluble, it is acrylic,
otherwise go to the next step.
• Step 4: Treat the fibre with formic acid. If soluble, it is nylon, otherwise
follow the next step.
• Step 5: Treat the fibre with m-cresol. If soluble, it is polyester, otherwise go
to the next step.
• Step 6: Treat the fibre with glacial acetic acid. If soluble, it is cellulose diace-
tate or cellulose triacetate. To distinguish between the two, treat it with
methylene chloride. If soluble, it is cellulose triacetate, otherwise cellulose
diacetate. If the fibre is insoluble in glacial acetic acid, go to the next step.
• Step 7: Treat the fibre with 70% sulphuric acid. If soluble, it is either cotton
or viscose rayon. To distinguish between the two, treat it with sodium zinc-
ate. If soluble, it is viscose rayon, otherwise cotton.
12.2.2 fiBre fineness testing

12.2.2.1 Terms and Definitions (With Reference to Cotton Fibre)
• Degree of cell wall thickening (θ) – ratio of the actual cross-sectional
area of the fibre wall to the area of the circle with the same perimeter. It
describes the amount of cellulose that has been deposited inside the fibre
during development stage of its wall (Gupta and Kothari 1997).
• Maturity – depends on the degree of cell wall thickness. Mature fibre has
a thick and well-developed fibre wall, whereas immature fibre has thin and
poorly developed fibre wall.
• Mature fibre content (N) – percentage of all fibres within cotton samples
that have θ > 0.5.
• Immature fibre content (D) – percentage of all fibres within a cotton sample
that have θ < 0.25.
• Maturity ratio (M) – ratio of the actual degree of thickening to a stan-
dard degree of thickening equal to 0.577. According to Lord (1961),
ND
M  0.7.
200
• Specific surface (S) – surface area/unit volume of fibres. Specific surface is
greater for finer fibres.
• Micronaire value (µg/inch) – product of fibre fineness in µg/inch and matu-
rity ratio, M.
12.2.2.2 Measuring Principle

USTER High Volume Instrument (USTER® HVI 1000) determines the cotton fibre
micronaire value using the airflow method that is based on the principle that the
viscous drag of any surface in a moving air stream is a function of the amount of
surface exposed. The resistance to the airflow through a plug, R, is expressed by the
following equation (Lord 1961):
P km2l2S2
R  (12.1)
Q   Al  m 3
where ΔP = pressure difference developed across the mass of cotton fibres con-
strained in a perforated cylindrical plug, Q = volume rate of airflow through the
plug, k = shape factor, = viscosity of air, = overall density of fibre, m = mass
of fibre, A = cross-sectional area of the plug, l = length of the plug, S = specific
surface of the fibres constituting the plug. It thus turns out from Equation (12.1)
that the resistance to airflow is directly proportional to the square of the spe-
cific surface of the fibres, provided that all other parameters remain constant.
Therefore, for a fixed pressure drop (ΔP), the rate of airflow through the plug,
Q, is inversely proportional to the square of the specific surface, S . Further, the
fibre micronaire value is also inversely proportional to the square of the specific
surface (Anderson 1983). Thus, the rate of airflow through the plug gives an esti-
mation of fibre micronaire value. A schematic representation of airflow method is
depicted in Figure 12.1.
Lenzing Vibroskop 500 determines the linear density by means of vibration
method for synthetic fibres. Figure 12.2 shows a schematic diagram of a vibrating
fibre. Before a test, an appropriate pretension weight (W) has to be selected and
set on the instrument. Thereafter, a fibre with the corresponding pretension weight
is loaded into the instrument. Then the fibre is set into its natural vibration by an
FIGURE 12.1 Schematic diagram of airflow method.
FIGURE 12.2 Schematic diagram of a vibrating fibre.

electronic delta impulse. The linear density is derived from the fibre’s vibration fre-
quency as follows (Booth 1986):
t
Fibre denier   9 10 5 (12.2)
4L2 f 2
where t = fibre tension (dyn), L = effective fibre length (cm), f = natural frequency of
vibration (Hz).
12.2.3 fiBre length testing

12.2.3.1 Terms and Definitions
• Mean length (mm) – mean fibre length (Kothari, 1999).
• Upper half means length (mm) – mean length of the longer 50% of the
fibres.
• 50% span length (mm) – the distance spanned by 50% of fibres in the speci-
men being tested from their catch point. If the 50% span length is 16 mm,
then the 50% fibres in the specimen have length ≥16 mm.
• 2.5% span length (mm) – the distance spanned by 2.5% of fibres in the
specimen being tested from their catch point. If the 2.5% span length is
30 mm, then the 2.5% fibres in the specimen have length ≥30 mm.
• Uniformity ratio – ratio of 50% span length and 2.5% span length, expressed
as percentage.
• Uniformity index – ratio of mean length and upper half mean length,
expressed as percentage.
• Short fibre index – percentage of fibres shorter than 12.7 mm.

®
USTER HVI 1000 determines the aforementioned fibre length parameters using
the optical principle of measuring the density along the length of a tuft of parallel
fibres. At first, the samples are prepared by a fibro-sampler having a rotating clamp
that catches cotton fibres from a perforated drum. The clamp catches all fibres at
random along their length to form a specimen beard. The beard is then brushed and
combed to remove loose fibres. A narrow rectangular beam of light is allowed to
pass through the beard from the tip of the longest fibre to the baseline of the clamp.
The number of fibres that extend to a distance from the baseline of the clamp is
estimated by means of the intensity of light that passes through the beard at that
position. The relative number of fibres is then plotted against distance from the
clamp to produce a fibrogram as shown in Figure 12.3 (Morton and Hearle 1975;
Kothari 1999).
USTER Advanced Fibre Information System (USTER® AFIS PRO 2) is based
on the individual testing of all fibres in a sample. In this instrument, a sample of
cotton fibre is inserted between the feed roller and the feed plate. The opening
rollers open the fibre assembly and separate off the fibres, trash and dust. The trash
particles and dust are suctioned off to extraction. On their way through the trans-
portation and acceleration channels, the individual fibre passes through the optical
FIGURE 12.3 A fibrogram showing mean length, upper half mean length, 2.5% and 50%
span lengths.
FIGURE 12.4 Electric signals of (a) normal fibre and (b) short fibre.
sensor. The corresponding impulses are converted into electrical signals for the
analysis of fibre length, nep and maturity. Figure 12.4 shows typical electric sig-
nals for normal and short fibres. A wide range of fibre length parameters such as
average length (mm), length distribution, short fibre content (%), length coefficient
of variation (CV) (%), etc. by weight as well as by number can be obtained from
this instrument.
12.2.4 fiBre strength testing

• Fibre bundle tenacity (cN/tex) – the breaking load/unit linear density of
fibre bundle (Gupta and Kothari 1997).
• Fibre bundle breaking elongation (%) – elongation of the fibre bundle at its
breaking load expressed as a percentage of testing length.

Fibre bundle strength is usually measured for cotton. Conventionally, fibre bundle
strength is measured using a Stelometer that works with the constant rate of loading
principle. This instrument uses the pendulum lever principle of loading the specimen
FIGURE 12.5 Measurement of fibre bundle strength.
to estimate the fibre bundle strength. A random sample of cotton fibres is prepared,
short fibres being removed by combing so that all the fibres in the test specimen
extend all the way through the jaws.
USTER® HVI 1000 uses a constant rate of extension principle for tensile testing
of cotton fibre bundle. A fibre beard is formed, the mass of which is measured at
a number of points along the fibre length from the fibrogram (Saville 1999). Based
on the results from the fibrogram, a point is selected at a certain distance from
the clamp to perform a strength test using jaws with 3 mm separation as shown in
Figure 12.5.
12.3 TESTING OF YARNS

12.3.1 testing of yarn Count and tWist
• Yarn count – a numeric expression that represents yarn fineness. In direct
system, it is defined as weight/unit length, whereas in indirect system it is
defined as length/unit weight.
• Tex – weight in grams of 1 km of yarn.
• Denier – weight in grams of 9 km of yarn.
• Metric count – length in km per 1 kg of yarn.
• English count (Ne) – length in hank (840 yards) per 1 lb of yarn.
• Twist – spiral turns given to a yarn in order to hold the constituent fibres
together. Twist direction is either S or Z depending on the direction of fibre
inclination. Amount of twist is denoted by the number of turns/unit length
of yarn (cm, m and inch).
• Twist angle (α) – angle between a tangent to the helix formed by the fibre
and the yarn axis.
• Twist factor (K) – for direct system,  twist/cm  tex ; for indirect sys-
twist per inch
tem, K  , which is also termed as twist multiplier.
Ne

The weighing method is generally used to determine yarn count. Yarn specimen is
first wound to a number of leas (120 yards or 109.73 m) by means of wrap reels. The
specimen is allowed for conditioning in standard testing atmosphere (65% ± 2%
relative humidity and 20°C ± 2°C temperature) over a considerable time to reach
equilibrium and then weigh in the same atmosphere. The count in tex of each speci-
men is estimated using the following expressions:
1,000M
tex  (12.3)
L
where M = weight of the specimen (g) and L = length of the specimen (m).
USTER® ZWEIGLE TWIST TESTER 5 uses untwist–retwist method for mea-
suring the yarn twist/unit length. In this method, the yarn is untwisted and retwisted
back to its original length. The operating principle of this instrument is depicted in
Figure 12.6 (USTER® ZWEIGLE 2009). In a first step, the yarn is untwisted until it
reaches a state where all the fibres become parallel to yarn axis. At this stage, yarn
reaches the largest extension. In a second step, the yarn is retwisted in the same
direction until the yarn reaches its original length. This makes a change of yarn
twist from Z-direction to S-direction and vice versa. Total number of turns is then
converted to twist/unit length.
FIGURE 12.6 Measuring principle of yarn twist using untwist–retwist method.

12.3.2 tensile testing of yarn

• Breaking force (cN) – the maximum force required to break the specimen
(Gupta and Kothari 1997).
• Breaking elongation (%) – elongation of the specimen at breaking load
expressed as a percentage of original length.
• Pre-tensional force (cN/tex) – the force acting on the specimen before the
start of tensile testing.
• Tenacity (cN/tex) – the breaking force per unit linear density of the
unstrained specimen.
• Work done to break (cN cm) – energy required to break the specimen that
is obtained from the area under force–elongation (FE) characteristic curve.
• Breaking length (km) – the theoretical length in km of a specimen of yarn
whose weight would exert a force sufficient to break it.
A typical FE characteristic curve of a yarn is illustrated in Figure 12.7.

There are three principles of operation for tensile testers, viz., constant rate of exten-
sion (CRE), constant rate of loading (CRL) and constant rate of traverse(CRT). Most
of the modern tensile testers are based on the CRE principle. The standard measure-
ment of yarn strength is executed at 500 mm gauge length and 20 ± 3 s time to break.
However, the standard time to break was set out at a time when there was only slow-
speed tensile tester.
Strain-gauge principle is generally employed on a CRE-based tester (Booth
1986). A metallic wire is used as a strain gauge that changes its resistance under
loading due to the change in its length and cross-sectional area. If the length of
the wire increases from l to l  l under loading, its resistance increases from R to
R  R. The resistance changes linearly with strain. The sensitivity of a strain gauge
FIGURE 12.7 A typical force–elongation (FE) characteristic curve of a yarn.

is expressed as gauge factor (G), which is defined as the unit change in resistance per
unit change in length, hence
R/R
G (12.4)
l /l
The strain gauges are bonded to a cantilever metallic beam as shown in Figure 12.8.
The yarn specimen is clamped between two jaws. The upper jaw is attached to the
free end of the cantilever beam and the lower jaw is lowered at a constant velocity,
which develops tensile loading in the specimen. Under this loading, the cantilever
beam bends such that outer strain gauges are subjected to tension while the inner
gauges undergo compression. Thus, the applied load in the specimen causes changes
in dimensions of the strain gauge, which in turn causes changes in resistances. The
magnitude of the load applied can be obtained by measuring the changes in resis-
tances of the strain gauges. Basically, the strain gauges are connected to form a
Whetstone bridge as shown in Figure 12.9. Before the application of load, the bridge
is balanced, thus the voltage output becomes zero. The bridge is balanced if
R1 R2
 (12.5)
R3 R4
FIGURE 12.8 Strain-gauge principle.
FIGURE 12.9 Four resistances are connected in the form of a Whetstone bridge.
An application of load causes the changes in resistances of the strain gauges; there-
fore, the bridge becomes unbalanced. The unbalancing of the bridge causes an out-
put voltage V0 that is proportional to the applied load. The output voltage is amplified
with a suitable electric circuit and converted into a digital signal.
With the advent of high-speed tensile testing such as USTER® TENSOJET 4, it
is now possible to achieve a clamp speed of 400 m/min, which requires only 3 ms
time to break a specimen. Such a high clamp speed enables around 30,000 tests per
hour; hence, a spinning mill can predict the weaveability of the yarn (Kothari 1999).
12.3.2.3 Effect of Extension Rate

Time to break a yarn specimen decreases with the increase of extension rate (Further
1985). Between the time to break and extension rate, there is a following relationship:
0.6lE
t (12.6)
V
where E = % breaking elongation of yarn, l = test length in mm, t = time to break the
specimen in second, V = extension rate in mm/min.
The rate of extension during tensile testing influences yarn tenacity. Rapid strain-
ing of yarn results in a higher breaking load. Midgley and Peirce (1926) were the first
to study the effect of extension rate on yarn tenacity and showed that the breaking
load of a cotton yarn was inversely proportional to the logarithm of the time to break
the yarn. This relationship was approximately valid over a range of times from 1/50 s
to a month. Meridith (1950) established the following empirical equation for break-
ing times ranging between a second and an hour:
F  F  kF log  t2  (12.7)

10  
 t1 
1 2 1
where F1 is breaking load at time t1, F2 is breaking load in time t2 and k is the
strength-time coefficient. The strength-time coefficient is the gradient of the average
slope of the lines obtained when the breaking loads are plotted against the logarithm
of the time to break. It was observed that the strength of cotton yarn decreases by
approximately 9% for a tenfold increase in time to break and the value of k is close
to 0.09 (Meridith 1950).
12.3.2.4 Effect of Gauge Length

Many researchers attributed that the presence of flaw in the yarn lead to localization of
stress, whereby the rupture process is initiated. It thus follows that the fall in strength
of a material with increasing test length is due to the presence of a distribution of flaw
of wide-ranging magnitude, since the probability of encountering a large fatal flaw
increases with test length. Peirce (1926), after studying strength variability of yarns,
proposed the ‘chain weak link’ theory and obtained the following relationships:
  1 
Sl0  Sl  4.21  m 5   l0

(12.8)
 

 l
1

m5 (12.9)
l0
where Sl0 and  l0 are the mean and standard deviation of strength of the specimen
at a gauge length l0; Sl and  l are the mean and standard deviation of strength of the
specimen at a gauge length l; and m  l /l0.
12.3.3 evenness testing of yarn

• Um (%) – percentage mean deviation of mass per unit length of the yarn. It
has now become obsolete (Kothari 1999).
• CVm (%) – CV of the mass/unit length of yarn. Nowadays, CVm is com-
monly used to express yarn irregularity.
• CVm (L) (%) – CV of the mass of yarn at cut lengths of 1, 3, 10, 50 and
100 m.
• Uniformity index – ratio between the actual CVm and ideal CVm of yarn.
• Imperfections – total number of thin places (−50%), thick places (+50%)
and neps (+200%) present/1,000 m length of yarn. A thin place (−50%)
means the cross section of the yarn at the thin place is only 50% of its mean
cross section or less. A thick place of (+50%) means the cross section of the
yarn at the thick place is 150% of its mean cross section or more. A nep
(+200%) indicates that the cross section of nep is 300% of the mean cross
section of the yarn or more.

The capacitance principle is commonly used for measuring yarn evenness (Further
1982). If a dielectric material such as yarn is introduced into the space between the
parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance of the capacitor changes that is proportional
to the mass of the material present. Thus, if a yarn is drawn at constant speed through
the parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Figure 12.10, the changes in capacitance will
follow the variation in weight/unit length of the yarn. The unit length is the length
of the capacitor. For USTER evenness tester, it is 8 mm. The capacitance signal is
amplified with a suitable electronic circuit, and the amplified signal is stored digi-
tally. The USTER® TESTER 6 can operate with a testing speed of 800 m/min. This
FIGURE 12.10 The capacitance principle of measuring yarn evenness.

instrument is capable of measuring the imperfections with 12 sensitivity levels of

thin and thick places plus neps of different yarn types.
12.3.3.3 Diagram and Spectrogram

A diagram shows the variations in mass/unit length along the length of yarn as
depicted in Figure 12.11. The nature of variability present in the material is illus-
trated in the diagram. However, a diagram cannot recognize and analyze a periodic
mass variation present in the yarn. The defective card clothing, eccentric drafting
rollers, defective aprons, etc. produce periodic mass variation in yarn. A spectrogram
is extremely useful in detecting such kind of variation. The diagram is a depiction of
the mass variation in the time domain, whereas the spectrogram is a representation
of mass variation in the frequency domain. As frequency and wavelengths are inter-
related, the spectrogram is generally represented with reference to the wavelength,
as shown in Figure 12.12 (USTER News Bulletin 2010). In a spectrogram, the pres-
ence of a peak at a particular wavelength indicates the distance at which the periodic
faults repeat. Hence, a spectrogram can locate the generating point of a periodic fault
(Further 1982).
FIGURE 12.11 A diagram indicating variations in mass/unit length along the length of
yarn.
FIGURE 12.12 Spectrograms of yarns for ten-ring frame cops.

12.3.4 hairiness testing of yarn

• Hairiness index – total length of protruding fibre/cm length of yarn. It is
also termed as H-value (Saville 1999).
• Hairiness – number of protruding fibres at a defined length from the yarn
edge. The number of protruding fibres is measured over seven length zones
in the range of 1–10 mm. Individual count of protruding fibres in each
length zone is normalized to 100 m yarn length.
• S3 – cumulative sum of all protruding fibres having length ≥3 mm, normal-
ized to 100 m yarn length. It describes the amount of long protruding fibres.
• S1 + 2 – cumulative sum of all protruding fibres with the length of 1 and
2 mm, normalized to 100 m. It describes the amount of short protruding
fibres.

USTER® TESTER 6 with the hairiness metre attachment measures the hairiness
index. A parallel beam of infrared light is illuminated on the yarn as it runs past the
measuring device as depicted in Figure 12.13. Only the light that is scattered by the
FIGURE 12.13 Measurement of yarn hairiness using USTER® TESTER with hairiness
attachment.
FIGURE 12.14 Measurement of yarn hairiness using USTER® ZWEIGLE HL 400.
protruding fibres from the main body of the yarn reaches the detector. The hairiness
measurement is done by the amount of scattered light that is converted to an electric
signal by the apparatus. Therefore, this instrument monitors only the total hairiness.
The testing speed of this instrument is 800 m/min.
USTER® ZWEIGLE HL 400 hairiness tester counts the number of hairs simultane-
ously by a set of photocells that are located at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mm distances from
the yarn edge as shown in Figure 12.14. The yarn is illuminated by a light source from
the opposite side of the photocells. While the yarn runs past the measuring device, the
presence of a hair between the light and photocell momentarily interrupts the light
beam, and an electronic circuit counts the interruption as one hair (Saville 1999). The
instrument measures the total number of hairs in each length category, including S3
and S1 + 2. The speed at which the yarn is fed to the instrument is 400 m/min.
12.4 TESTING OF FABRICS

12.4.1 struCtural ProPerties
12.4.1.1 Fabric Count
Fabric count is the ends/inch and picks/inch for woven fabrics; wales/inch and
courses/inch for knitted fabric. It is expressed by A × B (example 100 × 100), where
A and B are ends/inch and picks/inch, respectively, for woven fabrics and wales/inch
and courses/inch for knitted fabrics. Fabric count measurement is done with the help
of a pick glass. The fabric is placed flat and relaxed on a table. Then, the number of
yarns/loops is counted individually in one inch using pick glass in both the direc-
tions of the fabrics and reported.
12.4.1.2 Crimp
Crimp is the waviness of the warp and weft yarns in a fabric due to their interlace-
ments (Booth 1986). Crimp is expressed in percentage (%) and is defined as the ratio
of difference between the straightened thread length and the distance between the
ends of the threads while in cloth to the distance between the ends of the threads
while in cloth, expressed as a percentage. To check the crimp % of warp, a fabric of
specific dimension is cut (say l0 × l0). The length of the fabric is the length of warp
in the cloth. Now, a warp thread is removed from the fabric. The yarn is straightened
with specific tension and the length is measured (say l1). The crimp can be calculated
using the following formula:
l1  l0
Crimp   100% (12.10)
l0
Crimp of weft yarns can be measured using the same principle by taking the thread
along the width of the fabric.
12.4.2 dimensional ProPerties

The testing of dimensional properties of a fabric is very important and is usually
checked by the customers before they are bought. Usually length, width, thickness
and shrinkage of the fabrics are checked. Their measurement principles are dis-
cussed later.
12.4.2.1 Length and Width

The length and width of a fabric can be measured using a measuring tape/scale. The
fabric length is the distance between one end to the other end of the fabric and is
measured keeping the fabric flat and without any undue tension. The length of the
fabric is expressed either in yards or metre. The fabric width is the distance between
one edge to the other edge of the fabric and is measured at several places keeping the
fabric flat and under no tension. The width of the fabric is the average of the readings
taken.
12.4.2.2 Thickness
Fabric thickness is the distance between the upper and lower surface of the fabric
and can be measured by a precision thickness gauge known as fabric thickness tester
as shown in Figure 12.15 (ASTM D1777-07 2007). The fabric is kept on a flat anvil
and a circular pressure foot is pressed on the fabric from top with a standard load.
The thickness can be noted directly from the dial indicator in millimetre.
FIGURE 12.15 Fabric thickness tester.
12.4.2.3 Shrinkage
The dimensional stability of a fabric is a measure of the extent to which it keeps its
original dimensions (length and width). A higher dimensional stability of textiles is
always desirable. A decrease in dimension is known as shrinkage, while an increase
in dimension is known as growth. Usually fabrics shrink during garment manu-
facturing and washing due to relaxation of the fibres/yarns, swelling of fibres and
felting. To calculate the shrinkage of a fabric, a specimen of size 50 cm × 50 cm is
taken and marks are placed at a distance of minimum 25 cm in both directions of the
fabric (along the length and width of the fabric). After marking, the fabric specimen
is washed in a washing machine with suitable specifications. Washing is followed by
rinsing and drying. Dried specimen is conditioned in standard testing atmosphere
and the markings are re-measured. The percentage shrinkage of the fabric can be
calculated using the following formula:
Original length  Final length

Percentage shrinkage   100% (12.11)
Original length
12.4.3 areal density

Areal density of a fabric is its mass/unit area (ASTM D3776-13 2013). Areal density
can be expressed in ounces/square yard or grams/square metre (GSM). GSM is the
metric system of expressing areal density of a fabric and is widely used in the textile
industry. A GSM cutter, cutting pad and an electric balance can be used to find the
GSM of the fabric. The fabric specimen is placed on the cutting pad and is cut using
a GSM cutter (Figure 12.16). The area of the specimen is calculated, and the mass of
the cut specimen is measured using an electronic balance. Using the mass and area
of the fabric the, areal density can be calculated in GSM.
12.4.4 faBriC strength

Strength of a fabric is an important property that decides its durability.
Fabric strengths are of three different types – tensile strength, tearing strength and
bursting strength (Kothari 1999). The testing principles and methods of these three
types of strength are discussed later.
12.4.4.1 Tensile Strength

Tensile strength test is used to determine the breaking strength and elonga-
tion of textile fabrics when the load is applied along the length or width of the
fabric. Tensile strength of a fabric is defined by its ‘breaking load’ and ‘breaking
elongation’. The maximum load that ruptures the fabric is known as ‘breaking
load’, and the ratio of extension of the fabric at break to the original length,
expressed in percentage, is known as ‘breaking elongation’. Tensile strength of
fabric can be of two types – strip test and grab test – and is measured in a tensile
strength tester (Figure 12.17).
FIGURE 12.16 GSM cutter.

FIGURE 12.17 (a) Tensile strength tester, (b) strip test sample, and (c) grab test sample.
In strip test, a fabric of width 2 and ½ inch is taken, and threads are removed from
both the edges until the width is reduced to 2 inches. The test length for strip test is
8 inch. Extra length of fabric should be taken so that it allows gripping the specimen
in the jaws of a tensile strength tester. The specimen is then mounted centrally in
the jaws properly to prevent any slippage. Then the load is applied till the specimen
ruptures (Kothari 1999).
In grab strength testing, the effective width of the specimen is 4 inch and the
width of the jaw used is 1 inch. This means grab test uses jaws that are narrower
than the fabric specimen and only the central 1 inch of the fabric is stressed. The test
length for strip test is 3 inch. Extra length of fabric should be taken so that it allows
gripping the specimen in the jaws of the tensile strength tester. The specimen is then
mounted in the jaws properly to prevent any slippage. Load is applied till the speci-
men ruptures (Kothari 1999; Saville 1999).
12.4.4.2 Tearing Strength

A textile would be regarded as inferior product if it tears easily (except certain excep-
tions like adhesive tapes etc.). When a fabric is snagged by a rough object, it may
generate a small puncture that may be converted into a long rip by a small extra
amount of force. Therefore, the propagation of tear is usually catastrophic. So, tear-
ing strength of a fabric is defined by the force required to propagate an existing tear
(Booth 1986; Kothari 1999; Saville 1999). This force, which requires continuing
a pre-existing tear or a slit previously cut in a fabric, is determined by measuring
the work done in tearing the fabric through a definite distance. Elmendorf Tearing
Strength tester is usually used to find the tearing strength of a fabric (Figure 12.18).
This device consists of a pendulum with a clamp that is in alignment with another
fixed clamp when the pendulum is raised at a starting position. At raised position
(starting position), the pendulum has the maximum potential energy. The fabric
specimen is mounted in the clamps and an existing tear is created in the speci-
men between the clamps by cutting a small slit with a knife. The pendulum is then
released and the specimen is torn completely as the moving clamp in the pendulum
moves away from the fixed clamp. The tear force is calculated from the scale reading
on the device and pendulum capacity.
FIGURE 12.18 Elmendorf tearing strength tester.
During tear, either a single yarn breaks or a small group of yarns break together.
A fabric that allows the threads to group together under the application of tearing
force exhibits better tearing resistance. For example, 2/2 matt or satin fabric allows
the thread to group together (due to comparatively less number of interlacements)
than a plain woven fabric; therefore, a 2/2 matt or satin fabric exhibits more tear
strength (or tear resistance) than plain fabric.
12.4.4.3 Bursting Strength

Tensile and tearing strengths testing are generally done for woven fabrics, as there
is a definite warp and weft direction in which the strengths can be measured.
For knitted and non-woven fabrics, there is no such distinct direction where the
strength is maximum and minimum. Bursting strength testing is usually used to
find out the strength for such fabrics in which the fabric is stressed in all directions
in the same time. There are however woven fabrics that are simultaneously
stretched in all directions while in use, such as parachute fabrics, nets, tents, etc.
and require bursting strength testing. In this test, the distending force, which is
applied at right angles to the plane of the fabric under specific condition resulting
fabric rupture, is measured (Kothari 1999; Saville 1999). Diaphragm bursting
tester or ball bursting tester is used to determine the bursting strength of textiles
(Figure 12.19).
FIGURE 12.19 Diaphragm bursting tester.
In diaphragm bursting tester, the fabric specimen is clamped over an elastic

diaphragm by means of a flat annular clamping ring, and an increasing fluid pressure
is applied to the underside of the diaphragm until the specimen bursts. The extension
of the diaphragm is noted, and another test is carried out without the specimen. The
difference in pressure is the bursting strength of the fabric.
In ball bursting tester, a steel ball is pushed through the stretched fabric speci-
men and the force is recorded. The force that ruptures the fabric is the bursting
strength.
12.4.5 aBrasion resistanCe

Abrasion resistance of a textile fabric is its ability to withstand loss of appearance,
surface and utility due to destructive action of surface abrasion (Booth 1986; Kothari
1999; Saville 1999). Abrasion resistance is measured on Martindale Abrasion tes-
ter by subjecting the textile specimen to abrasive action. The test specimen is
rubbed against the same fabric at a defined force in the form of Lissajous figure
(Figure 12.20). After completion of defined stages of abrasion cycles, the degree of
fuzziness and wear of the test specimen are assessed. Abrasion resistance can also
be assessed by the number of cycles of the surface abrader required to rupture a yarn
FIGURE 12.20 (a) Lissajous figure, (b) Martindale abrasion tester and (c) a holder for abra-
sion tester.
or when change in shade or appearance of the fabric specimen is sufficient to cause

the customer to complain.
12.4.6 serviCeaBility tests

12.4.6.1 Snagging
A snag is loop of fibres that is being pulled from a fabric when it is in contact with a
sharp or rough object. Fabrics made from very less twisted bulk continuous filament
yarns are susceptible to snag. Also, woven fabrics with long floats or with less thread
density (like gauge fabric) are prone to snagging. Knitted fabrics due to its unique
loop structure are more vulnerable to snagging than similar kind of woven fabrics.
A ‘Mace Snagging tester’ is used to find out the snagging propensity of a fabric
(Figure 12.21). In this test, a metal ball with spikes (mace) is made to bounce ran-
domly against a rotating fabric mounted on a cylinder. The cylinder with the fabric
is rotated for a specific number of cycles. After the completion of the test, the fabric is
removed from the cylinder and the surface appearance of the specimen is compared
with a set of photographic standards, and a rating from 5 (no snagging) to 1 (severe
snagging) is given (Saville 1999).
12.4.6.2 Pilling
Pilling means small little balls that arise on a fabric due to rubbing action, giving an
unsightly appearance. The pilling propensity is determined by fibre entangle- ment,
leading to pill formation, development of more surface fibre or fibre and
FIGURE 12.21 (a) Mace snagging test, (b) fabric before snagging test and (c) fabric after
snagging test.
pill wear off. The degree of pilling and surface fuzziness can be determined by
Martindale method, Pill Box method and Random Tumble method (ISO 12945-1
2000; ISO 12945-2 2000; ISO 12945-3 2014). In Martindale method, the face of
the test specimen is rubbed against the face of the same fabric at a specific force in
the form of a Lissajous figure for a definite number of rubbing cycles in Martindale
Abrasion tester. After completion of the test, the sample is removed and assessed
visually.
In Pill Box method, specimens are mounted on polyurethane tubes and tumbled
randomly in a cork-lined box at a constant rotational speed (Figure 12.22). After
completion of definite rotational cycles, the specimen is removed and pilling is
assessed visually.
In Random Tumble method, fabric specimens are subjected to random rubbing
motion produced among them in a cylindrical test chamber lined with abrasive mate-
rial. Small amount of grey cotton lint is also added in the cylinder to resemble the
pills that are produced on fabrics/garments. After a specific number of cycles, fabrics
are removed and assessed visually.
After pilling tests, the samples are assessed by comparing them with a set of
photographic standards, and the rating is given from 5 (no pilling) to 1 (very severe
pilling) as shown in Figure 12.23 (ISO 12945-1 2000; ISO 12945-2 2000; ISO
12945-3 2014).
FIGURE 12.22 ICI Pill Box tester.
FIGURE 12.23 Pilling grade photographs.

12.4.7 Comfort
Comfort is one of the most desirable attribute of textiles. ‘Comfort’ is a subjective
perception and could be achieved through satisfactory interaction of several attri-
butes like physiological, psychological and physical factors. Among these attributes,
the thermo-physiological comfort is the most influential one affecting the overall
comfort level (Geralds et al. 2008; Saville 1999). Attributes like air permeability,
thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, thermal absorptivity, absorbency, wicking
and moisture vapour transmission rate of a textile are the deciding parameters of
thermo-physiological comfort.
12.4.7.1 Air Permeability

Air permeability of a textile material is defined by the volume of air that passes
through a unit area of the material, in unit time, under a constant pressure gradient
across it (ASTM D737-12 2012). The air permeability of a fabric depends on cover
factor and the twist of yarns. Air permeability tester is used to find the air permeabil-
ity of a fabric and is illustrated in Figure 12.24. In this apparatus, the airflow through
a given area is measured at a constant pressure drop across the fabric of 10 mm head
of water. The fabric specimen is clamped over the air inlet of the apparatus, and air
is sucked through by means of a pump. A pressure drop of 10 mm head of water is
maintained across the fabric. The airflow is then measured using a flow meter. Five
specimens are used each with a test area of 1 inch diameter and the mean airflow in
cm3/s is calculated. From this the air permeability can be calculated in cm3/cm2/s.
12.4.7.2 Thermal Conductivity, Resistance and Absorptivity

The thermal conductivity of a textile material is its ability to conduct heat through it
and is expressed as
Qh
Thermal conductivity 
  W/mK (12.12)
ATt
FIGURE 12.24 Air permeability tester.

where Q is the quantity of heat conducted (J), h is the thickness of the material (m), A
is the area of the surface (m2), ∆T is the temperature differential across the material
(K) and t is the time (s).
The thermal absorptivity is the measurement of warm-cool feeling of the textile
material at first contact of the skin. It is expressed as follows:
Thermal absorptivity    c 
1/ 2
Ws1/2 /m2K (12.13)
where λ is thermal conductivity (W/mK), c is the specific heat of the material (J/kg)
and ρ is the density of the material (kg/m3).
A higher thermal conductivity value indicates higher ability of the material to
conduct heat, whereas a higher thermal absorptivity implies cooler feeling and vice
versa (Pac et al. 2001). Thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity can be mea-
sured using Alambeta instrument. The schematic diagram of an Alambeta (Sensora
1990) instrument is shown in Figure 12.25. The instrument consists of two measuring
heads between which the test specimen is mounted. Both measuring heads have heat
flow sensors. The lower plate is adjusted to the ambient temperature (22°C) by suit-
able cooling means, whereas the upper plate is adjusted to a controlled constant dif-
ferential temperature (at 32°C). When the upper head is lowered on the sample, heat
flow at the upper surface and the underside of the test specimen can be measured.
The contact pressure between the heads and the sample is maintained at 200 Pa.
The heat sensors detect the amount of heat flow from the hot surface to the cold
surface. Another sensor measures the thickness of the sample. These values are used
to evaluate the thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity of the fabric sample.
12.4.7.3 Absorbency
A fabric with more absorbency provides better comfort in hot and humid climate.
The absorbency of textile fabrics can be measured by Static Immersion test, Drop
test and Sink test (Saville 1999). Static immersion test measures the total amount of
water that a fabric can absorb. In this method, a weighed fabric specimen is immersed
FIGURE 12.25 Schematic diagram of Alambeta instrument (Sensora 1990).

in water for a given period of time, taken out and excess water is removed by shak-
ing. The samples are then weighed again, and the weight of the water is calculated as
the percentage of dry weight of the fabric.
mass of water absorbed

Absorption   100% (12.14)
Original mass
Sink test measures the time taken by a fabric to sink in water. A fabric specimen
of definite size is dropped on the surface of a beaker of water. The time taken by
the specimen to sink below the surface is measured. Shorter time to sink indicates
greater absorbency.
Drop test measures the total time required by a drop of water to sink into the
fabric. In this test, a fabric specimen is clamped onto an embroidery frame fixed on
a horizontal plane. The fabric specimen is illuminated from 45° angle and is viewed
at 45° angle from opposite direction. A drop of water is placed on the specimen with
the help of a burette from a definite height and the timer is started. As long as the
water drop stays on the fabric surface, light reflects. When the reflection from the
liquid vanishes, the timer is stopped and measured.
12.4.7.4 Moisture Vapour Transmission Rate

The moisture vapour transmission rate (MVTR) is the measurement of passage of
water vapour through textiles (Slater 1999; Saville 1999). A higher MVTR of a fabric
ensures better comfort in hot and humid climatic condition. MVTR of a fabric can be
measured using cup method. In this method, the fabric specimen is sealed over the
open mouth of a dish containing water (Figure 12.26). The water in the dish is placed
under standard atmospheric condition. After specific time, successive weighings of
the dish are made, and the MVTR through the specimen is calculated.
Usually, water vapour permeability (WVP) index is calculated, which is defined
by the ratio of WVP of a fabric to the WVP of a reference fabric, expressed as a
percentage. In this test, two dishes with sufficient distilled water are taken such that
the height between the tip of water and the fabric sample is 10 mm. Both the dishes
are covered with fabric specimen and reference fabric. Both the dishes are kept at
standard atmosphere for at least 1 h to establish equilibrium. The dishes are weighted
after a specific time interval. The WVP for each sample can be calculated using the
following formula.
FIGURE 12.26 Water vapour transmission rate test (cup method).

24M g
WVP  /day (12.15)
At m2
where M = loss in mass (g), t = time between weighings (h), A = internal area of
dish (m2).
The WVP index can be calculated using the following formula.
WVPt  100
Water vapour permeability index  (12.16)
WVPr
where WVPt = water vapour permeability of test specimen and WVP r = water
vapour permeability of reference fabric.
12.4.7.5 Wicking
Wicking is the transportation of liquid through the surface of a fabric without being
absorbed (Saville 1999). To test the wick ability of a fabric, a strip of that fabric
specimen is suspended with its lower edge suspended in a beaker of distilled water
(Figure 12.27). The rate of rise of leading edge of water through the fabric is mea-
sured. To detect the leading edge of water, dye can be added. The height of dyed
water raised in the fabric in given time indicates the wick ability of the fabric.
12.4.8 Colour fastness testing

Colour fastness is a term that defines the degree of propensity of a textile to change
or fade colour when treated in a certain way (Saville 1999; Behera 1999; Mohsin
2017). Textile materials are added colours (either by dyeing or printing) to increase
their aesthetic value. However, the added colours may fade due to the influence of
various environmental factors like rubbing, light, seawater, chlorine, water, etc.
In addition, colour may also fade while processing or caring textiles like durable
press, washing, dry cleaning, hot pressing, drying, etc. Colour of some textiles fades
significantly, whereas some textiles lose little colour or not at all while being used.
FIGURE 12.27 Wicking test.

A textile that loses little or no colour due to various caring and environmental factors
is said to have good colour fastness and vice versa. For example, if a coloured fabric
does not bleed colour while washing, then that fabric is said to have an excellent
colour fastness to washing, whereas if the fabric bleeds colour, then the fabric is said
to have poor colour fastness to washing. Apart from the colour change of the textile,
assessment of colour staining is also important, as textiles are usually in contact with
each other, especially during using and caring like rubbing, washing, dry cleaning,
etc. Hence, there is a possibility of migration of colour from one textile to the other.
Therefore, the colour fastness of a textile is assessed with respect to the following:
• Colour change or fading

• Colour staining of undyed material that is in contact with the textile during
the test
However, aforesaid assessments of fabrics are qualitative. Therefore, a numerical

assessment of colour fading and colour staining of textiles is done by comparing
them with two sets of standard grey scales, namely ‘grey scale for colour change/
fading’ and ‘grey scale for colour staining’ (Saville 1999; Mohsin 2017).
Colour Fading Assessment with Grey Scale
The grey scale colour change consists of five pairs of coloured material, each
of which has a specific number (1–5). A grey scale for colour change is shown in
Figure 12.28a. Number 5 in this grey scale consists of two identical greys, whereas
number 1 has two greys of maximum contrast (Saville 1999; Mohsin 2017). Each of
the numbers 4, 3 and 2 has a pair of grey of intermediate contrast (in between contrast
of numbers 5 and 1) in a gradually increasing level. For colour change assessment, the
contrast in colour between the treated and untreated fabrics is compared with reference
to the contrast of the pair of greys of each number in the grey scale under standard con-
dition. If there is no change in colour, the textile is classified as grade 5. In case there
is a change in colour due to treatment, the contrast of treated and untreated textiles is
matched with contrast with the pair of greys in the grey scale, and a grade is given. A
grade 5 means no colour change, whereas grade 1 means severe colour change.
FIGURE 12.28 (a) Grey scale for colour change, (b) grey scale for colour staining and
(b) multi-fibre fabric.
Colour Staining Assessment with Grey Scale

During treatments, caring or using, the colour from a textile may migrate and stain
other textiles. Colour staining is also assessed quantitatively by using another set of
grey scale known as ‘grey scale for staining’ (Saville 1999; Mohsin 2017). In this
assessment, the textile is stitched with a multi-fibre white woven fabric that consists
of six different fibres and then undergoes a treatment. The stained white fibre of the
multi-fibre fabric is then compared with the corresponding fibre of untreated white
multi-fibre fabric with reference to grey scale for colour staining. A grey scale for
colour staining and multi-fibre fabric is shown in Figure 12.28b and c, respectively.
Alike grey scale for colour change, the grey scale for staining also has five pairs of
grades. Number 5 has two identical white materials, whereas number 1 has a white
and a grey material that defines maximum contrast. Each of the numbers 4, 3 and 2
has a pair of grey and white of intermediate contrast (in between contrast of numbers
5 and 1) in a gradually increasing level. For colour staining assessment, the contrast
in white and stained fabrics is compared with reference to the contrast of the pair of
white and grey of each number in the grey scale under standard condition. Grade 5 is
given in case of no staining. In case the white fabric is stained due to the migration of
colour from the textile, the contrast of white and stained fabrics is matched in contrast
with the pair of white and grey in the grey scale of colour staining, and a grade is
given. A grade 5 means no staining, whereas grade 1 means severe staining.
Condition of Viewing during Colour Fading and Staining Assessment
D-65 light is used to make the comparison between the contrast in colour fading
or staining between the treated and untreated fabrics with reference to grey scales
(Behera 1999; Saville 1999). The specimen is placed on a flat, uniform surface with
grey background and surroundings (Figure 12.29). The specimen plane is at 45°
angle to the horizontal. During assessment, the original and the tested specimen, or
the undyed and stained adjacent fabrics, are arranged side by side in the same plane
and oriented in the same direction.
FIGURE 12.29 Colour matching cabinet.

12.4.8.1 Colour Fastness to Rubbing/Crocking

In colour fastness to rubbing or crocking test, the degree of transfer of colour from
one coloured textile material to another by rubbing is assessed. A textile with poor
colour fastness would transfer its colour with ease onto other textiles and stain them.
The test is performed by a device known as Crockmeter (Figure 12.30). The test
specimen (i.e. coloured textile) is mounted on the platform of the Crockmeter and is
rubbed ten times with a weighted finger covered with standard white cotton rubbing
cloth. Usually, two tests are carried out; one with a dry rubbing cloth and other with
a wet one. Contrast of both the rubbed cloths and untreated cloth are matched with
the pair of white and grey in the grey scale of colour staining and a grade is given.
The higher the grade, the better is the fastness.
12.4.8.2 Colour Fastness to Washing

In this colour fastness test, both colour fading of the coloured textile and transfer of
colour to other fabric due to laundering are assessed (ISO 105-C06 2010). Initially,
a multi-fibre fabric is stitched to the test specimen. Laundering is performed in a
launderometer machine that consists of closed stainless steel canisters rotating in
a water bath (Figure 12.31). Various parameters like temperature and duration of
washing can be controlled. The composite sample (test specimen and multi-fibre
FIGURE 12.30 (a) Crockmeter and (b) sample after dry and wet crocking.
FIGURE 12.31 (a) Launderometer and (b) sample and multi-fibre fabric before and after
washing.
fabric), appropriate detergent solution and stainless steel balls are sealed inside the
canister, and a water bath is heated to the desired temperature. Stainless steel balls
give agitation to simulate action of hand or machine wash. The launderometer is
run for a definite time and then the sample is taken out, rinsed in water and dried
in shade. The washed fabric and the stained multi-fibre fabric are compared with
grey scales for colour fading and staining, respectively, and grades are given. A
higher grade for both the coloured and multi-fibre fabrics after washing indicates
better colour fastness property to washing. A lower grade concludes that the dyes
are not fixed well, and necessary action should be taken for better fixation of dyes
and pigments.
12.4.8.3 Colour Fastness to Dry Cleaning

Most of the consumers believe that dry cleaning is the safest way to care a fabric
with little or no harm to the textile. However, in reality, the solvents used in dry
cleaning may change the colour of the textile. The colour fastness to dry clean-
ing test indicates the degree of change in colour and subsequent staining of other
textile materials during commercial dry cleaning. This test is performed using a
launderometer, the similar way as that for colour fastness to laundering, except
that instead of using soap solution, perchloroethylene is used (ISO 105-D01 2010;
Saville 1999). Perchloroethylene is used, as it is comparatively more severe in sol-
vent action than other petroleum solvents and thus a colour that is unaffected by
perchloroethylene will not be affected by other petroleum solvents. The specimen
is then evaluated for colour fading and staining on multi-fibre fabric with the help
of grey scales.
12.4.8.4 Colour Fastness to Perspiration

The textiles that come in contact to our body may discolour due to perspiration.
The perspiration may loosen some dye from the coloured textile and may also cause
staining to other fabrics adjacent to that of coloured textiles. Colour fastness to
perspiration test is intended to determine the fastness of coloured textiles to the
effect of perspiration (ISO 105-E04 2013; Saville 1999). Perspiration is a compli-
cated composition and can be either acidic or basic depending upon human body.
The device used to test perspiration fastness is ‘Perspiration Fastness Tester’ or
‘Perspirometer’. A perspirometer consists of a stainless steel frame that can hold a
number of glass or acrylic plates (Figure 12.32). The samples are kept between a
pair of plates to keep them moist. A specific weight is also placed on the top of the
plates to apply pressure to the specimen. Simulated acidic perspiration solutions
(both acidic and basic) are prepared and two sets of composite specimens (coloured
textile and multi-fibre fabric stitched together) are wet in the solutions separately.
Each of these wet composite specimens is placed between two plates of two differ-
ent perspirometers under fixed mechanical pressure. The perspirometers are kept
in an oven and dried at specific temperature and time. Both the specimens are then
evaluated for colour fading and staining on the adjacent multi-fibre fabric with the
help of grey scales.
FIGURE 12.32 Perspirometer.
12.4.8.5 Colour Fastness to Water

Sometimes colour of a textile fades and stains other fabric, which are in intimate
contact with each other, not due to actual washing process but due to mere plain
water. Colour fastness to water is conducted to assess the degree of colour fading
and cross staining that may occur when garments are left in contact in damp (ISO
105-E01 2013; Saville 1999). For example, let us assume a water-resistant lightweight
jacket with a red-coloured brand logo on the chest. Water-resistant jackets are mainly
used for outerwear during mild raining. When the jacket is used in rains and sub-
sequently folded and kept in wet condition without immediate drying, the logo may
mark off on neighbouring portions of the jacket. Over a period of time, the logo may
completely deface from the chest area and spread over other portions of the jacket.
Such problem is due to poor colour fastness to water of the logo colour.
In this test, a composite specimen is made by stitching the coloured textile
and a multi-fibre fabric. The composite specimen is wetted out in distilled water
at room temperature. The wet specimen is then placed in a perspirometer with
precise mechanical weight and kept in an oven at specific temperature and time.
The specimen is then removed from the perspirometer, dried and then evaluated
for colour fading and staining on the adjacent multi-fibre fabric with the help of
grey scales.
12.4.8.6 Colour Fastness to Chlorine Water

The colour fastness property to chlorinated water has utmost importance to terry
towels, swimwears, etc. Tap water in cities usually contains some amount of chlorine
to kill bacteria. Therefore, this chlorine water may fade the colour of textiles. Colour
fastness to chlorine water test is conducted to evaluate the resistance to colour loss
of textile to chlorinated water. In this test, the test specimen is treated with a weak
solution of sodium hypochlorite in a launderometer under specified conditions of
chlorine content, temperature and time (ISO 105-E03 2010; Saville 1999). The speci-
men is dried in shade and then evaluated for colour fading by comparing the contrast
between treated and untreated specimens with the help of grey scale.
12.4.8.7 Colour Fastness to Seawater

A fabric designed for beachwear may lose colour when it comes in contact with sea-
water. Seawater consists of minerals and salts that loosen the dye from the textile and
may also stain other parts of the textile. This test is intended to assess the resistance
to colour fading of textile and staining to adjacent fabric to seawater (ISO 105-E02
2013; Saville 1999). A composite specimen is made by stitching the coloured tex-
tile sample with multi-fibre fabric. The composite specimen is then wetted out in a
sodium chloride solution of definite concentration and placed in a perspirometer in
an oven for a specified condition of time and temperature. The specimen is dried in
shade and then evaluated for colour fading by comparing the contrast between the
treated and untreated specimen with the help of grey scale.
12.4.8.8 Colour Fastness to Light

Fading of colour of outdoor textiles (e.g. seat fabric inside a car, carpet exposed to
sunlight, curtains, apparels when dried under sunlight, etc.) is a common phenom-
enon. All dyes fade when exposed to sunlight and a significant change in colour is
quite unacceptable. A dye is said to have a good light fastness property if it absorbs
radiation without being destroyed. Light fastness is thus the degree to which a colou-
rant resists fading when exposed to light (Saville 1999). Therefore, to check the resis-
tance of fading against light, a test is conducted by exposing a sample to sunlight
or artificial light (either carbon or xenon arc lamp) for a specific period of time
(Figure 12.33). Artificial light is used to speed up the result and simulate the effect
of natural light. In this test, a blue scale is used instead of grey scale for evaluation
of colour fading. Unlike the grey scales that have five grades, a blue scale has eight
grades. A grade 1 in blue scale indicates very low light fastness, whereas grade 8
implies very high light fastness. There are two sets of blue reference standards in
use, one in Europe and the other in America. The sets used in Europe and America
are identified as 1–8 and L2–L9, respectively. The sample is exposed to light source
together with blue wool reference standards. The sample and blue wool standards
are covered partially so that only the exposed portion fades. The contrast between
FIGURE 12.33 (a) Colour fastness to light tester. (b) Sample for light fastness test.
the exposed and unexposed portion of the sample is compared with that of eight blue
wool standards, and a rating is given to the sample.
12.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this chapter, the testing of fibres, yarns and fabrics and recent development of
textile testing instruments have been discussed. There will be high demand for rapid,
fully automatic, reliable and cost-effective testing of textiles using high-tech instru-
ments. The rigorous process of sample preparation for the testing of textile products
needs to be eliminated in future. There will be more application of artificial intel-
ligence techniques in textile testing. The online testing of textile products would be
a reality in future with the aid of state-of-the art cloud computing technology.
REFERENCES
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Conshohocken, PA, ASTM International.
ASTM D737-12. 2012. Standard test method for air permeability of textile fabrics. West
ASTM D3776-13. 2013. Standard test methods for mass per unit area (weight) of fabric. West
Anderson, S. L. 1983. Textile Fibers: Testing and Quality Control. The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
Behera, B. K. 1999. Fabric quality and apparel industry. In Testing and Quality Management,
ed. V. K. Kothari, IAFL Publications, New Delhi, 386–402.
Booth, J. E. 1986. Principles of Textile Testing: An Introduction to Physical Methods of
Testing Textile Fibers, Yarns and Fabrics. 3rd Edition, Butterworths, London.
Further, R. 1982. Evenness Testing in Yarn Production: Part I. The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
Further, R. 1985. Strength and Elongation Testing of Single and Ply Yarns. The Textile
Institute, Manchester.
Geralds, M. J., Lubos, H., Araujo, M., Belino, N. J. R. and Nunes, M. F. 2008. Engineering
design of the thermal properties in smart and adaptive knitted structure. Autex
Research Journal 8:30–34.
Gupta, V. B. and Kothari, V. K. 1997. Manufactured Fibre Technology. Springer, Netherlands.
ISO 105-C06. 2010. Textiles-test for color fastness-part C06: Color fastness to domestic and
commercial laundering. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 105-D01. 2010. Textiles-test for color fastness-part D01: Color fastness to dry cleaning
using perchloroethylene solvent. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 105-E01. 2013. Textiles-test for color fastness-part E01: Color fastness to water. ISO
Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 105-E02. 2010. Textiles-test for color fastness-part E02: Color fastness to sea water. ISO
Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 105-E03. 2010. Textiles-test for colour fastness-part E03: Colour fastness to chlorinated
water (swimming pool water). ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 105-E04. 2013. Textiles-test for color fastness-part E04: Color fastness to perspiration.
ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 12945-1. 2000. Determination of fabric propensity to surface fuzzing and to pilling-part
1: Pilling box method. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 12945-2. 2000. Determination of fabric propensity to surface fuzzing and to pilling –
part 2: Modified Martindale method. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO 12945-3. 2014. Determination of the fabric propensity to surface pilling, fuzzing or – part
3: Random tumble pilling method. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
Kothari, V. K. 1999. Physical testing of fabrics. In Testing and Quality Management, ed. V.
K. Kothari. IAFL Publications, New Delhi, 201–231.
Lord, E. 1961. The Characteristics of Raw Cotton, Manual of Cotton Spinning, Vol. II, Part
I. Textile Institute, Manchester and Butterworths, London.
Meridith, R. 1950. The effect of the rate of extension on the strength and extension of cotton
yarns. Journal of Textile Institute 41:T199–T224.
Midgley, E. and Peirce, F. T. 1926. Tensile test for cotton yarns-The rate of loading. Journal
of Textile Institute 17:T330–T341.
Mohsin, M. 2017. Textile dyed and finished fabric. In Advanced Textile Testing Technique, ed.
S. Ahmad, A. Rasheed, A. Afzal, and F. Ahmad. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 189–207.
Morton, W. E. and Hearle, J. W. S. 1975. Physical Properties of Textile Fibers. William
Heinemann Ltd., London and The Textile Institute, Manchester.
Pac, M. J., Bueno, M. A. and Renner, M. 2001. Warm cool feeling relative to tribological
properties of fabrics. Textile Research Journal 71(9):806–812.
Peirce, F. T. 1926. Tensile tests for cotton yarns, Part V: The weakest link theorems on the
strength of long and composite specimens. Journal of Textile Institute 17:T355–T368.
Saville, B. P. 1999. Physical Testing of Textiles. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge and
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Sensora, 1990. Instruction Manuals of the Alambeta, Pretest Instruments. SENSORA
Liberac registered company, Liberac.
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Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics and Their Recent

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12.3.4.1 Terms and Definitions ....................................................... 235

12.2 TESTING OF FIBRES

• Step 1: Put the fibre sample in water. If it floats, it is polypropylene. If it

12.2.2 fiBre fineness testing

12.2.2.2 Measuring Principle

FIGURE 12.1 Schematic diagram of airflow method.

FIGURE 12.2 Schematic diagram of a vibrating fibre.

12.2.3 fiBre length testing

12.2.3.2 Measuring Principle

12.2.4 fiBre strength testing

12.2.4.2 Measuring Principle

FIGURE 12.5 Measurement of fibre bundle strength.

12.3 TESTING OF YARNS

12.3.1.2 Measuring Principle

FIGURE 12.6 Measuring principle of yarn twist using untwist–retwist method.

12.3.2 tensile testing of yarn

A typical FE characteristic curve of a yarn is illustrated in Figure 12.7.

12.3.2.2 Measuring Principle

FIGURE 12.7 A typical force–elongation (FE) characteristic curve of a yarn.

FIGURE 12.8 Strain-gauge principle.

12.3.2.3 Effect of Extension Rate

F  F  kF log  t2  (12.7)

12.3.2.4 Effect of Gauge Length

12.3.3 evenness testing of yarn

12.3.3.2 Measuring Principle

FIGURE 12.10 The capacitance principle of measuring yarn evenness.

instrument is capable of measuring the imperfections with 12 sensitivity levels of

12.3.3.3 Diagram and Spectrogram

FIGURE 12.12 Spectrograms of yarns for ten-ring frame cops.

12.3.4 hairiness testing of yarn

12.3.4.2 Measuring Principle

FIGURE 12.14 Measurement of yarn hairiness using USTER® ZWEIGLE HL 400.

12.4 TESTING OF FABRICS

12.4.2 dimensional ProPerties

12.4.2.1 Length and Width

FIGURE 12.15 Fabric thickness tester.

Original length  Final length

12.4.3 areal density

12.4.4 faBriC strength

12.4.4.1 Tensile Strength

FIGURE 12.16 GSM cutter.

12.4.4.2 Tearing Strength

FIGURE 12.18 Elmendorf tearing strength tester.

12.4.4.3 Bursting Strength

FIGURE 12.19 Diaphragm bursting tester.

In diaphragm bursting tester, the fabric specimen is clamped over an elastic

12.4.5 aBrasion resistanCe

or when change in shade or appearance of the fabric specimen is sufficient to cause

12.4.6 serviCeaBility tests

FIGURE 12.22 ICI Pill Box tester.

FIGURE 12.23 Pilling grade photographs.

12.4.7.1 Air Permeability

12.4.7.2 Thermal Conductivity, Resistance and Absorptivity

FIGURE 12.24 Air permeability tester.

FIGURE 12.25 Schematic diagram of Alambeta instrument (Sensora 1990).

mass of water absorbed

12.4.7.4 Moisture Vapour Transmission Rate