Prevalence - All individuals in a population who experience an event.

Numr = all the indiv. who have a particular attribute.

Denom = population at risk
Keep in mind how the Denom might be diff. incase they ask for sex specific diseases
Attack rate = the cumulative incidence of infection in a group of people over the course of the
epidemic. presented as a %age(if you get exposed - attack rate tells us what's the likelihood of
you getting the condition)
incidence Rate - Rate at which new events occur in a popul. High I.R = High Disease Risk.
Numr = new cases (not preexisting cases) Denom = Popul. at risk
PPV = TP / (TP + FP)SP = TN / (FP + TN)
Specificity (true negative rate)The proportion of individuals without a disease that correctly test
negative in a clinical test designed to identify that disease
The positive predictive value increases with increasing prevalence of disease in the population
The negative predictive value decreases with increasing prevalence of the disease in the
population.
NPV: the probability that an individual who tested negative is actually disease-free.SN = TP /
(TP + FN)NPV = TN / (FN + TN)
ROC Curve A test is considered more accurate if the curve follows the y-axis. A test is
considered less accurate if the curve is closer to the diagonal.
Reliability: represents the ability of a test to measure something consistently. -The precision of a
test.
Validity: represents the test ability to measure what is intended to measure.-In other word
measures the accuracy of a test.
Selection bias: represents nonrandom sampling or treatment allocation of subjects such that
study population is not representative of target population.
Most commonly a sampling bias.
Selection Bias (Sampling Bias):
•Berkson bias: study population selected from hospital is less healthy than general
population
•Non-response bias: participating subjects differ from nonrespondents in meaningful ways.
Selection Bias: is prevented by randomization of the sample.
Measurement Bias: Information is gathered in a systematically distorted manner.
•Hawthorne Effect (an example of measurement/procedural/ error bias): participants change
behavior upon awareness of being observed.

Measurement Bias: can be prevented by using objective, standardized, and previously tested
methods of data collection that are planned ahead of time.
•Can also be prevented by using a placebo group.
Lead-time bias: occurs when the early detection of a disease is confused with‚ an increased
survival rate.
Lead-Time Bias: can be prevented by adjusting the survival rate according to the severity of
disease at the time of diagnosis.
RR = 1.0 = no difference in risk between groups
Cohort Study is used to compare a group with a given exposure or risk factor to a group without
such exposure.
-It looks to see if exposure or risk factor is associated with later development of disease and
uses the Relative Risk to determine the association.