GLASS

SILICATE GLASSES
SODA-LIME GLASS : "SODA" FOR THE SODIUM CARBONATE AND "LIME" FOR THE
CALCIUM CARBONATE.
MOST PREVALENT TYPE OF GLASS, USED FOR WINDOW PANES AND GLASS
CONTAINERS
RELATIVELY INEXPENSIVE, CHEMICALLY STABLE, REASONABLY HARD, AND EXTREMELY
WORKABLE. BECAUSE IT CAN BE RE SOFTENED AND RE MELTED NUMEROUS TIMES, IT
IS IDEAL FOR GLASS RECYCLING
RAW MATERIALS, SUCH AS SODIUM CARBONATE (SODA), LIME, DOLOMITE, SILICON
DIOXIDE (SILICA), ALUMINIUM OXIDE (ALUMINA), AND SMALL QUANTITIES OF
FINING AGENTS (E.G., SODIUM SULFATE, SODIUM CHLORIDE) IN A GLASS FURNACE AT
TEMPERATURES LOCALLY UP TO 1675 °C.
RELATIVELY INEXPENSIVE MINERALS SUCH AS TRONA, SAND, AND FELDSPAR ARE USUALLY
USED INSTEAD OF PURE CHEMICALS. GREEN AND BROWN BOTTLES ARE OBTAINED FROM
RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING IRON OXIDE. SODA-LIME GLASS IS DIVIDED TECHNICALLY
INTO GLASS USED FOR WINDOWS, CALLED FLAT GLASS, AND GLASS FOR CONTAINERS,
CALLED CONTAINER GLASS.
THE TWO TYPES DIFFER IN THE APPLICATION, PRODUCTION METHOD (FLOAT PROCESS FOR
WINDOWS, BLOWING AND PRESSING FOR CONTAINERS), AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
FLAT GLASS HAS A HIGHER MAGNESIUM OXIDE AND SODIUM OXIDE CONTENT THAN
CONTAINER GLASS, AND A LOWER SILICA, CALCIUM OXIDE, AND ALUMINIUM OXIDE
CONTENT.
FROM THE LOWER CONTENT OF HIGHLY WATER-SOLUBLE IONS (SODIUM AND
MAGNESIUM) IN CONTAINER GLASS COMES ITS SLIGHTLY HIGHER CHEMICAL DURABILITY
AGAINST WATER, WHICH IS REQUIRED ESPECIALLY FOR STORAGE OF BEVERAGES AND
FOOD.
FLOAT GLASS

A SHEET OF GLASS MADE BY FLOATING MOLTEN GLASS ON A BED OF MOLTEN METAL,
TYPICALLY TIN,

THIS METHOD GIVES THE SHEET UNIFORM THICKNESS AND VERY FLAT SURFACES.

MODERN WINDOWS ARE MADE FROM FLOAT GLASS.

MOST FLOAT GLASS IS SODA-LIME GLASS, BUT RELATIVELY MINOR QUANTITIES OF
SPECIALTY BOROSILICATE AND FLAT PANEL DISPLAY GLASS ARE ALSO PRODUCED USING
THE FLOAT GLASS PROCESS.

THE FLOAT GLASS PROCESS IS ALSO KNOWN AS THE PILKINGTON PROCESS, NAMED
AFTER THE BRITISH GLASS MANUFACTURER PILKINGTON, WHICH PIONEERED THE
TECHNIQUE (INVENTED BY SIR ALASTAIR PILKINGTON) IN THE 1950S.
 MANUFACTURE OF FLOAT GLASS

RAW MATERIALS: SAND, SODA ASH (SODIUM CARBONATE), DOLOMITE, LIMESTONE, AND
SALT CAKE (SODIUM SULFATE) ETC.

THE RAW MATERIALS ARE MIXED IN A BATCH PROCESS, THEN FED TOGETHER WITH
SUITABLE CULLET (WASTE GLASS), IN A CONTROLLED RATIO, INTO A FURNACE WHERE
IT IS HEATED TO APPROXIMATELY 1500 °C.

ONCE MOLTEN, THE TEMPERATURE OF THE GLASS IS STABILISED TO APPROXIMATELY
1200 °C TO ENSURE A HOMOGENEOUS SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

THE MOLTEN GLASS IS FED INTO A "TIN BATH", A BATH OF MOLTEN TIN (ABOUT 3–4 M
WIDE, 50 M LONG, 6 CM DEEP)

TIN IS SUITABLE FOR THE FLOAT GLASS PROCESS BECAUSE IT HAS A HIGH SPECIFIC
GRAVITY, IS COHESIVE, AND IS IMMISCIBLE WITH MOLTEN GLASS. TIN, HOWEVER,
OXIDISES IN A NATURAL ATMOSPHERE TO FORM TIN DIOXIDE (SNO2).

TO PREVENT OXIDATION, THE TIN BATH IS PROVIDED WITH A POSITIVE PRESSURE
PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE OF NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN.

THE GLASS FLOWS ONTO THE TIN SURFACE FORMING A FLOATING RIBBON WITH
PERFECTLY SMOOTH SURFACES ON BOTH SIDES AND OF EVEN THICKNESS. AS THE
GLASS FLOWS ALONG THE TIN BATH, THE TEMPERATURE IS GRADUALLY REDUCED
FROM 1100 °C UNTIL AT APPROXIMATELY 600 °C THE SHEET CAN BE LIFTED FROM THE
TIN ONTO ROLLERS.

THE GLASS RIBBON IS PULLED OFF THE BATH BY ROLLERS AT A CONTROLLED SPEED.
VARIATION IN THE FLOW SPEED AND ROLLER SPEED ENABLES GLASS SHEETS OF
VARYING THICKNESS TO BE FORMED.

THE GLASS SHEET PASSES THROUGH A LEHR KILN FOR APPROXIMATELY 100 M, WHERE
IT IS COOLED GRADUALLY SO THAT IT ANNEALS WITHOUT STRAIN AND DOES NOT
CRACK FROM THE TEMPERATURE CHANGE. ON EXITING THE "COLD END" OF THE KILN,
THE GLASS IS CUT BY MACHINES.
TRADITIONAL BLOWN & DRAWN GLASS

GLASS BLOWING IS A GLASS FORMING TECHNIQUE THAT INVOLVES INFLATING MOLTEN

GLASS INTO A BUBBLE (OR PARISON), WITH THE AID OF A BLOWPIPE (OR BLOW TUBE)
INFLATION REFERS TO THE EXPANSION OF A MOLTEN BLOB OF GLASS BY INTRODUCING
A SMALL AMOUNT OF AIR TO IT. THIS PROPERTY IS BASED ON THE LIQUID STRUCTURE
OF GLASS WHERE THE ATOMS ARE HELD TOGETHER BY STRONG CHEMICAL BONDS IN A
DISORDERED AND RANDOM NETWORK. THEREFORE MOLTEN GLASS IS VISCOUS
ENOUGH TO BE BLOWN AND GRADUALLY HARDENS AS IT LOSES HEAT.
DURING BLOWING, THINNER LAYERS OF GLASS COOL FASTER THAN THICKER ONES AND
BECOME MORE VISCOUS THAN THE THICKER LAYERS. THIS EFFECT ALLOWS
PRODUCTION OF BLOWN GLASS WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS, INSTEAD OF CAUSING
BLOW-THROUGH OF THE THINNED LAYERS
FREE-BLOWING
THE PROCESS OF FREE-BLOWING INVOLVES THE
BLOWING OF SHORT PUFFS OF AIR INTO A
MOLTEN PORTION OF GLASS CALLED A "GATHER"
WHICH HAS BEEN SPOOLED AT ONE END OF THE
BLOWPIPE. THIS HAS THE EFFECT OF FORMING
AN ELASTIC SKIN ON THE INTERIOR OF THE GLASS
BLOB THAT MATCHES THE EXTERIOR SKIN CAUSED
BY THE REMOVAL OF HEAT FROM THE FURNACE.
THE GLASSWORKER CAN THEN QUICKLY INFLATE
THE MOLTEN GLASS TO A COHERENT BLOB AND
WORK IT INTO A DESIRED SHAPE. PORTLAND VASE IS A ROMAN
CAMEO GLASS VASE, WHICH IS
DATED TO BETWEEN AD 1 AND
AD 25
MOLD-BLOWING
AN ALTERNATE GLASSBLOWING METHOD
THAT CAME AFTER THE INVENTION OF
FREE-BLOWING, DURING THE FIRST PART
OF THE SECOND QUARTER OF THE 1ST
CENTURY AD.
A GLOB OF MOLTEN GLASS IS PLACED ON
THE END OF THE BLOWPIPE, AND IS THEN
INFLATED INTO A WOODEN OR METAL
CARVED MOLD. IN THIS WAY, THE SHAPE
AND THE TEXTURE OF THE BUBBLE OF
GLASS IS DETERMINED BY THE DESIGN ON
THE INTERIOR OF THE MOLD RATHER
THAN THE SKILL OF THE GLASSWORKER.
STEPS
TIP OF THE BLOWPIPE IS FIRST PREHEATED; &
DIPPED IN THE MOLTEN GLASS IN THE
FURNACE. THE MOLTEN GLASS IS "GATHERED"
ONTO THE END OF THE BLOWPIPE
THIS GLASS IS THEN ROLLED ON THE MARVER,
(A FAIRLY THICK FLAT SHEET OF STEEL.)
THEN AIR IS BLOWN INTO THE PIPE, CREATING
A BUBBLE.
ONCE A PIECE HAS BEEN BLOWN TO ITS
APPROXIMATE FINAL SIZE, THE BOTTOM IS
FINALIZED. THEN, THE MOLTEN GLASS IS
ATTACHED TO A STAINLESS STEEL OR IRON ROD
CALLED A PUNTY
COLOURED GLASS

GLASS IS COLOURED BY ADDING METALLIC OXIDE POWDERS OR FINELY DIVIDED METALS

WHILE IT IS IN A MOLTEN STATE. COPPER OXIDES PRODUCE GREEN OR BLUISH GREEN,
COBALT MAKES DEEP BLUE, AND GOLD PRODUCES WINE RED AND VIOLET GLASS. MUCH
MODERN RED GLASS IS PRODUCED USING COPPER, WHICH IS LESS EXPENSIVE THAN GOLD
AND GIVES A BRIGHTER, MORE VERMILION SHADE OF RED. GLASS COLOURED WHILE IN
THE CLAY POT IN THE FURNACE IS KNOWN AS POT METAL GLASS, AS OPPOSED TO FLASHED
GLASS.
WIRED GLASS

LAMINATED GLASS IS A TYPE OF SAFETY GLASS THAT HOLDS TOGETHER WHEN SHATTERED.
IN THE EVENT OF BREAKING, IT IS HELD IN PLACE BY AN INTERLAYER, TYPICALLY OF
POLYVINYL BUTYRAL (PVB) OR ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATE (EVA), BETWEEN ITS TWO OR
MORE LAYERS OF GLASS. THE INTERLAYER KEEPS THE LAYERS OF GLASS BONDED EVEN
WHEN BROKEN, AND ITS HIGH STRENGTH PREVENTS THE GLASS FROM BREAKING UP INTO
LARGE SHARP PIECES. THIS PRODUCES A CHARACTERISTIC "SPIDER WEB" CRACKING
PATTERN WHEN THE IMPACT IS NOT ENOUGH TO COMPLETELY PIERCE THE GLASS.

SKYLIGHT GLAZING AND AUTOMOBILE WINDSHIELDS TYPICALLY USE LAMINATED GLASS.

LAMINATED GLASS IS ALSO USED TO INCREASE THE SOUND INSULATION RATING OF A

WINDOW, WHERE IT SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVES SOUND ATTENUATION COMPARED TO
UNLAMINATED GLASS PANES OF THE SAME THICKNESS.
TOUGHENED GLASS

TOUGHENED OR TEMPERED GLASS IS A TYPE OF SAFETY GLASS PROCESSED BY

CONTROLLED THERMAL OR CHEMICAL TREATMENTS TO INCREASE ITS STRENGTH
COMPARED WITH NORMAL GLASS. TEMPERING PUTS THE OUTER SURFACES INTO
COMPRESSION AND THE INNER SURFACES INTO TENSION. SUCH STRESSES CAUSE THE
GLASS, WHEN BROKEN, TO CRUMBLE INTO SMALL GRANULAR CHUNKS INSTEAD OF
SPLINTERING INTO JAGGED SHARDS AS PLATE GLASS (AKA: ANNEALED GLASS) CREATES.
THE GRANULAR CHUNKS ARE LESS LIKELY TO CAUSE INJURY.
FOR GLASS TO BE CONSIDERED TOUGHENED, THIS COMPRESSIVE STRESS ON THE
SURFACE OF THE GLASS SHOULD BE A MINIMUM OF 69 MEGAPASCALS (10,000 PSI). FOR
IT TO BE CONSIDERED SAFETY GLASS, THE SURFACE COMPRESSIVE STRESS SHOULD
EXCEED 100 MEGAPASCALS (15,000 PSI). THE GREATER THE SURFACE STRESS, THE
SMALLER THE GLASS PARTICLES WILL BE WHEN BROKEN.
MANUFACTURING
TOUGHENED GLASS CAN BE MADE FROM ANNEALED GLASS VIA A THERMAL TEMPERING
PROCESS. THE GLASS IS PLACED ONTO A ROLLER TABLE, TAKING IT THROUGH A FURNACE
THAT HEATS IT WELL ABOVE ITS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE OF 564 °C (1,047 °F) TO
AROUND 620 °C (1,148 °F). THE GLASS IS THEN RAPIDLY COOLED WITH FORCED AIR
DRAFTS WHILE THE INNER PORTION REMAINS FREE TO FLOW FOR A SHORT TIME.
AN ALTERNATIVE CHEMICAL TOUGHENING PROCESS INVOLVES FORCING A SURFACE LAYER
OF GLASS AT LEAST 0.1 MM THICK INTO COMPRESSION BY ION EXCHANGE OF THE SODIUM
IONS IN THE GLASS SURFACE WITH POTASSIUM IONS (WHICH ARE 30% LARGER), BY
IMMERSION OF THE GLASS INTO A BATH OF MOLTEN POTASSIUM NITRATE. CHEMICAL
TOUGHENING RESULTS IN INCREASED TOUGHNESS COMPARED WITH THERMAL
TOUGHENING AND CAN BE APPLIED TO GLASS OBJECTS OF COMPLEX SHAPES.
GLASS ETCHING COMPRISES THE TECHNIQUES OF CREATING ART ON THE SURFACE OF
GLASS BY APPLYING ACIDIC, CAUSTIC, OR ABRASIVE SUBSTANCES. TRADITIONALLY THIS IS
DONE AFTER THE GLASS IS BLOWN OR CAST, ALTHOUGH MOLD-ETCHING HAS REPLACED
SOME FORMS OF SURFACE ETCHING. THE REMOVAL OF MINUTE AMOUNTS OF GLASS
CAUSES THE CHARACTERISTIC ROUGH SURFACE AND TRANSLUCENT QUALITY OF FROSTED
GLASS.
ACID ETCHING IS DONE USING HEXAFLUOROSILICIC ACID (H2SIF6) WHICH, WHEN
ANHYDROUS, IS COLOURLESS. THE ACID IS PREPARED BY DISSOLVING SILICA IN A MIXTURE
OF HYDROFLUORIC ACID, QUARTZ POWDER, CALCIUM FLUORIDE, AND CONCENTRATED
SULFURIC ACID DERIVED AFTER HEATING.
GLASS ETCHING CREAM IS USED BY HOBBYISTS AS IT IS GENERALLY EASIER TO USE THAN
ACID. AVAILABLE FROM ART SUPPLY STORES, IT CONSISTS OF FLUORIDE COMPOUNDS,
SUCH AS HYDROGEN FLUORIDE AND SODIUM FLUORIDE (WHICH ARE STILL VERY
DANGEROUS). AS THE TYPES OF ACIDS USED IN THIS PROCESS ARE EXTREMELY
HAZARDOUS, ABRASIVE METHODS HAVE GAINED POPULARITY.
ETCHED GLASS AND STAINED GLASS COMMEMORATIVE WINDOW (CA. 2006)
ABRASIVE BLASTING ("SANDBLASTING") IS ANOTHER COMMON TECHNIQUE FOR
CREATING PATTERNS IN GLASSWARE, CREATING A "FROSTED" LOOK TO THE GLASS. IT IS
OFTEN USED COMMERCIALLY. HIGH PRESSURE AIR MIXED WITH AN ABRASIVE MATERIAL
CUTS AWAY AT THE GLASS SURFACE TO CREATE THE DESIRED EFFECT. THE LONGER THE
STREAM OF AIR AND ABRASIVE MATERIAL ARE FOCUSED IN ONE SPOT, THE DEEPER THE
CUT.
LEPTAT GLASS IS GLASS THAT HAS BEEN ETCHED USING A PATENTED ACID PROCESS. LEPTAT
TAKES ITS NAME FROM THE CZECH WORD MEANING "TO ETCH", BECAUSE THE TECHNIQUE
WAS INSPIRED BY A CZECHOSLOVAKIAN GLASS EXHIBIT VIEWED AT A PAST WORLD’S FAIR IN
OSAKA, JAPAN, AND PATENTED IN THE UNITED STATES BY BERNARD E. GRUENKE, JR.[1] OF
THE CONRAD SCHMITT STUDIOS. ABSTRACT, FIGURAL, CONTEMPORARY, AND TRADITIONAL
DESIGNS HAVE BEEN EXECUTED IN LEPTAT GLASS. A SECONDARY DESIGN OR PATTERN IS
SOMETIMES ETCHED MORE LIGHTLY INTO THE NEGATIVE AREAS, FOR FURTHER INTEREST.
GOLD LEAF OR COLORED ENAMELS ALSO CAN BE INLAID TO HIGHLIGHT THE DESIGNS. THE
LEPTAT TECHNIQUE ALLOWS THE GLASS TO REFLECT LIGHT FROM MANY SURFACES, LIKE A
JEWEL-CUT GEM.
MOLD ETCHING IN THE 1920S A MOLD-ETCH PROCESS
WAS INVENTED, IN WHICH ART WAS ETCHED DIRECTLY
INTO THE MOLD, SO THAT EACH CAST PIECE EMERGED
FROM THE MOLD WITH THE TEXTURE ALREADY ON THE
SURFACE OF THE GLASS. THIS REDUCED
MANUFACTURING COSTS AND, COMBINED WITH A
WIDER USE OF COLORED GLASS, LED TO CHEAP
GLASSWARE IN THE 1930S, WHICH LATER BECAME
KNOWN AS DEPRESSION GLASS.
FROST ETCHING IS THE PROCESS IN WHICH VINYL
WINDOW MATERIAL IS CUT TO PRODUCE A PATTERN
AND THEN APPLIED TO A WINDOW TO GIVE A FROSTED
PATTERNED EFFECT.