5. Caper eee in 2 fe tne wie te edge eg «360 pn If he dy of Cu is 84102 me? douse de Avogao's mene. (Maur ms of spp = 63 3¢ pio). (has: 6 884102 mwa] 6 Cae ie ery of si ine we cain i te oom ie Me ‘eto dsace of 395 pa. The Mallu eoazam td the Hor exponent fr Co ae 176 sa 1, ee (las = 648 EF mt) | 1 The only meal tat esas in 2 pine able late i olsun which has nt el se of 3345p "Wht athe perpen distances Betwen ples with Mir ines (110, (11), (210 and (211)? - Ane 2365, 1531, 105 gad 1366 pn) ‘4. Catute te imeriaar spacing (dy) for a cabic system Seren the following set of planes © (a) 10 (0 IL fe) 222 Atom tha a he tg engi the et cel as. (a) duo 0/ JF) d=a/V5 (0) de=a2/31 | 9. Catala he aes at which Fist, son, ant tie one efetons are abana from ples 5 papa ‘sing Kye of wave lng 100 pn. (Aas. $4 St, 1786 10.Xcrays of wave leg I5¢ pn are iron by he 200 plane of AgCl crit, At whut angle would the i ‘muta reflosina seat ? Gen @ = 555 pa (se 0 = 61") { 1, A ponder puter of MgO, knows to crys inthe cab yt, sows dition sat in @ vals of 1 (te, 0160, 02801, 02831, 02935 and 0-387. Daemine th late pe of MEO. Tiss. fee] 12. NaC hs a ficecented abi tice ? What the covrination numberof) the wtim, a eon ? (6) Wot ae the inviual ize Scares of sli and lei NaCl? (4) Wit she sar of Na 208 (Cr ins in te eat cal of NCI?” Tas. (0) 6 () 6 () Ley (@) Nat =, C=} | 13° cog ally of gold an coppé ysl isaac tate in which gl at cay te ate pole | a the corners ofa cube and the copper atoms occupy the centres of cach ofthe cube faces, What is the forma of he compound ne ABCs] 1g exsalizs ina cable fate. The density i 10-710? kg Ute edge nth of he ei cal is 406 ‘a. deemite te typeof te Iie ties. fee] 15, Calon he interplanar pacing (ag) fr a cable yeh Dewees fe flowing sof plas) 10.6) 11 (@) 22, Assume ata se ee length of te nt el (As. (0) de = e/1E (9) dine SE On = 0/243) 16. The deity of NaC at 25°C is 216310 kg sr, When Xereys fom plan ure hating 2 wave length of 581 pare ed, he 200 refecion of NAC ocers ata age of 591". Cake the number of Na* ax (Coe i he wt el, thas. 3599 = 4) CHAPTER THE COLLOIDAL STATE The Colloidal Systems. A colloidal dispersion has traditional Souk prc ysenimmes medium. Because of ter ability o seater light andlicd ver ton Single molecules that have avery high molar mass. The fie i jit ae ‘rms. The Se i ae tia i a Se prea been al Ine my ty te Ter ate two csc! sbtivsions of colloids systems (1) lyephilc or salen (ato called gels) nd 2) yophobic or solvent faring calloids eae ig enon colots | | rae pt le nwt is a ay et sgt i, i al pigs of all moet (rm ease win Ss I Sete a Ah yest of age me af io ean 2 OH Preprion ofLyephbie Cala! Seton eG selene of tt que sgl eg at of tee er pn | irae tS, ke cl ‘et si ck {ie prcparation, The methods consist ether in I. Breaking down the coon, aggregates Fool Ga cid i ae welche asc Cs em i 2131214 PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL CHOMETRY consists in breaking down the coarser solid particles by mechanical grinding, This is dooe inthe so called ‘colloid mill” which generally consists of two metal diss held at a very small distance part fiom one another which are capable of revolving at-a high speed (of he order of 7000-rm) ia ‘opposite direction, The material to be ground is fd in between the two discs in the fom of a wet slucry. The particles gt broken to colloidal dimensions by the operating shearing force. However, it is dou! i this method produces panicles uniformly of colloidal dimensions. : Some sols can alternatively be prepared by mechanical dispersion in a high intensity tasonic generators operating a frequency of 20 kHz (aot ante to ura ea) and above. This technique is effective only ifthe sebstance being dispersed is of low mechanical strength suchas supe, erephite, ‘resins and gypsum. Ultrasonic vibrations are usially obtained by piezoelectric oscilations which conver electric vibrations of high frequency into mechanical vibrations, Ultrason waves of vibration’ of | Miiz frequency are obtained from quartz oscillators whereas those having vibrations of 50 Kil frequency are obained from magnetstitio osilators whose working component is a ferromagnetic rod. Ultrasonic vibrations cause local, rapidly alternating contractions and expansions ofthe solid substance resulting inthe formation of minute cavities which disappear immediatly under the action of sternal pressure thefeby destroying the slid and converting it iat a colloidal dspetsion. 2, Wlectrieal Dispersion, In this method aa are is strick between two electrodes of a metal like platinum, gold silver or copper. in water toning traces of a8 alkali, when the metal pases nto colloidal slaton of 2 reasonable, though not high concentration (Fig. 1) Its believed that inthis method, introduced by G. Bedi in 1858, the metal i changes into vapours (moleular sae) on account of the heat of the park and the vapours then condense in water to give aggregates of colloidal range, The function ofthe alkali wll be explained shory ia this chapter. , Svodberg devised a method to obtain organosos af metals and non-metals, In Sveberg's method, the electrodes are usually of iro oralumum and alternating currebt (instead ofthe direc, current used in-Bredig method) is employe” The material to be dered is taken inthe frm of granules an pasted on the eletodes (Gmimersed in the organic medium) through which the elect arc is passed. Eetroputeriag occurs a the electric spark gets though the granules ofthe material pasted oa the electrode. Besroputering technique i used for obtaining organosols of several metals and non-metal Organosls of metals ae used () in the hydrogenation and reduction of organic compouits, (Ui) 28 catalysts for combustion of liquid fuels in rockets, (i) as fillers of plats, glues, antcorrosive Taoguers and pants and (i) in medicine. 2. Pectin, Cerin feshy foe pipes, sucha sve lore, fe boise, ature coed clea sols y teste of stl aunt of inate eect. An cero ving an oni comer wi Ge mate be gee Tee fo loom, Te ppton stn is deo etre svn efor as Ot beste ye aril he nar. 4s would Se Tends ie aes pe {sr fe petal npn tte ou eh oats cea ideale the paitibles Seite Wpoctive of a hegative’ tinge depending upon the chafge onthe ion it. Bae rete aN smstpe of charge, the eres ofthe preci ace pushed The ue ft Gil seeing Ue freien of» nae oT fee ional stds wasn spa pty offerte coon tte pptoaion action ‘is ‘Gi tthe prefereiia? adsbtption of Fe°* Tons. Similarly, ‘an aluininium hydroxide sol is oblained when dilute KjURbehiotié acid és added to freshly precipitated: aluminium hydraxide. The ion efeitos eA a ecu eset elie soon ALO ‘Fig. J. Bc id THe COWODAL STATE 1216 B. Condensation Methods, Colloidal systems can be obtained by various chemical reactions such a6 double decomposition, oxidation, reductioa, hydrolysis, et. It should be hoted that calla -sjstems are not always formed in teatons capeble of producing sl they are fii der speci ondtions, as for example, a definite concentrations ofthe iil subsarces, ata dite temperate and a definite ocder of teic mixing, et. 1 Double Decompeition, A so of arsesou sulphide is prepared by passing gs thou & «dilute solution of arsenious oxide and removing the excess H,S by boiling, Go AsO) + 3thS 3 As 4 390 2. Oxidation. A colloidal suphar sol is obtained by he ordain of an aqueous ston of Iyerogen sulphide wih ai slp dixie 2S +0, —» 28 +2140 2S +90; —> 38 + 2440 ‘During the oxidation of HyS oS, corilex oxidation reacidns occur simultaneously resulting ia the formation of poiyionic acids. These acids readily get associated with the colloidal purteles of ‘sulphur to fonm Bigger sollidalpartices called miseelles which are thermodynanically one sable {an the constituent species. In other words, polythionic acids act as stabilizers forthe sulphur so ‘There ig experimental evidence that peatationic acid, 1840, formed dusing the oxidation eaion ‘ets as the stabilizing elecoye, converting the sulphur eoloal particle In a micelle having the Fonmula = (m{S]nSs0;2.2(n ~ x)H* 22H 3. Reduction. Sols of meas suchas silver, copper, gold aid ptoum are obtiaed by red ; copper. tou reducing the aos sles of dr sas by nonlesies sch as fomalehye, a pyle carbon monoxide and phosphors. Zsigmoady prepared the god hyrosol by reducing potas auate With formaldehyde, tn this reacion,ehloroaurc acid, H[AUCL. 10, fist fonmed, made to react ‘ith potassium carbosate in an aqueous solution to yield potassium aurate BH[AICK) + 5KjCO, > 2KAUO; + SCO, + 8KCI + 1,0 Teen ton i ted a ie soln of frm adel dpi whch ‘reduction occurs according to the reaction " AW; + 20440 + FCO," 2Au Gol) + SHOOK + KHOD, + 40 Posi se, KANO aa elie of ed pol sl ied. Temi tol epee ome a a (maiynauo; (n—k*)xx? 4 Riis, Coli of tty ets are oui by be kif te los of sas. Thu, when a anal anos of fers chlorides sed ollg bac oe of ferric hydroxide is obtained ™ “ Feo +3108, ReORy + 3H _ Ealing. promotes te reacion because IC formed is removed along with water vapours fom the syst la ths eto, rn ones, FOC, formed a esi of ncmple bya of Fe, is believed to act as the stabilizer eee inte of Fc, Rec, +0 —> Feotl + 201 ‘The stabilizes can also be FeCly'or HCl. The sabiising action of FeCly is evidently due to the Fe fons whic it yields im solution, Evidence in favour of WC cofnes'from the fac thatthe suface