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Expert System for Poultry

General Informations About Poultry Categories

Common terms used in Poultry

Common terms used in Poultry

Adult Indian Breeds Chicken

Species Young Formation of Egg

Male Female

Chicken Chick Cock Hen

Duck Duckling Drake Duck

Turkey Poult Tom Hen

Quail Chick Cock Hen

Guinea fowl Keet Cock Hen

Goose Goosling Gander Goose

Pigeon Squab Pigeon Pigeon

Swan Cygnet Swan Swan

Incubation period, Chromosome numbers and age at sexual maturity of different species of
poultry

Incubation period Chromosome Age at sexual maturity

S.No Species
(days) number (pairs) (weeks)

1. Chicken 21 39 18-20

2. Duck 28 40 28-30

3. Muscovy duck 33-35 40 28-30

4. Goose 28-32 40 28-30

5. Guinea fowl 27-28 39 28-32

6. Turkey 28 40 28-30

7. Quail 17-18 39 6-7

8. Pigeon 18 39 10-12

9. Ostrich 42 40 52

10 Emu 52-55 40 52

BREEDS OF CHICKEN

Chicken breeds are usually classified based on four major official classes:

American breeds
Asiatic breeds
English breeds
Mediterranean breeds

Incubation period, Chromosome numbers and age at sexual maturity of different species of
poultry

Class American Asiatic English Mediterrane an

Shank Clean Feathered Clean Clean

Skin colour Yellow Yellow White Yellow or white

Earlobe colour Red Red Red White

Purpose Dual Meat Dual Egg

Size Medium Massive Medium Small

Shell colour Brown Brown Brown White

1) Rhode
Island Red 1) Cornish
1) Leghorn
2) Plymouth 1) Brahma 2) Australorp
2) Minorca
Examples rock 2) Cochin 3) Dorking
3) Ancona
3)New 3) Langshan 4) Orpington
4) Andalusian
Hampshire 5) Sussex
4)Wyandotte

Chicken may also classified based on their utility as,

1) Egg type - Eg. White Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona
2) Meat type - Eg. Cornish, Plymouth rock, Brahma
3) Dual purpose - Eg. Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire
4) Game bird - Eg. Aseel
5) Fancy variety - Eg. Silky, frizzled, bantams
6) Desi type - Eg. Kadaknath, Naked neck, chittagong.

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Indian Breeds Chicken

 There are only four pure Indian breeds of chicken are available. They are, Aseel, Chittagong, Busra and
Kadaknath.
1. Aseel:

1. It is noted for its pugnacity, high stamina, majestic gait and dogged fighting qualities.
2. The popular varieties of Aseel are, Peela (Golden red), Yakub (Black and red), Nuri (White), Kagar
(Black), Chitta (Black and white spotted), Java (Black), Sabja (White and golden or black with yellow or
silver), Teekar (brown) and Reza (light red).
3. Pea comb, bright red wattle and ear lobes, long neck and strong legs.

2. Chittagong:

1. It is also known as Malay.

2. Dual-purpose bird.
3. The popular varieties are buff, white, black, dark brown and grey.
4. Pea comb, red ear lobes, over-hanging prominent eyebrows, feather-less shank

3. Kadaknath:

1. The skin, beak, shanks, toes and soles of feet are slate-like in colour
2. Comb, wattles and tongue are purple.
3. Most of the internal organs show intense black colouration and varying degrees of black colour are seen in
the skeletal muscles, tendons, nerves, brain etc. The black pigment is due to the deposition of melanin.

4. Busra:
 1. Medium sized bird, deep bodied, light feathered and alert in nature.
2. Poor layer.
3. Wide variation in body colour

Note:

1. Araucana is an American breed, which lays blue or green coloured eggs.

2. Aseel is an Indigenous game fowl with fighting temperament.
3. Frizzle is an Asian breed, which is notable for its quaint feather formation. Each feather is curled towards
the head of the bird.
4. Silkie is an Asian breed, which has persistent broody character.
5. White Leghorn is the most popular egg type breed.

Hybrids of chicken
These are incrossbreds of chicken, produced by 2-way, 3-way or 4-way crossing of inbred pure lines.
They are the actual commercial-type of chicken used for egg or meat production since they are high laying or
fast growing. These birds possess high degree of heterosis or hybrid vigour.

1) Common egg-type hybrid chicken (layers):

BV-300, ISA Babcock, Bovans, Euribrid, Hyline, Dekalb, Lohmann, Keystone, H&N nick chick etc.
2) Common meat-type hybrid chicken (Broilers):
Cobb, Ross, Hybro, Hubbard, Starbro, Avian-34, Anak-2000, Arbor acres, Hub chicks, Peterson etc.

Different Comb types of chicken

Comb is a fleshy protuberance on top of the fowl’s head, generally red in colour and of various types and
shapes. The type of comb is usually a breed or variety characteristic. The comb type is the result of gene
interaction but the comb size is associated with gonadal development and intensity of light under which they
are grown. Some of the types of combs are,

1) Single comb:
A comb which when viewed from the front, is narrow and having spikes in line behind each other. It consists
of a blade surmounted by spikes. The lower solid portion being the blade and the spaces between the spikes
are called serrations. It differs in size, shape and number. The number of serrations varies according to
breeds. The White Leghorn has 5 spikes and RIR and Minorca have 6 spikes. The gene for single comb is
recessive to the gene for Rose and Pea comb.

2) Pea comb
It is a triple comb resembling three small single combs joined together at the base and rear but distinctly
divided. The middle one is being the highest than others. It is very well seen on the head of a well-bred
Brahma.

3) Rose comb
It is a broad comb, near flat on top, covered with small regular points and finishing with a spike. It varies in
length and width according to breed.
Eg. Wyandotte.

4) Strawberry or Walnut comb

This type of comb is somewhat resembling half a strawberry, with the round part of the fruit uppermost. It is
relatively small in size and has irregular grooves on the surface. When rose comb and pea comb are crossed,
 all the progeny will have walnut comb due to the complementary effect of ‘R’ and ‘P’ genes.
Eg. Malays breed

5) V- Shaped comb or Duplex comb or Horn comb

It resembles horns, but generally similar to the letter ‘V’. The comb starts just above the beak and from it
branches into two spikes, thick at the base and tapered at the end. Eg. Houdans breed.

6) Cushion comb
It is almost circular cushion of flesh, with a number of small prominences over it. It is having a slight furrow
transversely across the middle. Eg. Silkie breed.

7) Cup comb
This comb is somewhat resembling a tea-cup with edges spiked. Eg. Sicilian Buttercup breed.
Need for handling of chicken

1. To examine birds for diagnosis of diseases

2. To examine birds for selection, culling and judging.
3. To handle birds at the time of vaccination, testing, putting identification marks, debeaking, dubbing,
artificial insemination and sometimes for individual treatment
4. To study the external body parts.
5. To catch birds at the time of marketing.

Handling of chicken
First, bird is to be caught from the flock in case of deep-litter system or to be taken out from the cage before it
is handled for any of the above-operations.
While catching bird on deep-litter, it is to be caught either by putting catching hooks to the leg or simply by
grabbing the legs with fingers. Birds should never be caught by neck or feathers, which can put birds under
severe stress or discomfort. For holding bird for some time before starting of actual operation, it can be held
at wings or its movement can be restricted or stopped by entangling their wings to each other at the base.
While taking out bird from cage, head with neck should be taken out first by holding body of birds in both the
hands with closure of wings to facilitate easy removal of bird from cage, without causing any injury to bird.
The same procedure is followed while putting bird in cage i.e. head is entered first; followed by body.
To hold the bird for examination, abdomen of bird should rest on palm of one hand by grabbing two legs of
bird between fingers, facing head of bird towards examiner; keeping one hand free for examination. The
examination is done by gentle handling with minimum stress to prevent struggling.

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Formation of Egg

Formation of yolk

The yolk is not the true reproductive cell, but a source of food material from which the minute cell
(blastoderm) and its resultant embryo partially sustain their growth. When the pullet reaches sexual
maturity, the ovary and the oviduct undergo many changes. About 11 days before laying first egg, a sequence
of hormonal changes occur. The follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) produced by the anterior pituitary gland
causes the ovarian follicles to increase in size. In turn, the active ovary begins to generate hormones, viz.
estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. Higher blood plasma levels of estrogen initiate development of the
medullary bone, stimulate yolk protein and lipid formation by the liver and increase the size of the oviduct,
enabling it to produce albumen proteins, shell membranes, calcium carbonate for shell formation and cuticle.
The yolk material is laid down adjacent to the germinal disc that continues to remain on the surface of the
globular yolk mass. About 10 days are required for an individual yolk to mature.
Deposits of yolk material are very slow at first and light in colour. The colour present in the yolk is
xanthophylls, a carotenoid pigment derived from the diet. The pigment is transferred first to the
bloodstream, then quickly to the yolk. More carotenoids are deposited when the extending out from the yolk,
are formed as the egg is rotated in the lower portions of the oviduct. Twisted in opposite directions, the
chalazae tend to keep the yolk centered in the egg after it is laid.

Shell membrane formation

The shell membranes are added to the egg in the isthmus. These membranes are made up of many interlacing
fibres and are somewhat permeable to both water and air. Two membranes are formed, an inner and outer
shell membranes. These are rather loose-fitting membranes when first formed. Water and salts are added to
the egg in the uterus to ‘plump out’ the egg into its final shape. The outer shell membrane is about 3 times as
thick as the inner one. The outer membrane is about 0.05 mm thick, and the inner is only 0.015 mm. The
membranes normally adhere to each other except at the large end of the egg, where they are separated to
form the air cell. The air cell is quite small when the egg is first laid but progressively increases in size as the
egg cools and as water later escapes from the contents by evaporation through the membranes and the shell.

Egg shell formation

The egg remains longest in the uterus or shell gland, where the eggshell is formed, which requires 19 to 20
hours. The shell is made up of almost entirely of calcium carbonate deposited on an organic matrix consisting
of protein and mucopolysaccharide. The shell membranes intimately bound the shell on the inside. The shell
is embedded in the membranes by a structure known as the basal cap, a portion of cone layer, which is the
innermost part of the shell. The major portion of the shell is made up of a palisade or column layer that is
penetrated by numerous pores extending through the shell. The final layer of the shell is known as the
cuticle, an organic material covering the surface of the egg. The cuticle seals the pores and is useful in
reducing moisture losses and in preventing bacterial penetration of the eggshell.

Laying of the Egg

Eggs are normally formed with small end first as they move down the oviduct. If the hen is not frightened,
the egg will rotate horizontally just prior to oviposition (the act of laying egg) and will be expelled large end
first. However, if something disturbs the bird prior to rotation, the egg will be laid quickly and forced through
the vent small end first.

S. Part of the Duration of Length

Functions
No. oviduct developing egg stays (cm)

1 Infundibulum Picking and engulfing the yolk 15 minutes 9

2 Magnum Secretion of thin and thick albumen 3 hours 33

3 Isthmus Formation of shell membranes 1 hour & 15 minutes 10

18 to 21 hours (Average
4 Uterus Formation of shell 10
20 hours)

5 Vagina Oviposition 2 to 5 minutes 6

24 hours & 35
Total 68
minutes

Structure of Egg
The egg has four main parts namely (1) yolk, (2) Albumen, (3) Shell membranes and (4) Shell.
1) Yolk:
The yolk is normally held centrally by the chalazae. The two chalazae are attached to the chalaziferous layer
of albumen around the yolk and one to each pole of the egg and anchored in the dense albumenous sac or
outer thick albumen. The yolk is enclosed in a colourless membrane called vitalline membrane. Latebra is in
the centre of the yolk, which is a small and nearly circular score of light coloured fluid, which does not
completely harden on boiling. The yolk is 30 to 33% of the total weight of an egg. During the formation of
yolk, concentric rings of yolk material are laid down, in alternate light and dark yellow layers, one layer for
each day of yolk formation.
Germinal disc is the reproductive cell present on the surface of the yolk. If fertilized the germ cell is then
called as blastoderm and if not it is called as blastodisc.

2) Albumen:
Albumen or white of the egg surrounds the yolk. There are four layers of albumen amounting to
approximately 57% of the total volume of the egg.

1. The inner or chalaziferous layer

 2. ranes.

The albumen is a protection for the blastoderm. It keeps blastoderm from coming in contact with the shell
and lessens the force of jarring. Another function of the albumen is to prevent the entrance of bacteria to the
yolk or germ cell.

3) Shell membranes:
There are two shell membranes: the inner and outer. The outer is attached to the shell and the inner is
loosely attached to the outer albumen layer and encloses the egg contents. The shell membranes allow
transmission of gases to and from the egg contents.

4) Shell:
Shell consists of the following:

1. Mammillary layer
2. Spongy (calcareous) layer
3. The cuticle or bloom
4. The pore system

The shell colour is characteristic of breed that may be white, brown or green. Brown colour is due to the
presence of a pigment called Oophorphyrin. Biliverdin pigment is responsible for the Green Colour of eggs
produced by Auracana breeds.

Physical composition of egg of various species

Bird

J.
Chicken Turkey Duck
quail

Egg weight (g) 57 12 85 80

Yolk (%) 30 32 32 35

Albumen (%) 60 48 56 53

Shell (%) 10 20 12 12

Chemical composition of chicken egg

Shell and
Whole egg White Yolk shell
Components membrane

100% 56-61% 27-32% 8-11%

Water 65.0 87.0 48.0 2.0

Protein 12.0 11.0 17.5 4.5

Fat 11.0 0.2 32.5 -

Carbohydrate 1.0 1.0 1.0 -

Ash 11.0 0.8 1.0 93.5

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Egg Proteins

Albumen Proteins

Protein % Functions / Characteristics

1. Ovalbumin 54.00 Protease inhibitor

2. Ovotransferrin (Conalbumin) 12.00 Binds metals (iron)

3. Ovomucoid 11.00 Inhibits trypsin

4. Ovoglobulins 8.00 Foaming agent

5. Ovomucin 3.50 Viscosity builder

6. Lysozyme 3.40 Destroys bacteria

7. Ovoinhibitor 1.50 Serine proteases inhibitor

8. Ovoflavoprotein 0.80 Binds riboflavin

9. Ovomacroglobulin 0.50 Strongly antigenic

10. Avidin 0.05 Binds biotin

11. Cystatin 0.05 Protease inhibitor

Yolk Proteins

Protein % Functions / Characteristics

1. Ovovitelline 75.00 Phosphorus containing protein

2. Ovolivetin 25.00 Sulphur containing protein

Egg Lipids

Lipids %

1. Triglycerides 72.00

2. Phospholipids 23.00

3. Cholesterol and other sterols 5.00

Egg Carbohydrates
The carbohydrate content of egg is very low (1%). Of which, 75% is found in albumen and 25% in yolk. The
half of the carbohydrates present in albumen is as free glucose and half as glycoproteins. In dried egg
products, glucose interacts with other egg components to produce off-colours and off-flavours during storage.
In order to avoid this problem, the glucose is eliminated by enzymatic digestion just before the drying process
Vitamin Content of Chicken Egg

Chicken egg without the shell (Shell egg weight-60.9g)

Whole
Vitamin Units White Yolk
liquid

1. A IU 260.00 0 260.00

2. D IU 27.00 0 27.00

3. E mg 0.88 0 0.88

4. B12 mg 0.48 0 0.48

5. Biotin mg 11.00 2.62 8.38

6. Choline mg 237.00 0.50 236.50

7. Folic acid mg 0.03 0.01 0.03

8. Inositol mg 5.90 1.54 4.36

9. Niacin mg 0.05 0.04 0.01

10. Pantothenic acid mg 0.81 0.09 0.72

11. Pyridoxine mg 0.07 0.01 0.06

12. Riboflavin mg 0.18 0.11 0.07

13. Thiamine mg 0.05 0.01 0.05

* Vitamin C is absent in egg

Mineral Content of Chcken egg

Chicken egg without the shell (Shell egg weight-60.9g)

Whole
Mineral (in mg) White Yolk
liquid

1. Calcium 29.00 3.80 25.20

2. Chlorine 96.00 66.10 29.90

3. Copper 0.03 0.01 0.02

4. Iodine 0.03 0.01 0.03

5. Iron 1.08 0.01 1.05

6. Magnesium 6.30 4.15 2.15

 7. Manganese 0.021 0.01 0.02

8. Phosphorus 110.00 8.00 102.00

9. Potassium 74.00 57.00 17.00

10. Sodium 72.00 63.00 9.00

11. Sulphur 90.00 62.00 28.00

12. Zinc 0.71 0.05 0.66

Pigments of Chicken Egg

Egg pigments are distributed in all parts of egg. Yolk contains high quantity of pigments. The yolk pigments
are classified based on its solubility as lipochrome (fat soluble) and lyochrome (water soluble). Lipochromes
are group of carotenoids (carotene and xanthophylls). The albumen contains one pigment called ovoflavin.
Ooporphyrin and oocyan are responsible for the shell colour
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEAT (per 100g of edible meat)

Nutrient Chicken Turkey Goose Duck J. quail

Water (%) 66 70 50 49 73

Protein (%) 18 20 16 11 20

Fat (%) 15 8 34 34 5

Carbohydrates (%) Traces Traces Traces Traces Traces

Ash (Minerals) (%) 0.79 0.88 0.87 0.68 1.40

Energy (Kcal / 100g) 215 160 371 404 190

Cholesterol (mg /
75 68 76 80 62
100g)

VITAMINS IN POULTRY MEAT (per 100g of edible meat)

mg/100g
Vitamin Units
edible meat

1. A IU 41

2. C mg 1.6

3. Thiamine mg 0.06

4. Riboflavin mg 0.12

5. Niacin mg 6.8

6. Pantothenic acid mg 0.91

7. Pyridoxine (Vit B6) mg 0.35

8. Folic acid mg 0.31

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