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 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

BUCKLING OF ELASTIC GRIDSHELLS

B. LEFEVRE1, C. DOUTHE2 and O. BAVEREL1,3
1
Université Paris-Est, Lab. Navier (ENPC/IFSTTAR/CNRS), 6-8 av. B. Pascal, F-77455 MLV 2,
baptiste.lefevre@polytechnique.org
2
Université Paris-Est, IFSTTAR, 14-20 Bd Newton, F-77447 MLV Cedex 2, cyril.douthe@ifsttar.fr
3
ENS Architecture Grenoble, 60 avenue de Constantine, F – 38036 Grenoble Cedex 2, olivier.baverel@enpc.fr

Editor’s Note: Manuscript submitted 24 March 2014; revision received 20 November; accepted 18 April 2015. This
paper is open for written discussion, which should be submitted to the IASS Secretariat no later than March 2016.

ABSTRACT

Elastic gridshells are doubly curved grids with a shell-like behaviour, obtained by elastic deformation and
bracing of a flat grid with no shear rigidity. After a brief review of their design process, the buckling of elastic
gridshells is numerically investigated through a geometrically nonlinear analysis; then a formula for predicting
the local buckling load is derived from the results of a parametric study. The numerical study required the
development of an accurate form-finding method named “the advanced compass method” and of a specific
algorithm ensuring the quick convergence of the non-linear finite element simulations, both presented in this
paper. The influence of the prestress, the eccentricity and the anisotropy of the shell are discussed, giving hence
indications for correct modelling and efficient design of elastic gridshells.

Keywords: Gridshells, Stability, Buckling Criterion, Numerical Modelling, Prestress, Eccentricity,

Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis

1. ABOUT THE DESIGN OF ELASTIC

GRIDSHELLS

1.1. Elastic gridshells

The word gridshell refers to a grid with single or

double curvature that behaves like a shell.
Gridshells generally denote reticulated structures
made of steel (or some times of wooden elements
jointed with metallic connections). Like many other
thin shell structures, their design is often influenced
by the need to prevent buckling, a complex problem
on which many recommendations have already
been published [1,12].
Figure 1: Downland Gridshell
However, gridshells sometimes also denote
structures resulting from the elastic deformation of
an initially planar grid made of wood or composite The structures investigated in this article will thus
members (see figure 1). Therefore, to distinguish be limited to structures resulting from a similar
the two structural types, the last are often called construction process, locking in bending prestress,
“elastic gridshells”, as the whole forming process is also called “active bending structures” [19].
fully reversible [18]. Indeed, figure 2 shows the
construction of the Solidays forum in Paris [3] 1.2. The buckling of gridshells
which is typical of the composite gridshells braced
with a third layer of beams studied at the Ecole The buckling of reticulated shells has been
Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées [3,7-10]. thoroughly investigated. Gioncu published in 1994

Copyright © 2015 by B. Lefevre, C. Douthe and O. Baverel.

Published by the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) with permission. 153
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185
the state of the art on this subject [12]. More
recently, Kato et al completed Gioncu’s paper by
compiling new analytical and experimental results
on the buckling of single layer reticulated shells
without prestress, showing a great mastery of the
problem [17]. The main idea is to develop a design
formula to estimate the buckling load based on a
continuous equivalent shell with homogenized
mechanical properties. For elastic gridshells,
however, no analytical or experimental results exist,
so that the objective of the present work will be to
provide elements for the evaluation of the buckling
load of elastic gridshells.
(a) Rendering of the initial project of the Solidays forum in
Paris
(b) Construction of the two layers of the planar grid on the
ground
(c) Deformation of the grid by lifting with two cranes
Figure 2: Construction of the Solidays forum in Paris
154
1.3. The numerical tools
In the design process of elastic gridshells, three
steps can be distinguished: (i) the definition of the
shape, (ii) the mesh generation or the form-finding
of the grid, (iii) the analysis under external loads.
These steps are obviously not independent and the
process is therefore very often not linear. However,
considering that one first defines a shape or surface
representing the average plane of the future
structure, one then needs two different tools to
design the gridshell: a form-finding tool and a tool
for the structural analysis of the structure (generally
non-linear analyses, as thin shells structures are
very sensitive to imperfections).
(d) The control of form is insured by the position of
supports and the initial geometry of the planar grid.
(e) Bracing: progressive setting of a third layer of beams
suppressing the shear degree of freedom of the grid
(f) View of the final structure with textile covering
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS
1.3.1. Form-finding tools
The objective of the form-finding tools is to define
the planar grid which, once deformed, realizes the
shape given in input. In the earliest works on elastic
gridshells [6, 16], the geometry of the grid was
derived from that of a hanging net, hence limiting
the shape to that of “funicular surfaces”. For other
shapes, a purely geometric method, called “the
compass method” was also proposed in [16] to
develop a planar grid with no shear on a given
surface. The need for better control of the geometry
in contemporary engineering led to the development
of more elaborated methods introducing mechanical
contents within the form-finding process. Many
actual models are based on the dynamic relaxation
of beam elements which allows for the
determination of the deformed shapes of flat grids
in mechanical equilibrium under self-stress. These
shapes may be constrained in some points [2, 8] or
on the surface to be built [19]. Constraints in a
vicinity of a surface via a kind of potential energy
have also been proposed in [18] but with a Newton-
Raphson-like algorithm.
The question of the control of the final shape is a
key issue in form-finding and has very practical
consequences for the construction. Indeed, if the
form is controlled at a very limited number of
points (e.g. at every member’s extremity), as in the
Solidays gridshell, the installations on the building
site will be much reduced and only a few cranes
will be necessary for the erection of the structure
[3] (see figure 2). On the contrary, if the structure is
constrained on a surface or in the vicinity of a
surface, then complex scaffolding will be necessary
to control the form which has to be braced before
the scaffolding is removed [14]. In the present
study, the objective is to derive a simple formula for
the buckling of elastic gridshells. The forms chosen
will be as regular as possible and limited to
spherical caps. In the form-finding method
developed in section 3, the control of the form will
thus be crucial and the underlying construction
process will be similar to that of the Downland
gridshell where the grid is braced on the scaffolding
[14].
1.3.2. Structural analysis tools
The objective of the structural analysis tool is to
compute the mechanical equilibrium of the
deformed gridshell (or to be able to incorporate the
self-stress induced by the forming process in the
final shape) and then to analyze the non-linear
behaviour under external load. In the earliest
simulations [13], pre-stresses were not taken into
account for the numerical analysis, which was
actually at its beginning. In 2004, prestress was still
ignored during the structural analysis of the Savill
Garden gridshell, where the shape of the deformed
grid obtained by form-finding was imported within
commercial software (Robot3D) [15]. Other authors
however considered it necessary to conduct the
forming simulation and analysis with the same tool
(a homemade dynamic-relaxation-based program in
[8] and commercial FEM software (SOFISTIK) in
[18]). Even if modern tools enable to take prestress
into account, there is no study dedicated to the
influence of this prestress on the behaviour of
elastic gridshells, so that it is nowadays not possible
to say whether it plays an important role or not in
the overall stability of the structure. Therefore, in
the present article, the same tool (FE Software
Abaqus) will be used to simulate the forming
process and to conduct the structural analysis of the
real structure, but also of a structure from which
prestress will have been released.
1.4. Objectives and summary
The main purpose of the present study is the
estimation of the ultimate buckling load of elastic
gridshells and the derivation of a preliminary design
formula similar to those existing for rigid gridshells
[1]. As for rigid gridshells, the formula will be
derived from a geometrically nonlinear analysis
(GNA) of the simplest possible double curved
shape: a spherical cap. This formula will
incorporate the effects of the members’ slenderness,
the rise of the cap and the influence of prestress or
eccentricities between the grid layers. To this end it
is of primary importance to describe as precisely as
possible the prestress state of the grid before it is
loaded. As, once braced, the grid is highly
hyperstatic, particular care must be taken in the
simulation of the definition of the members’ length
and of the forming process. Therefore section 2 is
dedicated to the description of a form-finding
method of the grid which has been called “the
advanced compass method”. Then in section 3, the
procedure for the simulation of the forming process
is described. Finally, in section 4, the buckling of
elastic gridshells is investigated and a formula is
derived from the results of a parametrical study. In
conclusion, the interests and limitations of the
155
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185

formula are discussed and indications for further
work are given.
2. FORM-FINDING OF THE GRID
Once the choice of the shape of the roofing
structure has been made, the structural engineer has
to define the regular planar grid (in fact the
geometry of its contour) that can be elastically
deformed into a discrete shell fitting the desired
shape. This operation is often called the form-
finding of the grid.
Following this process, a Tchebychev network of
the desired size can be drawn. The compass method
is illustrated in figure 3. Figure 4 shows then an
example of such a mesh to which a third direction
of beams has been added for bracing. The
construction of this third direction is straight
forward as it is a simple concatenation of the quad
diagonals.

Generally, the grid members are slender in order to

be easily bent: the member elongations are thus
negligible with respect to their curvature changes
and the grid spacing can be assumed constant (a) Curves and (b) Sphere
during the forming process (in some specific cases
however, irregular grids may also be considered
[18]). The form-finding problem can be defined as
follows: find a network of points (structured in a
two-way mesh) on the shape such that the distance
between two adjacent points is equal to the grid
spacing . Such a network is called a Tchebychev
network [4] and the easiest way to construct it is the (c) Points (d) Spheres ,
compass method [4,10,15].

2.1. The compass method

The compass method is an iterative process the

algorithm of which is presented hereafter. Let be
the surface on which the Tchebychev network
will be drawn.
(e) Point (f) Iteration
Initialization Draw two secant curves and on

intersection ∩ of these two directrices.

the surface. The first point of is at the

Iteration Assuming that points , , … , have

been drawn, the process to draw is as follows.
Two possibilities:

(i) is on a directrix: choose ≤ such that

is an extreme point on the directrix. Draw the
(g) Resulting mesh

intersection ∩ ∪
sphere of center and radius . The
contains . Figure 3: The compass method on a planar surface

(ii) is not on a directrix: choose , ≤ such 2.2. Limits of the compass method
that and have a common adjacent point not

∩
already drawn. Draw the spheres and of center For preliminary design and the evaluation of the
and and radius . The intersection mesh curvature, the compass method is sufficient
contains . [3,10]. However for structural analysis, i.e. for

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 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS
analyses under external load taking the prestress
state of the members into account, it is not accurate
enough for two reasons:
(i) As shown in figure 4 for a spherical cap, the
mesh is composed of straight chords of length
whereas an elastically deformed planar grid will
have a smoother shape. The method thus
underestimates the length of the beams and the
resulting grid will therefore be too short. The
relative error induced is about 0.1% (difference of
length between a 1m chord and an arc on a 10m
radius spherical cap).
(ii) All beam layers are embedded in the same
surface whereas in fact, there should be two distinct
layers, relying one above the other because of the
members thickness. By neglecting this eccentricity,
the size of the beams of the lower layer is
overestimated. For a spherical cap of radius 10m
and an eccentricity between layers of 10cm, the
relative error on the length of the upper layer is
about 1%.
Figure 4: Spherical cap meshed with the compass method
(with an added bracing layer of beams)
Considering the elastic characteristics of the
members and the fact that the structure is highly
hyperstatic, such errors induce considerable efforts
(up to 100 MPa and more for members made of
glass fibre reinforced polymers like in [3,7]). This
might cause sliding of the connections between
layers or, worst, premature failure of the members.
It is therefore necessary to remedy these two
sources of inaccuracy, which was done via the
advanced compass method.
2.3. Advanced compass method
The advanced compass method is derived from the
initial compass method by incorporating an implicit
densification of the mesh and a layer-wise
algorithm.
2.3.1. Implicit densification of the mesh
The goal of this first modification is to avoid
looking for the intersection of geodesic curves on
the surface (which can be quite complex on a free
form surface) while avoiding tracing chords instead
of arches. The idea of the implicit densification of
the mesh is to construct a mesh denser than
necessary to reduce the error between the chord and
the arch and then to remove the superabundant
members: intermediate points are hence generated
between connections and the grid spacing is still
guaranteed. The modified algorithm is thus as
follows:
(i) Choose a grid spacing and the number of
subdivisions
spacing / (as given in section 2.1)
(ii) Draw the Tchebychev network with a grid
(iii) Beginning from (the node at the intersection
of the two directrices), keep one beam in beams
in both directions
implicit densification (left). Here, = 5
Figure 5: Smoother mesh (right) obtained by mean of an
The resulting mesh for the case of figure 4 is
represented in figure 5. The length between two
nodes is still but the curve follows the surface
rather than being straight. The length of the beams
in the third direction, as for the other directions, is
defined on the denser mesh so that they follow the
surface too.
2.3.2. Layer-wise algorithm
In order to take into account the eccentricity
between the two layers of beams, a layer-wise
algorithm is introduced. Let be the surface to be
meshed and the eccentricity between the two
layers of beams. will contain the upper layer of
with an offset . ′ will contain the lower layer of
beams. Let denote the surface generated from
beams. will denote the network of nodes in and
157
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185

the orthogonal projection of on . Each point ′ & ' , & and ′ & , & (duals &' , & and & , & ).
in will be denoted by , and its dual in by (see figure 7d)
, . The subscripts
for all , the points , , , , … , , belong to the
and are chosen such that,
(iv) Draw the sphere & , & of radius and center
& , & . (see figure 7e)
points ′ , , ′ , , … , ′!, belong to the same beam
same beam of the upper layer and, for all , the

(v) Draw the orthogonal projection (′ & , &

, & ∩ on ′. (see figure 7f)
of
" , ′ , # of length is the location of the link at
of the lower layer. Physically, the segment
&

the node , . The goal here is thus to find ⊂

(vi) Draw the sphere ′ & , & of radius and center
and ′ ⊂ ′ such that:
′ &, & . ′ &, & intersects with (′ & , & at
(i) ∀ , , , , = ′ & , & (dual & , & ). (see figure 7g, 7h, 7i)

(ii) ∀ , , ′ , ′ , = (vii) Iterate the step (i-vi).

All these notations are summarized in figure 6. This process is illustrated in figure 7. In this figure,
Such a network of nodes describes a double layered is a plane; the distance between the projections of

these nodes. This is not true in general and (′ & , &

grid with a regular spacing in both directions. two nodes is thus equal to the distance between

, = .
Unlike the original compass method, we do not
necessarily have , can have a shape much more complicated than a
circle. The bracing layer of beams is then deduced,
and drawn in a third surface defined by
offsetting .

2.4. Summary

Using this layer-wise algorithm and the implicit

densification of the mesh, one is able to draw an
accurate mesh on the considered shape. This
accuracy avoids artificial overstresses when
introducing the mechanical behaviour in the
simulations described below.

Figure 6: Notations for the advanced compass method
The layer-wise algorithm is the following:
(i) Draw a directrix on and a directrix on ′.
whose projection on ′ belongs to . This point is
and are such that there is a unique point of
the first point of the network, denoted by & , &
(dual ′ & , & ) (see figure 7a)
(ii) Draw the sphere & , & of radius
and center
&, & &, & &, & '
(duals ′ & , & ' and ′ & , & ). (see
. intersects with at two points:
and & , &
figure 7b and 7c)
3. NUMERICAL MODELING
3.1. Modelling choices
The present study aims at developing a reliable
preliminary design formula for the ultimate
buckling load of elastic gridshells. It was decided to
work with the finite element software Abaqus,
whose algorithm for geometrical non-linearities
ensures a good precision and robustness assessed by
a large community of users, on the contrary to
homemade tools previously used by the authors.
Members are modelled with the Timoshenko beam
elements (more precisely with the 2-node linear
beam element B31 in Abaqus). The chosen analysis
is static implicit. The mesh density is chosen so that

(iii) Draw the sphere ′ & , & of radius and center

the relative error on the non-linear buckling load is

′ & , & . ′ & , & intersects with

lower than 2%. To do so, at least 5 elements are
at two points: generated between two connections of the gridshell.

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 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

(a) Directrix on and on ′ (e) Sphere &, &

of center & , &

(b) Sphere &, &

of center &, & (f) Orthogonal projection (′ & , & of & , & ∩ on ′

&, &
is ′ & , & (g) Sphere ′ &, of center ′ & ,
& &
(c) The projection of

(d) As well, the projection of ′ & , & &, & (h) ′ & , intersects (′ & , & in ′ & , &
&
is

(i) The projection of ′ & , & is &)* , &

Figure 7: Layer-wise algorithm

For these connections, three types of links have
been considered:
(i) The links between a member and the ground are
modelled by ball-joint links.
(iii) The links between two members in a model
with eccentricity are modelled with 4 constraints on
the distance between 6 nodes which correspond to
the kinematic constraints of the swivel scaffolding
elements used in the Solidays gridshell. As
illustrated in figure 8, 4 nodes have been added

(previously denoted by , and ′ , ). The 4 black

(ii) The links between two members in a model
without eccentricity are modelled by ball-joint links
(the two layers lying in the same surface).
around the two nodes on the axis of the link
segments represent the distances which must remain
constant so that the beams rotate freely around their
axis and around the axis of the link.

159
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185
Figure 8: Modeling of the link between two members in a
model with eccentricity
3.2. The forming process
The output of the compass method is purely
geometric, so that before studying the structural
behaviour of the gridshell under external load it is
necessary to find the equilibrium shape of the grid
under self-stress and for fixed boundary conditions.
This equilibrium shape will be called the relaxed
structure, by opposition to the output of the
compass method that we will be called the
reference geometry.
To determine the relaxed structure knowing this
reference geometry, it is necessary to simulate the
forming process which involves large displace-
ments and to take into account phased construction
as the third layer is introduced afterwards.
Precautions must thus be taken to ensure
convergence.
The chosen methodology does not follow exactly
the real erection process because it appeared that,
from a numerical point of view, the program
converges faster if the three layers of beams are
brought into place separately before being
connected together and relaxed. The proposed
algorithm is thus the following:
included) are drawn in the + = 0 plane (Figure 9a).
(i) Initial state: all the beams (triangulation
(ii) Bending of the beams: by means of imposed
displacements at a few nodes, each beam is bent
160
into its approximate reference geometry. At this
stage, the beams are not linked together, so that
constraints are reduced when imposing large
displacements (Figure 9b).
(iii) Refinement of the bending: by means of
imposed displacements at a few more nodes, the
shape of each beam is made closer to its reference
geometry. These nodes are chosen such that the
bending is introduced smoothly enough to ensure
convergence. The beams are still not linked together
(Figure 9c)
(iv) Locking of all degrees of freedom: the
displacements at all nodes of the grid are imposed.
However, the intermediate nodes, the ones which
are not at connection points of the grid, are left free.
At this stage, the stresses in the beams in the
reference geometry are computed but the beams are
still not linked together (Figure 9d).
(v) Linking and relaxation: the links between the
beams (the corresponding geometrical constraints)
and the links to the ground are created and all
imposed displacements removed. This last stage
results in the computation of the relaxed structure,
obtained by elastic deformation of the reference
geometry (computed in steps i-iv).
This algorithm is efficient and reliable: efficient
because the links are introduced at the end so that
the major part of the large-displacement analysis is
carried out with as few constraints as possible - thus
speeding calculations up - and reliable because the
progressive introduction of the constraints ensures
convergence and avoids undue stress concentra-
tions.
3.3. Calculation of the loads
As the deformed grid is not homogeneous, the
calculation of the loads applied to the gridshell
nodes is not insignificant. So, in the following
analyses, it will be assumed that the loads are
applied to every node (which means also to
intermediate nodes between connections) of the
upper layer of beams which supports the canvas
covering the gridshell. The intensity of the load at
each node is then evaluated according to the surface
of canvas tributary to the considered node.
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

gridshells built on spherical caps, as these shapes

have been studied many times in articles about
reticulated shells without prestress [1,5,11,12,17,
20, 23, 26-28]. By changing the height, the span,
the grid spacing, the angle between directrices and
the members’ characteristics, this simple shape still
allows for the investigation of a large variety of
(a) Initial state (b) Bending double curved gridshells. For every simulation, the
geometry of the grid is determined by the advanced
compass method choosing two meridians secant on
the top of the spherical cap as directrices. The
geometrical parameters of the problem are thus the
following (see also figure 11):

(i) - the radius of the spherical cap,

(c) Refinement of the (d) Locking of all degrees of
bending (ii) the grid spacing,

(iii) . the angle between the directrices,

freedom

Figure 9: Algorithm used for the forming of the gridshell

(iv) / the radius of the pipe used for the members
(thickness //10),
3.4. Geometrically non linear buckling analysis

For the geometrically non linear buckling analyses,

the modified Riks method was used to plot the (v) the eccentricity between the layers,

(vi) 1 the span of the spherical cap,

load/displacement path of the structure and to
identify the buckling load as the ultimate load. This
(vii) 2 the height of the spherical cap.
approach has been used for the computation of
every buckling load given in the following sections.
A typical load/displacement path is shown in figure The behaviour of the members remains linear

gridshells. The Young modulus 3 is here taken as

10, for the snap-through shown in figure 12. The elastic as it is necessarily the case for elastic
value retained as the buckling load is the ultimate
one, defined as the maximum load sustained by the that of glass fibre reinforced polymer (25 GPa)
structure. according to [8].
45
Load proportionality factor

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1
Displacement (m) Figure 11: Notations used

Figure 10: Typical load/displacement path obtained with
the Riks method
4. BUCKLING OF ELASTIC GRIDSHELLS
The buckling of elastic gridshells had not been
studied before, so it was decided to investigate
Two studies were conducted and their results are
presented in the following. The first is intended as
the investigation of a wide range of structures in
order to identify the phenomena involved. Then,
considering the cases in which coupling or
interaction occurs, specific loading conditions are
defined and a second series of numerical

161
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185

simulations is made, focusing on local buckling. 2⁄1 , ., ⁄/ , /⁄1 and ⁄1 for 64 different
From these new results a preliminary design gridshells. For each gridshell, four different non
formula is finally deduced. linear buckling analyses were conducted:

4.1. Preliminary study
4.1.1. Definition of parameter range
The spherical gridshells considered can be
described by 5 dimensionless parameters of which
realistic domains of variation are listed below:
(i) with prestress and a uniformly loaded canvas,
(ii) with prestress and a snow load on half of the
canvas,
(iii) without prestress (suppressed ex-post) and with
a uniformly loaded canvas,

(i) 2/1 ∈ 51⁄8 , 2⁄59. Shallow spherical shells with

(iv) without prestress (suppressed ex-post) and with
2⁄1 : 1⁄8 are not considered as well as too high
a snow load on half of the canvas.

shells 2⁄1 ; 2⁄5, assuming that the first ones will 4.1.3. Results
be too soft and that the last ones appeared to be
systematically overconstrained at the edges. Because of the great variety of structures
(ii) . ∈ 5<⁄6 , 5<⁄69. For other values of ., the
considered, the conclusions are qualitative at this
stage and result from the observation of the
mesh is too dense and unrealistic.
(iii) ⁄/ ∈ 50, 49. For = 2/, the beams are tangent
deformed shapes of the gridshells before and after

so that in practice, ≅ 2.5/. To cover a wider

the buckling. Before the buckling, and even before

range of configurations, values of ⁄/ between 0 -

the loading, the gridshells were not perfectly

grid, especially when . is close to the limits of its

spherical. This is due to the inhomogeneity of the
model without eccentricity - and 4 were chosen.
(iv) /⁄1 ∈ 50.001, 0.0039. This domain of variation
range of variation. The inhomogeneity of the grid
results in an inhomogeneity of its stiffness and
is deduced from the observation of existing elastic prestress, which creates an initial deformation. In
gridshells.
(v) ⁄1 ∈ 50.075, 0.1259. This domain of variation
our simulations, the local radius of curvature is

. = 148° (worst case), due to this inhomogeneity.

subjected to a relative variation up to 20% for

gridshells. ⁄1 : 0.075 is possible but these cases

is deduced from the observation of existing elastic
were not considered because the computations for
such a dense mesh are time consuming.
The range of this study is as large as possible in the
structures with 1 : 15m, the values above are
limits of the available computational power. For
Elastic gridshells are therefore very different from
homogeneous continuous shells as their initial
shape depends on the grid: the gridshells are not
only imperfect, but also variously imperfect.
After the buckling, the deformed shapes reflect
three buckling behaviours:

blister of approximate size 2 . This case is

consistent with the dimensions of existing elastic (i) A local buckling by snap-through, inducing a
gridshells.
illustrated in figure 12.
4.1.2. Design of numerical experiment
The goal of an experimental design is to make the
experimental work as efficient as possible, which
means to get the maximum information with the
minimum number of simulations. Each simulation

2⁄1 , ., ⁄/ , /⁄1 , ⁄1 in the space 51⁄8, 2/59 C

gives information about one point

5<⁄6, 5<⁄69 C 50, 49 C 50.015, 0.0259 C 50.075, 0.1259.

In order to have the most diverse information,
simulations must correspond to points as evenly
distributed in this space as possible. As suggested in
[25], the 64 first values of a Sobol sequence in five Figure 12: Local buckling by snap-through (the colours
dimensions were thus used to compute the values of show the displacements amplified by a factor 3)

162
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS
(ii) A local buckling by snap-through at the base of
the structure, induced by side-effects. As illustrated
for shallow gridshells in figure 13.
Figure 13: Side-buckling by snap-through (the colours
show the displacements amplified by a factor 3)
(iii) A buckling of individual members of the grids,
as illustrated for deeper gridshells in figure 14
where a column buckling occurred at the end of the
beams.
This first study showed that no global buckling
involving the entire structure occurs. Therefore the
ultimate buckling load of elastic gridshells will
better be looked for in the form of a local buckling
criterion. As a local criterion is applicable
everywhere, this local approach will have the
advantage of being general, whatever the shape of
the gridshell and the irregularity of the grid.
Figure 14: Column buckling close to the supports (the
colours show the displacements amplified by a factor 3)
4.2. Local criterion for the buckling of gridshells
4.2.1. Definition of the geometry
The objective of the present study is to develop a
local buckling criterion estimating the buckling load
of a gridshell, based on its local characteristics. It
will be directly applicable in the central part of the
shell where local buckling by snap-through and
membrane actions dominate. On the side of the
shell, close to the supports, membrane actions
interact strongly with local bending effects, so that,
strictly speaking, the problem becomes that of a
thin shell in bending. This matter is not the purpose
of the present study and thus should be investigated
in a further work.
As for the choice of the parameters, the relevant
characteristic of the shape is here its local
Therefore, the parameters 2 and 1 will be replaced
curvature, and no more its height and span.
by the radius of the spherical cap -. Among the five
five geometrical characteristics (namely /, -, ,
adimensional parameters, only four remain, built on
and .):
(i) /⁄ ∈ 50.015, 0.0259. This ratio represents the
local slenderness of the members considered as
straight beams. The medium value considered in
this application is chosen based on the
which /⁄ = 0.021 (r=21mm and w=1m).
characteristics of the Solidays gridshell [3] for
(ii) /⁄- ∈ 50.0005, 0.0039. This ratio qualifies the
level of elastic deformation imposed to the
elastic limit of the member /⁄- : EF ⁄3 (including
members. Its upper limit is determined by the
safety factor of 65% [7]). The lower limit has been
set on the bases of the geometry of existing
gridshells.
(iii) ⁄/ ∈ 50, 49. This ratio represents the relative
size of the eccentricity (for the Solidays gridshell,
its value is about 3).
(iv) . ∈ 5<⁄6 , 5<⁄69. This angle is the one
between the two directrices used for the generation
of the mesh with the advanced compass method.
Considering only the adimensional parameters
above, the scale of the structure is still to be
defined. It should be sufficiently large for the blister
to develop and sufficiently small for the local
characteristics to be considered uniform. As it was
2 , the size of the meridian members was set to
observed that the typical size of a blister was about
10 , which corresponds to a length of 1 =
2- sin 5 ⁄- .
4.2.2. Definition of the load
As for the distribution of the load, it has been seen
in the preceding study that a uniform load on the
163
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185

thickness K under uniform radial pressure:

whole structure could lead to an instability coupling proposed by Zoelly [23] for a sphere with a

23 K R
bending and compression in the vicinity of the
NF = S T
O3 1 − Q R -
supports. As such instability should be avoided
here, it was decided to remove the load on the edges (1)
of the cap and to concentrate it in a certain area
around the apex. A short parametric study was Indeed most publications relative to the buckling of
conducted to define the size of the area to be rigid gridshells [1,11,17,23] use homogenization
loaded. A first model was built with the average techniques to derive an equivalent thickness for a

influence of the radius J of the load area was

value of the parameters listed above and the continuous shell so that the buckling load is often

studied. For J = 0, the load is concentrated at the KVW R

looked for in the following form:

apex and for J = 5 , all the structure is loaded. It NF = ( UV 3 S T

-
(2)
shall be noticed that in this first model and in all the
For example, in [23], the following expression for
following simulations, the direction of the load is
the equivalent thickness of an isotropic grid is
taken perpendicularly to the surface, like a wind
proposed:
pressure: as the objective is to develop a local
KVW = KL KM
buckling criterion, it seemed logical to define the R /R Z/R (3)

where KL is the equivalent thickness corresponding

direction of the load locally. So, to define the

to the membrane stiffness and KM is the equivalent

appropriate size of the loaded area, the evolution of

with respect to J is plotted in figure 15. Three zones

the buckling load for a given spherical gridshell
thickness corresponding to the bending stiffness of
can be distinguished: the shell.
(i) 0 : J : 1.5 : transition zone between a In the present case, simple calculations for isotropic

. = <⁄3 and ⁄/ = 0) lead to the following

concentrated load and a distributed load. elastic gridshell without eccentricity (i.e. for
(ii) 1.5 : J : 4 : the buckling load is almost expressions for KL and KM :

KL = =`
RX \]^ _
constant.

(iii) 4 : J : 5 : the side effects are activated. √Z[ √Z[

(4)
/Z
KM = a b =
\√Z! Z \` √Z^ c/d
J = 2.5 [ e [ */d
(5)
thus seems a reasonable choice.
Furthermore, some authors [24] completed the
above formula (2) by modifying the constant pre-
factor to take into account the geometry of the cap
and/or the imperfections. This is the methodology
which will be adopted here.

Figure 15: Evolution of the buckling load with respect to J

4.2.3. Definition of the approximated model

Now that the characteristic of the structure and of

its loading have been defined (see figure 16), one
needs to choose the model which should be used to
analyze the results. There are not many analytical

members set to 10 ) and the load applied (red arrows)

formulae giving the buckling load of a spherical Figure 16: Structure to be tested (size of meridian
cap, and most of them are derived from the one

164
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

/⁄- (see figure 17). The estimation is good for

/⁄- : 0.002, but inaccurate for higher values of
4.2.4. Design of the numerical experiment

The local buckling criterion will be thus developed
in three steps:
isotropic grid (. = <⁄3 without eccentricity
(i) The constant term in (2) was estimated for an
/⁄-. It is thus concluded that the model is
inadequate for the deepest gridshells and needs
some refinement.

( ⁄/ = 0 on a set of 121 simulations with various

values of /⁄- and /⁄ : a[ , fb ∈ g 0.015 +
^ ^

0.001 , 0.0005 + 0.00025 , , ∈ i0,10jR k.

(ii) In order to identify the influence of the

respect to the value of // was investigated for 5

eccentricity, the evolution of the buckling load with

values of /⁄- , /⁄ . Then the 121 sets of

eccentricity ⁄/ = 2.5 instead of 0.

parameters of step (i) were simulated but with an

(iii) Finally, in order to investigate the influence of

Figure 17: Evolution of NrF ⁄NF (NrF = 0.83 _ with
^d
buckling load with respect to the value of . was
the anisotropy of the grid, the evolution of the
[f
studied for 11 values /⁄- , /⁄ . respect to /⁄-

All these simulations were done with and without Assuming that the membrane behaviour overcomes
the erection prestress of the gridshell, in order to the flexional behaviour for the deepest gridshells,

again but with KVW = KL when /⁄- ≥ 0.002, so that

evaluate how the prestress modifies the behaviour.
The simulations without prestress were conducted
on models obtained by import of the deformed
geometry of the associated models with erection
prestress. Hence it is ensured that the two models
the constant parameter in (2) is estimated once
finally the local buckling criterion for elastic
gridshells with an isotropic grid and without
eccentricity is modified as follows:

/Z / Z
are identical in every point (geometry, load,
vNrF]/Z = 0.953 : 0.002 K R
= K K
R R
-R - VW L M
boundary conditions) except prestress. As in the if
u ]/Z /e /
previous section, all simulations were carried out

t NrF = 383 R R if ≥ 0.002 KVW = KL

(7)
- -
with a geometrically nonlinear analysis, and the
presented buckling loads are ultimate loads.

eccentricity (l = m⁄n , o⁄p = q)

4.3. Buckling of isotropic grids without

equivalent thickness KVW in the formula (2) for

The objective of this section is to identify the

isotropic gridshells without eccentricity and to

estimate the constant term in (2). As a first step, the

model of [23], i.e. KVW = KL KM . From the first

/R Z/R
equivalent thickness is chosen according to the
R

set of 121 simulations, the following estimation of

the local buckling load is obtained:

NrF = 0.83 [f_

^d
(6)

Figure 18: Evolution of NrF ⁄NF (NrF = 383 _ _ with

^c
ratio NrF ⁄NF of the estimation of the buckling load to
To check the consistency of this estimation, the
[ f

the computed buckling load is drawn with respect to respect to /⁄-

165
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185
Figure 19: Evolution of NrF ⁄NF (NrF = 0.953 _ with
^d
[f
respect to /⁄-
Nr </3 ⁄NF is shown in figure 18 and figure 19. It is
To check the consistency of formula (7), the ratio
x that for very shallow gridshells, the bending
observed that formula (7) is consistent with the
simulations, with a maximal relative error of 20%.
This gap is fairly acceptable considering the
different orders of magnitude of the buckling loads
taken into account by the formula, as attested by
in the space /⁄- , /⁄ , NF along with the
figure 20, which shows the estimated buckling load
simulation points. Thanks to a semi-analytical
approach, a good estimation of the local buckling
load has thus been obtained for isotropic elastic
gridshells without eccentricity. The next sections
will investigate how this buckling load is affected
by eccentricity, anisotropy and prestress.
Figure 20: Local buckling load: the surface described by
formula (7) is plotted in grey, whereas the black dots
represent the results of the numerical simulations
166
4.4. Influence of the eccentricity
To investigate the influence of the eccentricity on
the buckling load of elastic gridshells, the previous
⁄/ = 2.5 instead of ⁄/ = 0 (note that ⁄/ = 2.5
121 simulations were conducted again but with
is a representative value of the eccentricity for the
by NFVyR.`^ the local buckling load of a given
existing prestressed gridshells [3,8]). So, denoting
gridshell with an eccentricity ⁄/ = 2.5 and by
NFVy the local buckling load of the same gridshell
without eccentricity, the ratio NFVyR.`^ ⁄NFVy is a
measure of the influence of the eccentricity. For
ratio NFVyR.`^ ⁄NFVy with respect to /⁄-. It is
example, figure 21 represents the evolution of this
remarked that for the shallowest gridshells, the
eccentricity increases the resistance of the structure
to local buckling. This can be explained by the fact
stiffness plays a very important role in the stability
and that this thickness increases significantly with
the eccentricity. On the contrary, for deeper
gridshells, the eccentricity causes a reduction of the
local buckling load by up to 30% (20% on average).
The degradation of the gridshell performance
induced by eccentricities is thus important and
cannot be neglected during the design, even if it is a
tempting simplification of the problem.
Furthermore, even if in some cases (the shallowest
gridshells), the eccentricity has some positive effect
it must be recalled that the load is here symmetrical
and that under non-symmetrical load, the gain
might be lower, so that any gain must be taken with
precaution.
Figure 21: Evolution of the ratio NFVyR.`^ ⁄NFVy with
respect to /⁄-
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

To go more into details, the influence of the size of case, fixed cost means fixed quantity of material per

/⁄- , /⁄ . Figure 22 shows hence the evolution

the eccentricity is also investigated for 5 values of unit area. To reasonably compare the performances

of the buckling load with respect to the value of //

of anisotropic gridshells, it is thus necessary to

for /⁄ = 0.02, /⁄- = 0.001 and . = </3. respect to .. Considering that the triangulated grid
evaluate the total length of beam per unit area with

is made of isosceles triangles with a top angle ., the

total length of the beams per unit area is therefore
proportional to the ratio of the perimeter of one of

eC {|} ~⁄R
these triangles to its area. This ratio equals

[ {|} ~
, so that the quantity of material can
be estimated by • . = {|} ~ . So, if one
{|} ~⁄R

defines by € ., /⁄- , /⁄ the influence of the

anisotropy on the buckling load for a fixed quantity
of material, the buckling load of anisotropic
gridshells can be estimated by:
NF = C € ., /⁄- , /⁄ C NrF]
{|} ~⁄R ⁄Z
{|} ~
(9)

The evolution of € for various values of ., //- and

// are represented in figure 23, of which abacus
// ( /⁄ = 0.02, /⁄- = 0.001, . = </3)
Figure 22: Evolution of the buckling load with respect to
completes the local buckling criterion for elastic

that for every set of //- and // , the influence of

It can be seen that the local buckling load decreases gridshells defined by (7) and (9). It is remarkable

of ⁄/ (2.3 in this case); then the stiffness loss due . is similar and that . = <⁄3 maximizes € for all
when the eccentricity increases until a critical value

to the eccentricity reduces. In [5], the study of the configurations. The isotropic grid is thus always an
imperfection sensitivity of steel gridshells had optimal choice for a fixed quantity of material per
revealed a very similar behaviour: the evolution of unit area. Therefore designers should try to use
the buckling load of rigid gridshells with respect to grids as isotropic as possible.
the size of the imperfection followed a very similar
curve as that of figure 22. For elastic gridshell, it
can thus be considered that the eccentricity plays
the role of an imperfection affecting the buckling
load.

4.5. Influence of the grid anisotropy

In previous sections, . was kept constant and equal

to <⁄3, which means that the grid was quasi

of the grid influences the buckling load, the angle .

isotropic. In order to understand how the anisotropy

between the directrices is varied. For anisotropic

grids, the homogenized stiffnesses given in section
4.2.3 are no more valid. So, rather than modifying
the values of the equivalent membrane and bending

z ., /⁄- , /⁄
thickness, it was chosen to introduce a pre-factor
representing the influence of the
anisotropy in (7), so that the buckling load is given
by:

NF = z ., /⁄- , /⁄ C NrF]
⁄Z
(8)
Figure 23: Abacus giving the evolution of € for various
values of ., //- and //
From a constructive point of view, it is relevant to
look for the best performances at fixed cost. In this

167
 Vol. 56 (2015) No. 3 September n. 185
4.6. Influence of prestress
Every simulation in this study was conducted with
and without prestress in order to investigate the
influence of prestress on the buckling load. Of
course, in elastic gridshells, there will always be a
prestress, but not every design office is able to
simulate properly the forming process and to chain
it with a structural analysis. It thus seemed
interesting to determine whether or not it is
acceptable to neglect prestress for the structural
analysis and then to superimpose the forming
prestress.
The values of the ratio of the buckling load NF of an
•
elastic gridshell and the buckling load NF of the
•̅
same gridshell without prestress has thus been
represented in figure 24 for two sets of simulations:
(i) the 64 simulations of the preliminary study;
(ii) the 121 simulations of the local buckling study
of a gridshell with an isotropic grid and without
eccentricity.
(a) NF ⁄NF for the 64 (b) NF ⁄NF for the 121
• •̅ • •̅
simulations of the simulations of the local
preliminary study buckling study
Figure 24: Influence of prestress
As no correlation between the value of NF ⁄NF and
• •̅
the value of any of the parameters could be
established, a statistical representation of results
(box plots) is used in figure 24. One first observes
that the results of the two sets of simulations are
very different. For the preliminary study (figure
24a), the influence of prestress is significant, with a
potential positive or negative variation of the
buckling load of 20%. A careful study of the
simulations and of the distribution of prestress
before introducing the external load revealed that,
as one would expect, the buckling load is increased
168
in the cases where tensile prestress dominates in the
most loaded members and decreased in the cases
where compressive prestress dominates (Figure 25).
Figure 25: Examples of prestress distribution: in blue,
compressive prestress, in red, tensile prestress
Moreover it is noticed that the highest differences
appear for structures which fail by individual
member buckling. Yet, this failure mode has been
excluded from the second study which presents a
much more homogeneous set of structures. In fact,
influence on the buckling load: the ratio NF ⁄NF is
• •̅
in this second study, the prestress seems to have no
close to 1 and the deviation is lower than 0.5%
(figure 24b). In this case, the loading distribution
and the geometry of the gridshell have been chosen
so that the buckling mode is governed by the shell
stiffness rather than by any individual member
stiffness. As the first one is much higher than the
last, the prestress in the member has negligible
effect on the whole buckling of the gridshell.
Furthermore, remarking that gridshells are statically
indeterminate structures, one can figure that the
smallest change in a member length will modify the
compressive or tensile prestress locked in the
structure. It is thus very difficult to anticipate what
will the exact distribution of prestress be and
therefore to determine how this prestress will affect
the buckling of the gridshell. However, this effect
will certainly be negligible for local shell buckling,
but it is mandatory to take prestress into account to
predict efficiently individual member buckling or
any coupling between member buckling and global
buckling.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
5.1. Conclusions
In the present study, the buckling of elastic
gridshells has been investigated. To this end, an
advanced compass method for the definition of the
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SHELL AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES: J. IASS

initially flat grid and a specific numerical algorithm curvature radius of the surface, on the foreseen
for the simulation of the forming process have been characteristics of the members and on the external
proposed. These two developments were necessary load:
3/
: ELƒ„
to predict with sufficient accuracy the prestress
-
locked by the forming process in this kind of (10)

/Z / Z
hyperstatic structures.
vNrF]/Z : 0.953 : 0.002 K R
= K K
R R
-R - VW L M
if
u ]/Z / /
A preliminary study has shown two buckling
e

t NrF : 383 R R if ≥ 0.002 KVW = KL

mechanisms: a localized shell buckling by snap-
through and an individual member buckling at the
side of the structure (the two being sometimes
coupled). It was decided to focus on the buckling by
snap-through.
A first semi-analytical formula for the local
buckling load of elastic gridshells with an isotropic
grid and without eccentricity was thus established
(7). Within a certain range of characteristics
covering the domain of existing elastic gridshells, it
enables estimating the buckling load with a relative
error inferior to 20%. For anisotropic gridshells or
sub-domain of gridshells, a modification of this
formula was also proposed. It showed that, for a
fixed quantity of building material, an isotropic grid
is an optimum with regard to local buckling.
As for the eccentricity, it was found that it can be
seen as an imperfection reducing the buckling load
by about 20% in the worst cases. Neglecting the
eccentricity therefore exposes the designer to a
significant error. It was also shown that the
prestress can be considered as an uncertainty and
that it should be taken into account, especially for
the prediction of individual member buckling.
Moreover, it is remarked that small misplacements
of a connection between members can locally
induce considerable prestress. Unfortunately, for
the moment, there is no measure of prestress in real
structures, so that it is difficult to estimate the
amount of axial prestress that can be locked in the
structure without causing either sliding of a
connection or local damage of a member. There is
thus a need for experimental data on this aspect.
The expression proposed here provides a very
interesting tool for the preliminary design of elastic
gridshells and for checking the quality of a surface
to be meshed. Indeed a good shape should not be
too curved otherwise the prestress in the grid
members will be too high and it should not be too
flat otherwise it will buckle. These two conditions
can be expressed in terms of criteria on the
(11)
- -
5.2. Further work
The formula proposed here was established for
gridshells built on spherical caps, which means on a
surface which has identical curvature in any
direction. It would thus be interesting to extend it to
surfaces with two different curvatures.
For anisotropic grids, a semi analytical approach by
homogenization should be possible and may lead to
a complete semi-analytical formulation of the
problem which would be more convenient for
engineers.
Finally, it is noticed that this study focused on local
shell buckling and did not address the subject of its
interaction with member buckling whose influence
on the whole stability was shown significant in the
preliminary study, especially in the vicinity of the
supports. This aspect of elastic gridshell buckling
should therefore be further investigated.
PHOTO CREDITS
Figure 1: Image Copyright Hugh Chevallier. This
work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Licence.
Figure 2: Images from a video Copyright Lionel du
Peloux. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs
3.0 Licence.
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