energies

Review
LNG Regasification Terminals: The Role of
Geography and Meteorology on Technology Choices
Randeep Agarwal 1 , Thomas J. Rainey 1,2 ID , S. M. Ashrafur Rahman 1,2, * ID
, Ted Steinberg 1 ,
Robert K. Perrons 1 ID and Richard J. Brown 1,2
1 Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia;
randeep.agarwal@hdr.qut.edu.au (R.A.); t.rainey@qut.edu.au (T.J.R.); t.steinberg@qut.edu.au (T.S.);
robert.perrons@qut.edu.au (R.K.P.); richard.brown@qut.edu.au (R.J.B.)
2 Biofuel Engine Research Facility, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane,
QLD 4000, Australia
* Correspondence: s2.rahman@qut.edu.au; Tel.: +61-410193428

Received: 31 October 2017; Accepted: 13 December 2017; Published: 16 December 2017

Abstract: Liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects are regulated by host countries, but policy and
regulation should depend on geography and meteorology. Without considering the role of geography
and meteorology, sub-optimal design choices can result, leading to energy conversion efficiency
and capital investment decisions that are less than ideal. A key step in LNG is regasification,
which transforms LNG back from liquid to the gaseous state and requires substantial heat input.
This study investigated different LNG regasification technologies used around the world and
benchmarked location and meteorology-related factors, such as seawater temperatures, ambient air
temperatures, wind speeds and relative humidity. Seawater vaporizers are used for more than 95%
of locations subject to water quality. Ambient air conditions are relatively better for South America,
India, Spain and other Asian countries (Singapore, Taiwan, Indonesia, and Thailand) and provide
a much cleaner regasification technology option for natural and forced draft systems and air-based
intermediate fluid vaporizers. On a global basis, cold energy utilization currently represents <1% of
the total potential, but this approach could deliver nearly 12 Gigawatt (GW) per annum. Overall,
climate change is expected to have a positive financial impact on the LNG regasification industry,
but the improvement could be unevenly distributed.

Keywords: liquefied natural gas (LNG) cold energy; LNG; vaporizer; regasification; meteorology;
geography; climate change

1. Introduction
The demand of world primary energy is expected to grow by 1.6% per annum during the period
2010–2030. In order to meet this requirement, energy production will need to be increased by 39% [1].
Natural gas (NG) is a natural resource that in recent years has seen a large increase in demand globally.
While the share of oil in energy is forecast to dramatically decrease by 2030, NG is predicted to reach
25.9% of the world’s energy usage. LNG demand may reach up to 500 Mtpa by 2030 [1].
The major use for LNG today is power generation resulting from the growing power demand
in the Southeast Asian region. Given the large scale of LNG projects, it is tempting for governments
to adopt regulations from other countries. LNG is regasified using a vaporization system where
transformation of LNG from liquid to the gaseous state requires substantial heat input. This step is
very important in the overall energy conversion efficiency, and it is greatly affected by geography and
meteorology, which in turn affects technology choices.
Heat exchange technologies in use include open rack vaporizers (ORVs), submerged combustion
vaporizers (SCVs), shell and tube vaporizers (STVs), intermediate fluid vaporizers (IFVs) and ambient

Energies 2017, 10, 2152; doi:10.3390/en10122152 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

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Heat exchange technologies in use include open rack vaporizers (ORVs), submerged combustion
vaporizers (SCVs), shell and tube vaporizers (STVs), intermediate fluid vaporizers (IFVs) and
or forced or
ambient air forced
vaporizers
air (AAVs or FAVs).
vaporizers (AAVs The orcurrent
FAVs).technologies
The currenthave numeroushave
technologies constraints
numerousand
impact on the
constraints andenvironment.
impact on the Frequently,
environment.the expensive
Frequently, “cold”theenergy
expensive at −161 ◦ C of
“cold” the LNG
energy °C of
is wasted
at −161
when
the LNG theisLNG
wastedis vaporized
when the LNG usingisany of the using
vaporized formerany technologies.
of the formerThe cold energy
technologies. Theis cold
retained in
energy
LNG during
is retained inthe
LNG liquefaction
during theand is a part of
liquefaction andtheistotal
a partenergy
of the consumed
total energy during
consumedthe LNG liquefaction
during the LNG
process.
liquefaction This cold energy
process. This cold canenergy
be recovered during the
can be recovered regasification
during process by
the regasification various
process means,
by various
but mostbut
means, terminals still use these
most terminals relatively
still use simple direct
these relatively simplevaporization techniques,
direct vaporization such as ORV
techniques, suchand
as
ORV or
SCV and SCV or IFV/AAV/FAV.
IFV/AAV/FAV. The supply Theandsupply and demand
demand of gas are of gas are dependent
dependent on the on thedelivery
final final delivery
price.
price. Therefore,
Therefore, technologytechnology
innovationsinnovations
are required are to required
optimize to theoptimize
gas value thechain.
gas value chain. The
The optimization
optimization
and/or and/or improvements
improvements in the vaporization
in the vaporization element of the element
gas value of the gas value
chain chain are
are expected to expected
result in
to result in
enhanced enhanced
capital capital and productivity
and operational operational productivity
and may have and may have
a direct impact a direct
on theimpact on the
consumption
consumption
patterns of gaspatterns of gas and
and therefore helptherefore
to minimize help totheminimize the carbonThis
carbon footprint. footprint. This is particularly
is particularly important
important
during the during the transitional
transitional phase whilephase whilemoves
the world the world frommoves
fossil from
fuels fossil fuels to renewables
to renewables
There isisa lack
There a lack of published
of published data ondata on geographical
geographical and meteorological
and meteorological factors in LNG factors in LNG
regasification.
regasification.
Therefore, the Therefore,
aim of thisthe aim is
study of to
this studydata
collate is to collate
from a datadiverse fromrangea diverse range ofsome
of sources, sources, some
of which
of not
is which is notavailable,
readily readily available, and present
and present this information
this information in a form in a form that provide
that will will provide a foundation
a foundation for
for quantitative
quantitative designdesign modelling
modelling for chosen
for chosen location(s)
location(s) into the into the future.
future. While thereWhileis there is a reasonable
a reasonable amount
amount
of of literature
literature from industry
from industry and conference
and conference sources on sources on LNG regasification
LNG regasification terminals terminals
globally, itsglobally,
quality
itsvariable
is quality andis variable
must beand must be with
interpreted interpreted
skill andwith
care.skill
Theand care. The
literature literature
review review
consisted consisted
of only of
eight key
only eight key papers;
peer-reviewed peer-reviewed
3 paperspapers;
are on LNG3 papers
coldare on LNG
energy cold energy
utilization [2–4], 1utilization [2–4], 1 design
paper on thermal paper onof
thermal
IFV [5], 1design
paper on of Super
IFV [5], ORV1 paper on Super
heat transfer ORV heat
simulation [6],transfer
1 papersimulation
on AAV practical[6], 1 paper on AAV
application [7],
1practical
paper onapplication
fog clouds due [7], 1topaper
ambient onairfogvaporizer
clouds due to ambient
[8] and 1 paper on airmaterials
vaporizerand [8]corrosion
and 1 paper on
aspects
materials
in and corrosion
LNG regasification aspects [9].
terminals in LNG regasification terminals [9].
The paper will initially
initially explain
explain aa global
global LNGLNGtrade tradeand andtechnology
technologyposition,
position,followed
followedbybya
adescription
descriptionofofLNG LNGregasification
regasificationtechnologies,
technologies,an ananalysis
analysisof of key
key location
location factors
factors by region, a brief
on the potential impact impact of of climate
climate change
change and and some
some suggestions
suggestions on on future
future research
researchopportunities.
opportunities.

2.
2. LNG
LNG Regasification:
Regasification: Global
Global Trade
Tradeand
andTechnology
TechnologyPosition
Position
An
An LNG
LNG demand
demand outlook
outlook isis shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 11 for
for each
each country
country [10]. Currently, aa few
[10]. Currently, few countries
countries
(e.g., Japan, Korea) dominate this list, but many new LNG receiving terminals are under
(e.g., Japan, Korea) dominate this list, but many new LNG receiving terminals are under construction construction
or
or in
inplanning
planningstages, worldwide.
stages, worldwide. Therefore, the the
Therefore, demand
demandprospects for countries
prospects other than
for countries otherthe largest
than the
consumers, such as Japan,
largest consumers, such asare increasing.
Japan, The recent
are increasing. reduction
The in demand
recent reduction inindemand
Japan isinmost likely
Japan due
is most
to the re-start
likely of nuclear
due to the re-start power generation
of nuclear during 2015
power generation and beyond.
during 2015 and A beyond.
summary A of LNG exporting
summary of LNG
countries
exportingiscountries
shown inisFigure
shown2in [10].
Figure 2 [10].

Figure 1. Global liquefied natural gas (LNG) importing countries and quantity 2015.
Figure 1. Global liquefied natural gas (LNG) importing countries and quantity 2015.
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 3 of 19
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 3 of 21

Figure 2. Global LNG exporting countries and quantity 2015.

Figure 2. Global LNG exporting countries and quantity 2015.

The LNG value chain can be divided into three main parts; (i) production/liquefaction, (ii) LNG
The LNG value
transportation chain
and (iii) can be divided
regasification andinto three main
distribution. parts; the
During (i) production/liquefaction,
liquefaction phase, NG is(ii)chilled
LNG
transportation
to a liquid stateand (iii) its
where regasification and distribution.
volume is reduced to 1/600th During the liquefaction
of its original volume. The phase,
LNG NG is chilled to
is transported
atoliquid
its destination by means of insulated cryogenic ships. During the consumption phase, LNG to
state where its volume is reduced to 1/600th of its original volume. The LNG is transported is
its destination
changed into its bygaseous
means ofform insulated cryogenicand
(“regasified”) ships. Duringthrough
delivered the consumption phase,
gas pipelines to LNG is changed
customers.
into its gaseous form (“regasified”)
Approximately 500 kWh/t LNG and delivered
during LNG through gas pipelines
production to customers.
is needed for compression and
refrigeration, and a considerable portion of this energy is preserved in the LNGfor
Approximately 500 kWh/t LNG during LNG production is needed compression
as cold and
energy, which
refrigeration, and a considerable portion of this energy is preserved in the LNG
has a final temperature of approximately −161 °C at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, a considerable as cold energy, which has
◦
apotential
final temperature
for energy of recovery
approximately exists−during
161 C the
at atmospheric
regasificationpressure.
process Therefore,
[4]. a considerable potential
for energy recovery exists during the regasification process [4].
From Figures 1 and 2, it has been observed that some LNG exporting countries also import LNG
From Malaysia
i.e., UAE, Figures 1 andand USA.
2, it has
Thisbeen observed that
phenomenon cansome LNGbe
possibly exporting
attributed countries also import
to accelerated growthLNGin
i.e., UAE, Malaysia and USA. This phenomenon can possibly be attributed
local gas demand, local gas production and/or pipeline gas availability or simply the economics of to accelerated growth in
local
LNG gas demand,
versus pipelinelocal
gas.gas production and/or pipeline gas availability or simply the economics of
LNGA versus pipeline
summary gas.global technology position and cold energy utilization for key regions is
of the
A summary of
provided below (adapted the global
from technology position
[10‒12]). Japan and cold
and Korea energy import
combined utilization for key regions
approximately 50% of is
provided below (adapted from [10–12]).
the world’s current LNG production (Table 1). Japan and Korea combined import approximately 50% of the
world’s current LNG production (Table 1).
Japan is the biggest LNG importer in the world. Korea is the second biggest LNG importer and
imported ~33 Mt during 2015. China is the third biggest LNG importer. Total LNG imports were
~20 Mt during 2015. India is the fourth biggest LNG importer. India imported ~15 Mt during 2015.
Europe (defined in this study as Belgium, France, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Turkey and the United Kingdom) is a significant LNG importer. Total LNG imports were ~37.5 Mt
during 2015. South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico) is also
a significant LNG importer. Total LNG imports were ~14.6 Mt during 2015. Other Asian countries
(Thailand, Taiwan and Singapore) are emerging LNG importers. The total LNG imports equalled
~17 Mt during 2015.
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 4 of 19

Table 1. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) regasification technologies: a global summary position [10–12].

Total Number of Approx. Total % of Shell % of Cold Power

Country or % of ORV % of IFV % of SCV Cold Energy Recovery (Other
LNG Receiving LNG Receiving and Tube Ambient Air Generation
Region Technology 1 Technology 2 Technology 5 than Power Generation) 6
Terminals Capacity (Mtpa) Technology 3 Technology 4 Capacity 6 (MW)
Japan 49 ~195 ~98 0 0 ~2 Secondary 7 ~40.4 Liquid N2 , Cold storage
Korea 4 ~45.7 100 0 0 Secondary 7 Secondary 7 - Cold storage
China 9 ~41 100 0 0 0 Secondary 7 - Liquid N2
India 4 ~23.5 ~20 ~65 ~15 0 Secondary 7 - -
Europe 25 ~150 ~60 0 0 0 ~40 - Inlet air chilling for power gen 8
South America 14 ~55 100 0 0 0 Secondary 7 - -
Other Asia 5 ~25 100 0 0 0 Secondary 7 ~2.4 -
1 Open rack vaporization explained in Section 3.2; 2 IFV technology described in Section 3.4; 3 shell and tube technology described in Section 3.2; 4 ambient air technology described in
Section 3.1; 5 SCV technology mostly employed for peak shaving with some exceptions in Europe; 6 LNG cold energy described in Section 3.5; 7 secondary means of regasification; 8 Inlet
air chilling for power generation turbines, only in Spain.
 Japan is the biggest LNG importer in the world. Korea is the second biggest LNG importer and
imported ~33 Mt during 2015. China is the third biggest LNG importer. Total LNG imports were ~20
Mt during 2015. India is the fourth biggest LNG importer. India imported ~15 Mt during 2015. Europe
(defined in this study as Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and
the United Kingdom) is a significant LNG importer. Total LNG imports were ~37.5 Mt during 2015.
South
Energies 2017, 10,America
2152 (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico) is also a significant 5 of 19
LNG importer. Total LNG imports were ~14.6 Mt during 2015. Other Asian countries (Thailand,
Taiwan and Singapore) are emerging LNG importers. The total LNG imports equalled ~17 Mt during
2015.
3. A Description of LNG Regasification Technologies
3. A Description of LNG Regasification Technologies
3.1. Ambient Air Vaporizers
The3.1. Ambient
heat Air Vaporizers
energy source to regasify LNG in ambient air vaporization (AAV) technology comes
from the ambient air.energy
The heat LNG source
is distributed through
to regasify LNG inaambient
series ofairsurface heat exchangers.
vaporization The comes
(AAV) technology air cools as it
from theand
travels down ambient
exitsair.
theLNG is distributed
bottom through a series
of the vaporizer. Theofairsurface
flowheat exchangers.on
is controlled Thethe
air cools as of the
outside
it travels down and exits the bottom of the vaporizer. The air flow is controlled on the outside of the
exchanger either through natural buoyancy (convection) of the cooled, dense air or by the installation
exchanger either through natural buoyancy (convection) of the cooled, dense air or by the installation
of forced-draft ambient air fans (See Figure 3).
of forced-draft ambient air fans (See Figure 3).

Figure 3. Ambient air vaporizer.

Figure 3. Ambient air vaporizer.
AAV technology is most suitable for areas with warmer ambient temperatures. Where cooler
AAV technology
climates occur, a is most suitable
supplemental heat for areas
system wouldwithbewarmer ambient
needed during temperatures.
colder Where
weather conditions to cooler
maintain effective use. Water vapour in the air condenses and freezes,
climates occur, a supplemental heat system would be needed during colder weather conditions toforming frost relatively easily
in these systems because the LNG is vaporized directly with air (direct heat system). The frost is a
maintain effective use. Water vapour in the air condenses and freezes, forming frost relatively easily in
poor conductor, and its build-up reduces performance and the heat transfer coefficient. A significant
these systems because the LNG is vaporized directly with air (direct heat system). The frost is a poor
amount of space is required for the ambient air vaporization system to prevent ambient air
conductor, and its build-up
recirculation, as well asreduces performance
to maintain vaporization and the heat transfer coefficient. A significant amount
capacity.
of space is required for the ambient air vaporization system
Fog can be generated under certain geographical location to prevent ambientareas
factors including air recirculation,
with high dew as well
points. Cooling the ambient
as to maintain vaporization capacity. air can then generate a large fog bank. Though a fog bank is essentially
benign, the siting issues need to be taken into consideration [13].
Fog can be generated under certain geographical location factors including areas with high dew
An AAV operates by extracting the heat directly from the surrounding air to heat the LNG by
points. Cooling the ambient air can then generate a large fog bank. Though a fog bank is essentially
natural convection. This type of technology is cost competitive as it operates on a standalone basis
benign, without
the siting issues need to be taken into consideration [13].
the need for seawater, burning of fuels or intermediate fluids. However, as the heat capacity
AnofAAV operates by less
air is significantly extracting the heat
than seawater and directly fromheat
no additional theissurrounding
added, the numberair toofheat the LNG by
vaporizer
natural units
convection.
required This
to heattype
LNG ofistechnology
larger when is cost competitive
compared to ORVs and asSCVs
it operates
requiringona amuch
standalone
larger basis
withoutplotthespace
need[14].
for seawater, burning of fuels or intermediate fluids. However, as the heat capacity
of air is significantly less than seawater and no additional heat is added, the number of vaporizer
units required to heat LNG is larger when compared to ORVs and SCVs requiring a much larger plot
space [14].

3.2. Seawater Vaporizers

Seawater is used by open rack vaporizers (ORV) as the heat energy source in a direct heat system
to vaporize the LNG (Figure 4). Sodium hypochlorite is injected on the intake side of the system to
control algae growth. The treated seawater is pumped to the top of the water header box. From there,
it travels down the outer surface of the tube heat exchanger panels; simultaneously, LNG flows upward
through these tubes, and heat exchange occurs. The colder water discharges through the water outfall,
and the vaporized natural gas exits at the top header. This technology relies on seawater as the primary
heat source; therefore, it is effective only if seawater temperatures are above 5 ◦ C.
Most vaporizers provide a unique engineering challenge because across them will be a temperature
differential of −161 ◦ C–5 ◦ C; therefore, the material used must endure the high-temperature change.
 Energies 2017, 10, 2152 6 of 21
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3.2. Seawater Vaporizers
Seawater is used by open rack vaporizers (ORV) as the heat energy source in a direct heat system
Added to this, in the case of ORV, it must also deal with the corrosive nature of seawater [6]. The racks
to vaporize the LNG (Figure 4). Sodium hypochlorite is injected on the intake side of the system to
are constructed
controlof finned
algae aluminium
growth. The treatedtubing
seawaterproviding
is pumped strength against
to the top of theheader
the water cold box.
operating temperatures
From there,
and are coated with corrosion protection where they are in contact with salt water [14]. The seawater
it travels down the outer surface of the tube heat exchanger panels; simultaneously, LNG flows
upward
may also have through
other these tubes,
impurities suchandasheat exchange solids
suspended occurs. and
The colder
fouling water discharges
agents, which through
may bethe important
water outfall, and the vaporized natural gas exits at the top header. This technology relies on seawater
criteria in as
the technology selection for a given location.
the primary heat source; therefore, it is effective only if seawater temperatures are above 5 °C.

Figure 4. Open rack vaporizer.

Figure 4. Open rack vaporizer.
Most vaporizers provide a unique engineering challenge because across them will be a
temperature
Corrosion protection differential
of theof outer
−161 tubes
°C‒5 °C; therefore,
relies on a filmthe ofmaterial
aluminiumused mustoxide endure
(Al2 Othe
3 ), which is
high-temperature change. Added to this, in the case of ORV, it must also deal with the corrosive
created when the dissolved oxygen in the seawater reacts with the aluminium.
nature of seawater [6]. The racks are constructed of finned aluminium tubing providing strength
The tubes are also
covered with a layer of iron and manganese compounds, with deposits of calcium,
against the cold operating temperatures and are coated with corrosion protection where they are in magnesium and
sodium from thewith
contact seawater [9].
salt water There
[14]. could be
The seawater may various
also have options for corrosion
other impurities such as protection. For example,
suspended solids
and
a zinc alloy fouling can
coating agents,
bewhich
sprayedmay be important
onto criteriatubes
the finned in the as
technology selection
a sacrificial for a given location.
protection.
Corrosion protection of the outer tubes relies on a film of aluminium oxide (Al2O3), which is
The heat energy source for shell and tube vaporizers (STV) is also seawater. An open-loop STV
created when the dissolved oxygen in the seawater reacts with the aluminium. The tubes are also
system is mounted
covered withvertically to optimize
a layer of iron vaporization
and manganese compounds,efficiency.
with depositsLNG entersmagnesium
of calcium, the bottom andof the STV
and passessodium
throughfrommultiple
the seawatertubes while
[9]. There seawater
could be various enters
optionsa for
shell surrounding
corrosion protection.the
For tubes.
example,Due to the
a zinc alloythere
usage of seawater, coating cansimilar
are be sprayed onto the finned issues
environmental tubes astoa sacrificial
the ORVprotection.
system [13].
The heat energy source for shell and tube vaporizers (STV) is also seawater. An open-loop STV
ORV system
systems use seawater as the heating source for the LNG and can potentially harm marine
is mounted vertically to optimize vaporization efficiency. LNG enters the bottom of the STV
life by trapping
and passes through multiple tubes while seawater enters a shell surroundingissues
them in the water inlets. There are several environmental associated
the tubes. Due to thewith colder
seawater outfall. The ORV
usage of seawater, technology
there requires large
are similar environmental issues volumes
to the ORV ofsystem
seawater,
[13]. which could adversely
ORV[15].
affect marine life systems use seawater
However, the as the heating source
consequence for the LNG
assessment and can seawater
of colder potentially may
harm marine
be very location
life by trapping them in the water inlets. There are several environmental issues associated with
specific and may depend on the marine life in each location and the hydrological simulation modelling
colder seawater outfall. The ORV technology requires large volumes of seawater, which could
to assess the minimum
adversely allowable
affect marine seawater
life [15]. However,temperatures.
the consequence assessment of colder seawater may be
very location specific and may depend on the marine life in each location and the hydrological
3.3. Combustion Heatmodelling
simulation Vaporizer to assess the minimum allowable seawater temperatures.

Seawater is not used

3.3. Combustion Heatin submerged combustion vaporizers (SCV) for LNG vaporization. Rather,
Vaporizer
heating of theSeawater
LNG occurs by it submerged
is not used in flowing through
combustiontube bundles
vaporizers that
(SCV) are submerged
for LNG in a water bath
vaporization. Rather,
and heatedheating
by natural gas occurs
of the LNG combustion. Thethrough
by it flowing hot exhaust gases that
tube bundles emitted by the submerged
are submerged combustion
in a water bath
and heated by natural gas combustion. The hot exhaust gases emitted by the submerged combustion
burner bubble through the water to directly heat the water bath then pass to an exhaust stack (Figure 5).
burner bubble through the water to directly heat the water bath then pass to an exhaust stack (Figure
Due to the high heat capacity of the water, it is possible to manage rapid load fluctuations and
5).
sudden start-ups and shutdowns to maintain a stable operation. Therefore, the SCVs can provide
great flexibility and a quick response to varying demand requirements. The huge reserve heat bank of
SCVs ensures that surges can be mitigated with heat from the water bath alone even if the combustion
processes should suffer a temporary failure. SCVs under normal operation represent a significant
operating cost in fuel by consuming from 1.5–2.0 percent of the ship’s LNG cargo to supply the
burner. In addition, the bathwater becomes acidic due to the acidic combustion products, which are
absorbed during the heating process. It is therefore necessary to provide chemical water treatment to
the water bath. The associated excess combustion water must be neutralized prior to discharge. Finally,
the submerged combustion vaporizer produces a large quantity of emissions to the atmosphere in the
form of flue gas. This may be reduced using emission treatment systems, but will add significantly to
the operating costs of SCVs [13].
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 7 of 19
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 7 of 21

Figure 5. Submerged combustion vaporizer.

Figure 5. Submerged combustion vaporizer.
Due to the high heat capacity of the water, it is possible to manage rapid load fluctuations and
3.4. Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers
sudden start-ups and shutdowns to maintain a stable operation. Therefore, the SCVs can provide
great flexibility and a quick response to varying demand requirements. The huge reserve heat bank
Anofintermediate
SCVs ensures heat transfer
that surges canfluid is used with
be mitigated in intermediate
heat from thefluid
watervaporizers (IFV)if to
bath alone even therevaporise
LNG. This technology
combustion can should
processes be configured to operate
suffer a temporary in either
failure. SCVsclosed-loop,
under normal open-loop or in combination
operation represent a
systems. The most
significant common
operating intermediate
cost in fluidfrom
fuel by consuming vaporizers use propane,
1.5–2.0 percent refrigerant
of the ship’s LNG cargo to orsupply
a water/glycol
mixture.thePropane
burner. Inandaddition,
otherthe bathwater becomes
refrigerants are costlyacidic
anddue to thehigh
have acidic combustion handing
operational products, which
risks, but have
are absorbed during the heating process. It is therefore necessary to provide chemical water treatment
low flash points that are ideal for heat transfer. The water/glycol mixtures are cost-effective, and the
to the water bath. The associated excess combustion water must be neutralized prior to discharge.
associated operational
Finally, the submergedrisks are relatively
combustion low. They
vaporizer have aa high
produces large flash point,
quantity but require
of emissions a larger heat
to the
transferatmosphere
area, which results
in the influe
form of a larger system
gas. This may bethan the propane
reduced or refrigerant
using emission systems
treatment systems, [13].
but will
Theaddopen-loop
significantlyIFVto technology
the operating requires seawater
costs of SCVs [13]. intake (Figure 6). Environmental issues therefore
arise and include entrainment of marine in the intake resulting in injury or mortality, as well as low
3.4. Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers
temperature discharge of seawater into the surrounding seawater. Intermediate fluid vaporizers
that use propaneAn intermediate heat transfer
or refrigerant as thefluid is used in intermediate
intermediate fluid addfluid vaporizers hazardous
a potentially (IFV) to revaporise
material to the
LNG. This technology can be configured to operate in either closed-loop, open-loop or in combination
facility systems.
operations. An IFV system that makes use of water/glycol mixtures is
The most common intermediate fluid vaporizers use propane, refrigerant or a water/glycol
a safer way to operate.
The intermediate
mixture. Propaneair isand
heated
other by a combustion
refrigerants system
are costly and haveand associated
high operationalcombustion
handing risks,emissions,
but have and the
carbon low
footprint
Energies 2017,
flash can be
thatreduced
10, 2152
points by heat
are ideal for the use of waste
transfer. heat recovery
The water/glycol [13].
mixtures 8 of 21
are cost-effective, and the
associated operational risks are relatively low. They have a high flash point, but require a larger heat
transfer area, which results in a larger system than the propane or refrigerant systems [13].
The open-loop IFV technology requires seawater intake (Figure 6). Environmental issues
therefore arise and include entrainment of marine in the intake resulting in injury or mortality, as
well as low temperature discharge of seawater into the surrounding seawater. Intermediate fluid
vaporizers that use propane or refrigerant as the intermediate fluid add a potentially hazardous
material to the facility operations. An IFV system that makes use of water/glycol mixtures is a safer
way to operate. The intermediate air is heated by a combustion system and associated combustion
emissions, and the carbon footprint can be reduced by the use of waste heat recovery [13].
The primary receiving terminal at Dahej in India uses an IFV. The heat source for the vaporizer
uses air instead of seawater. This system makes use of aqueous glycol solution, which is once cooled
by heat exchange with LNG. The aqueous glycol solution is heated up by air blown by fans which is
in turn reused for the exchange of heat with LNG (see Figure 7).

Figure
Figure 6.6.Intermediate
Intermediate fluid
fluidvaporizer.
vaporizer.

The primary receiving terminal at Dahej in India uses an IFV. The heat source for the vaporizer
uses air instead of seawater. This system makes use of aqueous glycol solution, which is once cooled
by heat exchange with LNG. The aqueous glycol solution is heated up by air blown by fans which is in
turn reused for the exchange of heat with LNG (see Figure 7).
For safety considerations, the use of non-combustible and non-toxic water/glycol mixtures in
IFV systems are preferable. The use of combustion systems to heat the intermediate fluid can result in
environmental impacts through associated exhaust emissions and carbon footprint; this can, however,
be overcome by implementation of waste heat recovery [13].

Figure 7. Intermediate fluid vaporizer (air IFV).

For safety considerations, the use of non-combustible and non-toxic water/glycol mixtures in
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 8 of 19
Figure 6. Intermediate fluid vaporizer.

Figure 7. Intermediate fluid vaporizer (air IFV).

Figure 7. Intermediate fluid vaporizer (air IFV).
For safety considerations, the use of non-combustible and non-toxic water/glycol mixtures in
IFV systems are preferable. The use of combustion systems to heat the intermediate fluid can result
3.5. Floating Storage and Regasification Units
in environmental impacts through associated exhaust emissions and carbon footprint; this can,
however, be overcome by implementation of waste heat recovery [13].
In recent times, a new technology option known as a floating storage and regasification unit
(FSRU) has come into being.
3.5. Floating FSRUs
Storage and emerged
Regasification Unitsas an attractive option because the project execution time
is substantially reduced due to
In recent times, thetechnology
a new conversion of known
option ships asas afloating storage
floating storage andunits and consequently
regasification unit the
capital costs (FSRU)
are usually lower.
has come The floating
into being. solution
FSRUs emerged as anin many cases
attractive option offers
becausegreater flexibility
the project execution when there
time is substantially reduced due to the conversion of ships as floating storage units and consequently
are space constraints onshore. However, there also limitations in terms of both storage capacity and
the capital costs are usually lower. The floating solution in many cases offers greater flexibility when
send-out rates.
thereTypically, a land-based
are space constraints onshore.terminal
However, requires up to five
there also limitations yearsoffrom
in terms concept
both storage to commission
capacity
stage, whileandFSRUs canrates.
send-out be conceptualized
Typically, a land-based andterminal
commissioned
requires up within a period
to five years of ~12–24
from concept to months.
commission stage, while FSRUs can be conceptualized and commissioned within a period of
The FSRUs are mostly based on seawater options, i.e., ORVs or shell and tube vaporization; therefore,
~12–24 months. The FSRUs are mostly based on seawater options, i.e., ORVs or shell and tube
from the LNG regasification
vaporization; perspective,
therefore, the technology
from the LNG regasification is not
perspective, thedifferent;
technology isthe
not only difference
different; the being
land-based or andifference
only offshore-based vaporizer.
being land-based or an offshore-based vaporizer.

3.6. LNG Cold3.6.Energy

LNG Cold Energy Recovery during Regasification
Recovery during Regasification
Part of the energy consumed during the LNG liquefaction process can be recovered during the
Part of the
LNGenergy consumed
regasification during
process. Around the
~830 LNG
kJ/kg liquefaction
is stored process
in LNG, which can
is known be recovered
as cold energy. This during the
is in addition
LNG regasification to the chemical
process. Around energy of the
~830 naturalisgas
kJ/kg and stored
stored as the physical
in LNG, whichenergy [3].
is known as cold energy.
This is in addition to the chemical energy of the natural gas and stored as the physical energy [3].
For a typical 5 Mtpa LNG terminal, ~120 MW “cold energy” could be available
Energies 2017, 10, 2152
at maximum
9 of 21
rates. However, the terminal data suggest that only a few locations employ cold energy recovery
For a typical 5 Mtpa LNG terminal, ~120 MW “cold energy” could be available at maximum
technologies. The primary reason is that the current technologies enable only low recovery efficiencies
rates. However, the terminal data suggest that only a few locations employ cold energy recovery
for cold energy. The
technologies.coldThe energy
primarytechnologies
reason is that currently
the currentin use are Rankine
technologies enable cycle coldrecovery
only low power generation,
inlet air chilling for gas
efficiencies forturbines,
cold energy.airThe
separation
cold energyor other low-temperature
technologies fractionation
currently in use are Rankine cycle (liquid
cold nitrogen,
liquid air and power generation,
so on), inlet air cryogenic
cold storage, chilling for gas turbines,and
crushing air seawater
separation or other low-temperature
desalination (Figure 8-LNG cold
fractionation (liquid nitrogen, liquid air and so on), cold storage, cryogenic crushing and seawater
power generation).
desalination (Figure 8- LNG cold power generation).

Figure 8. LNG cold power generation.

Figure 8. LNG cold power generation.
It was also observed that siting an LNG terminal next to an existing refinery/petrochemical
complex could provide an option to regasify LNG efficiently and effectively. The
refinery/petrochemical complex can utilize the cold energy and, in the process, vaporize LNG.
However, this potential is location dependent.

3.7. Hybrid Options

In recent times, some hybrid options are being developed and tested/experimented. The Korea
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 9 of 19

It was also observed that siting an LNG terminal next to an existing refinery/petrochemical
complex could provide an option to regasify LNG efficiently and effectively. The refinery/petrochemical
complex can utilize the cold energy and, in the process, vaporize LNG. However, this potential is
location dependent.

3.7. Hybrid Options

In recent times, some hybrid options are being developed and tested/experimented. The Korea
gas corporation (KOGAS) has been undergoing difficulties in the construction of ORVs due to
environmental issues such as cold seawater effluent and residual chemical contents. Therefore, KOGAS
is currently testing eco-friendly vaporizers that are innovative, i.e., that do not use seawater. The AAV
is a strong candidate for a clean environment. Thus, this work was to investigate its possibility in
temperate regions for LNG import terminals in Korea [7].
The KOGAS installation can be considered as a “hybrid” option where the seawater is being used
as the base load technology while secondary regasification is achieved using ambient air heat.

3.8. Observations on Technology Options

The conventional technology options primarily use ambient air, seawater or the combustion heat
for LNG regasification processes. It is evident that some installations use/intend to use intermediate
fluids such as glycol and/or propane for the heat exchange process in conjunction with ambient air or
the seawater.
It is observed that more than 95% of the LNG regasification terminals employ ORVs/sea water
as the primary vaporization technology irrespective of the climatic differences around the globe.
Submerged combustion vaporization is used as a secondary means during the colder weather periods
in most of the sites, globally.
However, that effort has been made at developing hybrid models in recent times (e.g., seawater
and ambient air). The hybrid design efforts appear to be driven by environmental considerations,
i.e., impact on marine life due to cold seawater and so on.
From the preceding discussion, it can also be observed that location factors such as the ambient air
and the seawater temperatures, humidity, and so on, may have a significant impact on the regasification
efficiency and life-cycle performance. However, this can only be validated by analysing the location
factors and corresponding technology choices using thermodynamic modelling. The purpose of this
paper is to discuss the location factors data and their potential impact on technology choices.
So far, it is evident that the majority of LNG regasification terminals employ seawater vaporization
supplemented with submerged combustion vaporizers for peak shaving. It is also observed that LNG
cold energy utilization, in most cases, is by way of producing liquid nitrogen or liquid air. Using the
LNG cold energy to produce liquid nitrogen or air results in ~50% savings in electricity [2].

4. Location Factors by Different Regions

Based on the current LNG import quantities (Figure 1), the countries and regions selected are
Japan, China, Korea, India, Europe, South America and other Asian countries. The following data
were collected and plotted as scatter charts [16,17] and presented in Table 2. A total of 82 locations
were selected to represent the key regions, worldwide.

• Maximum and minimum seawater temperatures

• Maximum and minimum ambient air temperatures
• Maximum and minimum relative humidity
• Maximum and minimum wind speeds
• Climate change impact
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 10 of 19

Table 2. Overview of location factors.

Min Ambient Max Ambient Min Seawater Max Seawater Min Wind Max Wind
Region Min RH 1 Max RH
Air Temp. Air Temp. Temp. Temp. Speed Speed
Mean SD 2 Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C m/s m/s m/s m/s % % % %
Japan 1.6 3.9 30.5 1.8 13.5 3.2 26.8 1.4 1.4 0.7 6.3 1.4 53.5 5 85.6 3.6
Korea −6.0 2.2 30 0.8 8.1 5 25.1 1.1 1.5 0.8 5.7 0.5 50 0 88.5 2.5
China 3.3 6.9 31 3.2 11.7 5.5 27.2 2.1 1.25 0.2 5.6 0.9 55.8 3.8 91.5 2
India 15 3.2 40.5 3.4 24.1 2.4 29.6 0.1 0.75 0.6 4.5 0.6 35 12 90 6
EU 3.9 4 26.8 5.5 11.7 5.1 21.5 3.9 1.7 1.6 6.0 1.5 53 14.6 90 5
South America 16.5 10.4 30.1 4.3 19 6.6 24.9 4.8 1.7 1.3 6.0 2.0 54 16.5 91.1 4
Other Asia 17.3 5.9 31 1.7 22.7 3.8 29.1 0.8 1.4 0.5 5.8 1.9 53.7 6.5 93.8 2.8
1 RH: Relative humidity; 2 SD: Standard deviation.
 experienced for less than a duration of 10% of a year [17]. A typical design criterion for ORVs is a
minimum seawater temperature of 5 °C; therefore, the majority of locations are suited to ORVs as a
feasible technology option.
It is observed that the seawater temperature ranges, across the globe, are adequate for LNG
regasification subject to other constraints like seawater quality, and so on.
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 11 of 19
It is expected that lower seawater temperatures (less than 10 °C) may affect LNG regasification
rates for a fraction of the year, particularly during extended winter periods. The data indicate that
someThe of the affected
median, locations
mode, mean andare in
theJapan, Korea,
standard China for
deviation andthese
Europe (except some
parameters warmer regions
were calculated using
in Southern
the data from Europe; Figure
82 locations around10).the
For this see
world; reason,
Tablethe
2. Aterminal operators
brief on climate opt impact
change for an isalternative
added in
regasification
Section processa such
4.5; however, as combustion
detailed study on this vaporization to cover
topic is outside the extended
the scope of this paper.winter periods. The
technology option for peak shaving is SCVs for the majority of locations. It is worth noting that only
4.1.
a fewMaximum
locationsand Minimum
(two locations Seawater
in Korea,Temperatures
one in Sweden and one in China) experience lower than 5 °C
seawater
The maximum seawater temperatures arei.e.,
temperatures for a part of the year, ~20%21.5
between of the
◦ Ctime annually.
and 29.1 ◦ C. It is evident that European
It has
and the been
South observedregions
American that numerous design innovations
have a relatively in ORVs
higher standard over the
deviation (SD)lastcompared
three decades
to thehave
rest
resulted in higher heat transfer and a significant reduction in ice formation
of the world (Table 1). The difference is usually attributed to the longitude and latitude. on tube external surfaces.
These Thearemaximum
generally seawater
known astemperatures
super ORVs are or high-performance
consistent across the ORV; also
globe known
with someas Hi Per V in
exceptions [6].the
EU andTheSouth
SuperAmerica
ORV was(seedeveloped
Figure 9).as an
Theadvanced
minimum design ORV temperatures
sea water to achieve higher thermal
do vary efficiency
significantly,
by way of application of advanced materials and achieving
◦ higher heat transfer
but only a couple of locations experiences lower than 5 C, i.e., Japan, Korea and the EU (see Figurearea through design.
10).

Energies 2017, 10, 2152 13 of 21

temperatures around
Figure 9. Maximum seawater temperatures around the
the world.
world.

Figure 10.10.
Figure Minimum seawater
Minimum temperatures
seawater around
temperatures thethe
around world.
world.

The seawater
The minimum temperature may affect the
seawater temperatures arefouling factor;
between therefore,
8.1 ◦ C and 24.1the
◦ C,sea
andwater quality and
the standard the
deviation
temperature
is relativelycan impact
high ORV America,
in South performance.
China and the EU (Table 1). It is also evident that only four
locations experience temperatures less than 5 ◦ C during the year; two in Korea, one in China and
4.2. Maximum and Minimum Ambient Air Temperatures
one in the EU (see Figure 10). The lower temperatures (less than 5 ◦ C) in these four locations are
(a)experienced
Direct Air Heating
for less than a duration of 10% of a year [17]. A typical design criterion for ORVs is
a minimum seawater temperature of 5 ◦ C; therefore, the majority of locations are suited to ORVs as
The ambient air temperatures indicate that air heating could be a viable technology option (see
a feasible technology option.
Figure 11). However, the formation of frost on the vaporizer is a significant issue because it reduces
It is observed that the seawater temperature ranges, across the globe, are adequate for LNG
the overall heat transfer coefficient. The LNG is vaporized directly against the air (direct heat system),
regasification subject to other constraints like seawater quality, and so on.
and the water vapour in the air condenses and freezes. From the temperature data, it can be observed
that there is a large and consistent gap between the minimum and the maximum ambient air
temperatures; therefore, the regasification rates are expected to vary significantly during the year and
on a daily basis during the night and day conditions. The maximum ambient air temperatures range
between 25 and 42 °C, which has a positive impact on the LNG regasification rates, but at the same
time, higher humidity causes frost build up and reduced heat transfer. Therefore, the AAV
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 13 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 2152 12 of 19

It is expected that lower seawater temperatures (less than 10 ◦ C) may affect LNG regasification
rates for a fraction of the year, particularly during extended winter periods. The data indicate that
some of the affected locations are in Japan, Korea, China and Europe (except some warmer regions in
Southern Europe; Figure 10). For this reason, the terminal operators opt for an alternative regasification
process such as combustion vaporization to cover the extended winter periods. The technology option
for peak shaving is SCVs for the majority of locations. It is worth noting that only a few locations
(two locations in Korea, one in Sweden and one in China) experience lower than 5 ◦ C seawater
temperatures for a part of the year, i.e., ~20% of the time annually.
It has been observed that numerous design innovations in ORVs over the last three decades have
resulted in higher heat transfer and a significant reduction in ice formation on tube external surfaces.
These are generally known
Figureas
10.super ORVs
Minimum or high-performance
seawater ORV;the
temperatures around also known as Hi Per V [6].
world.
The Super ORV was developed as an advanced design ORV to achieve higher thermal efficiency
by way
Theofseawater
application of advanced
temperature maymaterials
affect theand achieving
fouling factor;higher heat the
therefore, transfer area through
sea water design.
quality and the
The seawater
temperature temperature
can impact may affect the fouling factor; therefore, the sea water quality and the
ORV performance.
temperature can impact ORV performance.
4.2. Maximum and Minimum Ambient Air Temperatures
4.2. Maximum and Minimum Ambient Air Temperatures
(a) Direct Air Heating
(a) Direct Air Heating
The ambient air temperatures indicate that air heating could be a viable technology option (see
The ambient air temperatures indicate that air heating could be a viable technology option
Figure 11). However, the formation of frost on the vaporizer is a significant issue because it reduces
(see Figure 11). However, the formation of frost on the vaporizer is a significant issue because it
the overall heat transfer coefficient. The LNG is vaporized directly against the air (direct heat system),
reduces the overall heat transfer coefficient. The LNG is vaporized directly against the air (direct heat
and the water vapour in the air condenses and freezes. From the temperature data, it can be observed
system), and the water vapour in the air condenses and freezes. From the temperature data, it can be
that there is a large and consistent gap between the minimum and the maximum ambient air
observed that there is a large and consistent gap between the minimum and the maximum ambient air
temperatures; therefore, the regasification rates are expected to vary significantly during the year and
temperatures; therefore, the regasification rates are expected to vary significantly during the year and
on a daily basis during the night and day conditions. The maximum ambient air temperatures range
on a daily basis during the night and day conditions. The maximum ambient air temperatures range
between 25 and 42 °C, which has a positive impact on the LNG regasification rates, but at the same
between 25 and 42 ◦ C, which has a positive impact on the LNG regasification rates, but at the same
time, higher humidity causes frost build up and reduced heat transfer. Therefore, the AAV
time, higherevaluation
technology humidity causes frost build
must address up and reduced
a relationship heatthe
between transfer. Therefore,
percentages the
of the AAV technology
relative humidity,
evaluation must address a relationship between the percentages of the relative humidity, LNG flow
LNG flow rates and the frost build up.
rates and the frost build up.

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Maximum
Maximum and
and minimum
minimum ambient
ambient air
air temperatures around the world.

However,
However, thethe maximum
maximum ambient
ambient air
air data
data (see
(see Figure
Figure 11)
11) do
do indicate
indicate that
that an
an appreciable
appreciable amount
amount
of
of heat
heat is
is available
available across
across the
the globe.
globe. Only
Only five
five locations
locations show
show ambient
ambient air
air temperatures
temperatures falling
falling below
below
−5 °C;
◦ one in Sweden, one in Japan, one in China and two in Korea. The low ambient
−5 C; one in Sweden, one in Japan, one in China and two in Korea. The low ambient air temperatures air temperatures
of
of up
up to
to −10
−10°C◦ Ccould
couldstill bebe
still used to regasify
used LNG
to regasify (−161
LNG °C), ◦but
(−161 C), the
butLNG
the LNGflowrates may need
flowrates may to be
need
reduced. Furthermore,
to be reduced. the duration
Furthermore, of the low
the duration temperatures
of the will impact
low temperatures will the totalthe
impact cost andcost
total climate
and
climate impact of regasification, i.e., the low temperature durations in Sweden (one location) and
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 14 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 13 of 19

impact of regasification, i.e., the low temperature durations in Sweden (one location) and Japan (one
location)
Japan (oneare relatively
location) arehigh. In thehigh.
relatively cooler
Inand
the drier
coolerwinter months,
and drier winterthemonths,
efficiency
theofefficiency
this technology
of this
can be reduced,
technology can be affecting
reduced, the rate of regasification.
affecting More vaporizers
the rate of regasification. units are required
More vaporizers units arefor operation
required for
in cooler months to compensate for the lack of efficiency.
operation in cooler months to compensate for the lack of efficiency.
The use
The use of
of ambient
ambient air
air heat
heat will
willeliminate
eliminateand/or
and/or minimize
minimize the
the natural
natural gas
gas consumption
consumption beingbeing
used in
used in the
the submerged
submerged combustion
combustion vaporizers
vaporizers and
and eliminate
eliminate and/or
and/or minimize
minimize the flue gases
the flue gases and
and
environmental emissions.
environmental emissions.
The locations
The locations with
with consistently
consistently high
high ambient
ambient temperatures
temperatures are
are South
South America,
America, India,
India, Spain
Spain and
and
other Asian countries. However, the lower ambient air temperatures combined
other Asian countries. However, the lower ambient air temperatures combined with lower relativewith lower relative
humidity will
humidity will impact
impact the
theregasification
regasificationrates.
rates.The
Thehighest ambient
highest ambientair air
temperatures
temperatures are in
areIndia (see
in India
Figure
(see 11). 11).
Figure
(b) Intermediate
(b) IntermediateFluid
FluidVaporizers
Vaporizers (air
(air as
as the
the heat
heat source)
source)
As discussed
As discussed earlier,
earlier, intermediate
intermediate fluidfluid vaporizers
vaporizers (IFV)(IFV) revaporise
revaporise LNG LNG by by the
the use
use ofof
intermediate heat transfer fluid.
intermediate fluid. IFV technology configurations normally operate in a closed-loop,
open-loop or
open-loop oraacombination
combinationsystem.system.The Themost
mostcommon
commonintermediate
intermediate fluids
fluids areare propane,
propane, refrigerant
refrigerant or
or water/glycol
water/glycol mixtures,
mixtures, basedbased on existing
on existing IFV IFV technology,
technology, whichwhich
employsemploys air instead
air instead of seawater
of seawater for its
for its
heat heat source
source and anand an intermediate
intermediate fluid tofluid to exchange
exchange heat withheat with LNG.
LNG.
The air-IFV technology evaluation needs to focus
The air-IFV technology evaluation needs to focus on utilization of on utilization of “free”
“free” ambient
ambient airair heat
heat for
for
different intermediate
different intermediate fluids;
fluids; thethe most
most commonly
commonly used used being
beingthetheglycol/water
glycol/water mixture.
mixture. AnyAny fluid
fluid
with an acceptable heat capacity, freezing and boiling point is a candidate
with an acceptable heat capacity, freezing and boiling point is a candidate intermediate fluid; however, intermediate fluid;
however,
it is desirableit is desirable
to use more to use more environmentally-acceptable
environmentally-acceptable material.material.
Tempered Tempered
water or water
freshorwater
fresh
water
are are available,
available, but suitable
but suitable intermediate
intermediate fluids fluids
are more are often
more selected
often selected
from thefrom the glycol
glycol groupgroupused
used individually
individually or as mixtures
or as mixtures (such as(such as ethylene
ethylene glycol, diethylene
glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene
glycol, triethylene glycol),
glycol), methanol,
methanol,butane,
propane, propane, butane,orammonia
ammonia formate.or formate.
However, some of the
However, some of the other fluids other fluids under
under consideration
consideration are propylene,
are propylene, propane, propane, isobutane,
isobutane, butane
butane and dimethyl
and dimethyl ether [5]. ether [5].
In the
In thecooler
coolerandanddrier
drierwinter
wintermonths,
months,thethe efficiency
efficiency of of this
this technology
technology cancan be reduced,
be reduced, affecting
affecting the
the rate of regasification. More vaporizer units are required for operation
rate of regasification. More vaporizer units are required for operation in cooler months to compensate in cooler months to
compensate
for the lack offor the lack of efficiency.
efficiency.

4.3.
4.3. Maximum and Minimum
Minimum Relative Humidity
Humidity
The
The data
data suggest
suggest that the average maximum and average minimum relative humidity are quite
consistent and
consistent and high.
high. It is observed that average minimum relative humidity is higher
higher in Japan
Japan when
compared
compared toto Europe
Europe and
and China
China (Figure
(Figure 12). It was also
also observed
observed that
that the
the maximum
maximum relative
relative humidity,
humidity,
on average,
on average, is
is higher
higher in
in South
South America
America and
and Europe
Europe as
as compared
comparedwith
withChina,
China,Japan
Japanand
andIndia.
India.

Figure 12. Maximum and minimum relative humidity around the world.
Figure 12. Maximum and minimum relative humidity around the world.
 Energies 2017, 10, 2152 15 of 21

From the psychometric chart (Figure 13), it can be seen that an increase in relative humidity
results in an increase in enthalpy; however, if the temperature is too low or the convection of the air
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 14 of 19
is too slow, then significant condensation can form on the tubes. As the condensation freezes, the
effectiveness of the tubes will decrease and the production rate will also subsequently decrease.
Figure
From the 13 shows the chart
psychometric effects of increased
(Figure 13), it canhumidity at 25
be seen that °C. The inhumidity
an increase increasesresults
relative humidity from
70%–90% results in a significant increase in the ambient air enthalpy i.e., from 38 to 58 kJ/kg.
in an increase in enthalpy; however, if the temperature is too low or the convection of the air is too slow, However,
an increase
then significantin the dew point can
condensation alsoform
increases thetubes.
on the probability
As theof condensation.
condensation freezes, the effectiveness of
the tubes will decrease and the production rate will also subsequently decrease.

Figure 13. Effect of humidity on fan forced vaporizer performance [18].

Figure 13. Effect of humidity on fan forced vaporizer performance [18].

The maximum
Figure 13 shows the relative
effectshumidity is consistent
of increased at 25 ◦with
humidityacross C. The some locations
humidity experiencing
increases near
from 70–90%
100%,inwhich
results exist in
a significant India, inthe
increase theEU and South
ambient America.
air enthalpy The minimum
i.e., from relative
38 to 58 kJ/kg. humidity
However, varies
an increase
insignificantly;
the dew point some
alsolocations
increasesin theIndia and theofEU
probability experiencing the lowest (see Figure 12). In those
condensation.
locations, the regasification
The maximum relative rates and/oristhe
humidity efficiencyacross
consistent may be lower/suboptimal,
with some locationsduring a significant
experiencing near
duration
100%, which of the year,
exist in if ambient
India, the air-based
EU and Southtechnologies
America.are selected.
The minimum relative humidity varies
The ambient
significantly; some air temperature,
locations in Indiahumidity
and theandEU ice formation are
experiencing thethe factors
lowest (seethat have12).
Figure the In
greatest
those
effect on AAV performance. There are other factors that also affect the performance
locations, the regasification rates and/or the efficiency may be lower/suboptimal, during a significant of these
vaporizers
duration including
of the year, if the wind air-based
ambient and solar technologies
radiation [19].are selected.
The ambient air temperature, humidity and icethe
Shah, Wong and Minton (2008) determined effects ofare
formation temperature and have
the factors that humidity on the
the greatest
performance of forced air vaporizers [18]. Figure 14 shows that the greater
effect on AAV performance. There are other factors that also affect the performance of these vaporizersthe humidity in the
ambient the
including conditions,
wind and thesolar
greater the performance
radiation [19]. of the forced draft ambient air vaporizers (FAV).
Figure
Shah, Wong and Minton (2008) determined the
15 also shows that at higher temperatures, the humidity
effects ofhas a greater effect
temperature on the totalonduty
and humidity the
than at lower temperatures.
performance of forced air vaporizers [18]. Figure 14 shows that the greater the humidity in the ambient
conditions, the greater the performance of the forced draft ambient air vaporizers (FAV). Figure 15
also shows that at higher temperatures, the humidity has a greater effect on the total duty than at
lower temperatures.
Utilizing a specially-designed test apparatus to simulate AAV terminals, Kim et al. (2013) could
determine the effects that temperature and humidity had on frost formation [7]. The experimental
results showed that the frost thickness decreased with the increase in air temperature. It was also
found that the frost thickness irregularly increased with the increase in relative humidity. With the
increase in air velocity, the frost thickness also increased; however, from 6 m/s onwards of air velocity,
pieces of formed ice would break off causing the frost thickness to decrease. The increase in mass flow
rate of LNG also increased the frost thickness. From the experiment, it was concluded that the wind
velocity and the mass flow rate of LNG had the greatest effect on the frost thickness.
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 15 of 19
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 16 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 16 of 21

Figure 14. Effect of temperature on fan forced vaporizer performance [18].

Figure Effect
14.14.
Figure Effectofoftemperature
temperatureon
onfan
fan forced
forced vaporizer performance[18].
vaporizer performance [18].

Figure 15. Effect of humidity on fan forced vaporizer performance [18].

Figure
Figure 15.15. Effectofofhumidity
Effect humidityon
onfan
fanforced
forced vaporizer
vaporizer performance
performance[18].
[18].
Utilizing a specially-designed test apparatus to simulate AAV terminals, Kim et al. (2013) could
determineUtilizing aeffects
specially-designed test apparatus to simulate on AAV terminals, Kim et al.experimental
(2013) could
Ambientthe air vaporizers that temperature
transfer heatand to LNGhumidityfrom had frost formation
the surrounding ambient [7].air
The by making use of
determine the effects that temperature and humidity had on frost formation [7]. The experimental
theresults showeddifferential
temperature that the frost thickness
between thisdecreased
air and the with
LNG. the Consequently,
increase in air temperature.
this ambient Itairwas also
is cooled,
resultsthat
found showed
the thatthickness
frost the frost irregularly
thickness decreased increased with
with the
the increase
increase in
in air temperature.
relative humidity. It With
was alsothethe
andfound
the associated
that latent
thevelocity,
frost heat results
thickness irregularlyin condensation.
increased with Thus, both sensible
the increase and humidity.
in6 relative latent heatWith from the
increase
air increase
and water in air
vapour, the frost
respectively, thickness
contribute also increased;
to the however,
vaporization from
of LNG.m/s onwards
Condensed of air
watervelocity,
forms
pieces of in air velocity,
formed ice would the frost
break thickness
off causing also increased; however,to
the frost thickness from 6 m/s onwards
decrease. The increase of airin velocity,
mass
on pieces
the external
of surfaces
formed ice of the break
would ambient off air vaporizers
causing the andthickness
frost runs down to under gravity.
decrease. The This condensate
increase in mass
flow rate of LNG also increased the frost thickness. From the experiment, it was concluded that the
flows
flow towards
rate of the
LNG lower increased
half of thethe vaporizer where itFrom oftenthe freezes on the external surfaces where that theice
wind velocity and alsothe mass flow rate frost
of LNG thickness.
had the greatest experiment,
effect it wasthickness.
on the frost concluded
forms. Ice
windAmbient formation
velocity on mass
andvaporizers
the externalflow surfaces
rateheat
of LNGof the hadvaporizer
the greatest is influenced
effect on the byfrost
several factors. Ice cover
thickness.
air transfer to LNG from the surrounding ambient air by making use
can be partial
Ambient onairthevaporizers
lower halftransfer to up to heatthetofullLNG height
from of
the the external surface.
surrounding ambient Because
air byair of the forces
making use
of the temperature differential between this air and the LNG. Consequently, this ambient is cooled,
theand
ice
of the exerts on
thetemperature
ambient
associated latent
air
differential vaporizers,
between
heat results
they
inthis
are ideally
air and the LNG.
condensation.
designed
Thus, Consequently,
to withstand
both sensible and
the
this latent
ambientforces
heat
that
airfrom can
is cooled,
the
be
generated
andand
air by
thewater any
associated percentage
vapour, latent heatcoverage
respectively,results ofcondensation.
in
contributeice. To to ameliorate Thus,this
the vaporization bothproblem,
sensible
of vertical
and
LNG. Condensed latent tubeheat bundles
water fromformstheare
air
generallyand water
preferred vapour,to respectively,
horizontal tube contribute
bundles. to
Ice the vaporization
build-up
on the external surfaces of the ambient air vaporizers and runs down under gravity. This condensate on the of LNG.
external Condensed
surfaces of water
the forms
vaporizer
willoncause
flows thetowards
external
a dropthe surfaces
lowerof
in efficiency, theof
half ambient
which willairresult
the vaporizer vaporizers and
in lowering
where it oftenruns thedown
exiton
freezes under
the gravity.
temperature
externalof Thisthecondensate
surfaces natural
wheregas
fromflows
ice the
forms.towards
Ice formation on external surfaces of the vaporizer is influenced by several factors. Ice where
vaporizer. the lower half of the vaporizer where it often freezes on the external surfaces cover
ice forms.
The rate Ice
at formation
which ice on external
builds up surfaces
and the of the
degree vaporizer
of coverage is
can be partial on the lower half to up to the full height of the external surface. Because of the forces influenced
depends by
on several
a large factors.
number Ice
of cover
factors,
can
thethe
main be partial
ones of
ice exerts on
onwhich the
ambient lower
includehalf to up
the ambient
air vaporizers, to the
they arefull height
air ideally
temperatureof the
designed external
and surface.
torelative
withstand Because
humidity,
the forcesthe of the
that LNG forces
can be flow
ratethe ice exerts
through
generated on
theany
by ambient
vaporizer
percentage air vaporizers,
and the materials
coverage ofthey are
To ideally
used
ice. designed
for vaporizer
ameliorate to withstand
thisconstruction.
problem, the tube
Some
vertical forces
of thesethatvariables
bundles canarebe
generated
generally by any percentage
preferred to horizontal coverage
tube of ice.
bundles.of To ameliorate
Icethebuild-up this
onair problem,
theundergo vertical
external seasonal
surfaces of tube bundles
the vaporizer are
such as the temperature and relative humidity ambient variation and are
generally
will cause preferred
a drop in to horizontal
efficiency, whichtubewillbundles.result Ice
in build-up
lowering on
the the
exitexternal
temperaturesurfaces of of
the the vaporizer
natural gas
influenced by the climate in the location at which LNG regasification is conduced.
will cause a
from the vaporizer. drop in efficiency, which will result in lowering the exit temperature of the natural gas
from
4.4. Maximum the vaporizer.
The rateand Minimum
at which Wind up
ice builds Speeds
and the degree of coverage depends on a large number of factors,
the main The rate
onesatofwhich whichiceincludebuilds up theand the degree
ambient of coverageand
air temperature depends
relativeon humidity,
a large number the LNG of factors,
flow
theIt main
was found
ones ofthat
which with the increase
include the in airair
ambient velocity,
temperaturethe frost and thickness
relative also increased;
humidity, the LNG however
flow
rate through the vaporizer and the materials used for vaporizer construction. Some of these variables
fromrate6 m/s
throughonwards of air velocity,
the vaporizer and thepiecesmaterials of formed
used for icevaporizer
would break off, causing
construction. Some the
offrost
thesethickness
variablesto
such
such as
as the
the temperature
temperature and
and relative
relative humidity
humidity of
of the
the ambient
ambient air
air undergo
undergo seasonal
seasonal variation
variation and
and are
are
influenced by the climate in the location at which LNG regasification is conduced.
influenced by the climate in the location at which LNG regasification is conduced.

4.4.
4.4. Maximum
Maximum and
and Minimum
Minimum Wind
Wind Speeds
Speeds
It was
It2017,
Energies found
was10, 2152 that
found that with
with the
the increase
increase in
in air
air velocity,
velocity, the
the frost
frost thickness
thickness also
also increased;
increased; however
however
16 of 19
from
from 66 m/sm/s onwards
onwards of of air
air velocity,
velocity, pieces
pieces ofof formed
formed ice ice would
would break
break off,
off, causing
causing the the frost
frost thickness
thickness
to
to decrease. An increase in mass flow rate of LNG also increased the frost thickness. From
decrease. An increase in mass flow rate of LNG also increased the frost thickness. From the
the
decrease. Anitincrease
experiment, was in mass flow
concluded that rate
the of LNG
wind also increased
velocity and the the
massfrost thickness.
flow rate of Fromhad
LNG the the
experiment,
greatest
experiment, it was concluded that the wind velocity and the mass flow rate of LNG had the greatest
it wason
effect concluded that the wind velocity and the mass flow rate of LNG had the greatest effect on the
effect on the the frost
frost thickness
thickness [7].
[7].
frost It
thickness [7]. find substantive research work on the relationship between wind speed and
It isis difficult
difficult toto find substantive research work on the relationship between wind speed and
It
frosting. is difficult tothis
find substantive research work on the relationship between wind speed and
frosting. Therefore, this area
Therefore, area ofof knowledge
knowledge may may require
require further
further research
research in in developing
developing simulation
simulation
frosting.
models Therefore, this area of knowledge may require further research in developing simulation
models and and testing.
testing. This
This holds
holds significance
significance for for understanding
understanding the the life
life cycle
cycle performance
performance of of the
the
models
ambient and testing.
air-based This holds
technology significance
options from for
theunderstanding
regasification the life
rates cycle
and performance
efficiency of the
perspective. ambient
ambient air-based technology options from the regasification rates and efficiency perspective.
air-based
A technologyofoptions from the regasificationin rates and efficiency perspective. speeds across
A high
high degree
degree of variation
variation hashas been
been observed
observed in maximum
maximum and and minimum
minimum wind wind speeds across
the A high degree of variation has been observed ~1 in maximum and minimum wind speeds across the
the globe
globe (see(see Figures
Figures 16 16 and
and 17).
17). The
The range
range being
being ~1 to to 99 m/s;
m/s; therefore,
therefore, this
this is
is aa very
very location
location specific
specific
globe (see
variable, andFigures
it may 16beand 17).
difficult The
to range
draw being ~1
relationships to 9 m/s;
between therefore,
the this
regions. is a very location specific
variable, and it may be difficult to draw relationships between the regions.
variable, and it may be difficult to draw relationships between the regions.

Figure
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Maximum
16. Maximum wind
Maximum wind speeds
wind speeds around
speeds around the
around the world.
the world.
world.

Figure
Figure 17.
17. Minimum
Minimum wind
wind speeds
speeds around
around the
the world.
world.

When
When AAV/FAV
When AAV/FAV
AAV/FAVunits units are
unitsareareinin operation,
inoperation, water
operation,water
water andand
andiceice
form
ice form
form ononthethe
on outside
outside
the outside of
of the
of the tubes
tubes
the duedue
tubes to
to the
due to
the extremely
extremely cold cold operating
operating temperatures.
temperatures. The The
longerlonger
the the
unitunitis is
leftleft
to to
run,run,
the
the extremely cold operating temperatures. The longer the unit is left to run, the more ice builds up the
more moreice ice builds
builds up up
on
on
on the
the the tubes,
tubes,
tubes, eventually
eventually
eventually reducing
reducing
reducing the
the unit’s
the unit’s performance.
performance.
unit’s performance. ThisThis requires
requires
This the
the units
the units
requires to beto
units be
be periodically
periodically
to shut
periodically
shut
down down to
to allow
shut down allow for defrosting
for defrosting
to allow [19].
[19]. [19].
for defrosting
The
The energy
The energy extraction
energyextraction from
extractionfromfromthe the humid
thehumid
humidairair
airisis part
ispart sensible
partsensible
sensibleand and
and part
part
part latent
latent heat.
heat.
latent heat. The
TheThe sensible
sensible heat
heat
sensible heatis
is from
from the
thethe
is from simple
simple cooling
cooling
simple of
of the
cooling the
of air, air,
the and and the
the latent
air, and latent heat
heat is
the latent is the
theispoint
heat point when
whenwhen
the point the
the airthe air is
is cooled cooled
down to
air is cooled down
below
down to
to
its dew point and the moisture starts to condense. When the moisture begins to condense, some of it is
attached to the fins as ice, and the remainder of the moisture passes out the bottom of the vaporizer as
fog [8]. Although fog formation is considered benign, it can cause disruptions to human activity near
terminals such as transport or maintenance [8].
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 17 of 19

Fog can become an issue with AAV/FAV terminals; it is produced when the cold air from the
vaporiser comes into contact with the warm humid air outside. The severity of the fog depends on
many factors, including the ambient temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity and the distance
between units. Although the fog is considered benign, dense fog can create operating issues due to the
lack of visibility [14].

4.5. Impact of Climate Change on Location Factors

The preceding discussion relates to the weather conditions in the different regions in the various
regions of the world. Therefore, it is prudent to mention that regional weather patterns are expected
to change during this century. Climate change impact is expected to see an increase in seawater and
ambient air temperatures around the globe. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
has already predicted that the rise in temperatures is expected to be seen during both winter and
summer times [20]. However, the IPCC modelling predicts that the increases may vary across the
regions and over the period. For example, the greatest warming in winter is expected to be over both
north-eastern Europe and Scandinavia (December–February) and in the summer in the Mediterranean
(June–August) [21].
The warming of Europe has been more than the global average (1.0–1.2 ◦ C compared to 0.81–0.89 ◦ C
for the rest of the world). The current observations and modelling indicate that the relative humidity
is not expected to increase in the future. This is because water vaporization will increase at higher
temperatures, but the ambient air can hold more water at higher temperatures [20].
As per the preceding discussion, it is evident that LNG regasification technologies are primarily
based on seawater and ambient air temperatures. Therefore, the weather pattern changes may have
significant impact on technology selection and on the design criteria for new terminals. The heat
transfer fundamentals would suggest a 0.5–1.0 ◦ C rise in the ambient conditions, which may have
a significant impact on the selection and sizing of the heat exchanger systems.
Consequently, due to the positive impact of higher heat available from ambient air and seawater,
the need to have large SCVs and to burn the gas for combustion heat may eventually be reduced and/or
eliminated. A reduction in usage and/or elimination of SCVs in turn will help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. Therefore, it is conceivable that climate change may have a significant and positive impact
on LNG regasification terminals in terms of environmental, efficiency and economic performance.
While it is not the intent of this paper to do a detailed evaluation of the impact of increased
ambient air and the seawater temperatures on LNG terminals due to climate change, it may be argued
that the new LNG terminals should consider a careful “climate adaptation” study at the concept and
technology selection stages. Any such study, however, must be based on regional weather pattern
modelling data and the results from IPCC to assess the location factor impact on technology selection
and design options.

5. Conclusions and Policy Implications

From the discussion so far, it is clearly evident that while there is some material available from
industry and commercial conferences, only a few research papers on this subject matter are available
Therefore, future research areas that could help in enhancing the body of knowledge, as well as being
useful to the industry include:

• For an efficiently-managed LNG industry, the role of geography and meteorology needs
considering on a case-by-case basis. From the study of location factors, the following conclusions
can be drawn: Seawater vaporization is a viable technology option in more than 95% of the
locations, worldwide. However, this is subject to any water quality considerations.
• Ambient air conditions are best for AAVs/FAVs and IFVs in South America, India, Spain and
other Asian countries (Singapore, Taiwan, Indonesia, Thailand) and provide a much cleaner
regasification technology option.
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 18 of 19

• Currently, cold energy utilization globally is less than 1% of the total potential. Considering 500 Mtpa
LNG trade in the future, the potential for cold energy recovery is ~12 GW per annum, globally.
• Climate change is expected to have a positive impact on the LNG regasification industry. However,
the impact in some regions could be more pronounced due to regional variation of the climate
change. Due to higher heat available, the operating efficiencies may rise and the need for SCVs
may reduce.

While these conclusions are drawn based on location parameter data alone, it is the intent to
compare the performance characteristics of different technology options using the thermodynamic
models in subsequent papers. Future research areas that could help with enhancing the body of
knowledge, as well as being useful to the industry include:

• Relationship between wind speeds, relative humidity and frost and fog formation
• Impact of seawater quality on technology selection
• Climate adaptation study for new LNG terminals
• Technology options for enhanced energy recovery of LNG cold energy
• Retrofitting cold energy utilization in existing terminals
• Techno economic feasibility of AAVs/FAVs vs IFVs for a given location(s)

Acknowledgments: This research work was supported by Origin Energy and the Australia Pacific LNG (APLNG).
I wish to thank my colleagues from Osaka Gas (Japan), Petronet LNG (India) and KOGAS (Korea) who provided
insight and expertise, Toshihide Kanagawa of Osaka Gas, Yoshinori Hisazumi and his gas research team at
the Osaka University. I wish to acknowledge Stephen Hogg, Mitchell Brereton, Benjamin Buckley, Roger Rego,
Margarita Zaratemartinez and Simon Forster for their good work.
Author Contributions: Randeep Agarwal conceived and developed the paper; Richard Brown, Thomas J. Rainey
and Ted Steinberg provided guidance and reviews throughout the development of this paper. Robert K. Perrons
assisted with analysis and interpretation of the data; S. M. Ashrafur Rahman assisted in data interpretation,
creation of graphical materials, formatting the manuscript to Energies guideline and also correcting the references.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
AAV Ambient air vaporizer
EU European Union
FAV Forced draft air vaporizer
FSRU Floating storage and regasification unit
IFV Intermediate fluid vaporizer
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
JOGMEC Japan Oil, Gas & Metals National Corporation
KOGAS Korea Gas Corporation
LNG Liquefied natural gas
NG Natural gas
ORV Open rack vaporizer
RH Relative humidity
SCV Submerged combustion vaporizer
SD Standard deviation
STV Shell and tube vaporizer
GW Gigawatt
kJ/kg Kilojoules per kg
kWh/t Kilowatt hour per ton of LNG
m/s Meters per second
Mt Million tonnes
Mtpa Million tonnes per annum
MW Megawatt
t/h Tonnes per hour
Energies 2017, 10, 2152 19 of 19

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article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).