What Is This Module About?

This module is about three groups of worms—the flatworms, the roundworms and the
segmented worms. This module is the second in a series of modules on animals without
backbones. It has three lessons:
Lesson 1 – The Flatworms
Lesson 2 – The Roundworms
Lesson 3 – The Segmented Worms

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:

♦ describe what flatworms, roundworms and segmented worms are; and
♦ explain how they affect people.

1
 Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you start studying this module, take this simple test first to find out how much
you already know about the topics in this module.
Encircle the letter of the correct answer to each of the following.
1. Which of the following is an example of a flatworm?
a. ascaris
b. pinworm
c. tapeworm
d. hookworm
2. Which of the following is an example of a non-parasitic worm?
a. hookworm
b. earthworm
c. liver fluke
d. pinworm
3. Which of the following is an example of a parasite found in the livers of animals?
a. liver fluke
b. liverwort
c. trichina
d. hookworm
4. Which among the following diseases can most likely occur by eating half-cooked
pork?
a. trichinosis
b. elephantiasis
c. amoebiasis
d. sarcocystis
5. Why do earthworms live in wet and moist places?
a. to keep their bodies cool
b. to lower their body temperatures
c. for better gas exchange
d. for better blood circulation
6. Which of the following is an example of a non-parasitic flatworm?
a. earthworm
b. sandworm
c. vinegar eel
d. planaria

2
 7. Which of the following is a parasite?
a. earthworm
b. planaria
c. sandworm
d. trichina
8. What do you call the small roundworms found at the perianal opening in humans?
a. pinworms
b. trichinas
c. vinegar eels
d. flukes
9. Among the three kinds of worms that will be discussed in this module, which one
is composed mostly of non-parasitic forms?
a. roundworms
b. segmented worms
c. flatworms
10. What specific part of the body is an ideal place for parasites?
a. brain
b. intestine
c. liver
d. heart

Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those in
the Answer Key on page 33 to find out.
If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already know much
about the topics in this module. You may still study the module to review what you already
know. Who knows, you might learn a few more new things as well.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This means that this module is for you. It will
help you understand some important concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you
study this module carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in the test and a lot
more! Are you ready?
You may go now to the next page to begin Lesson 1.

3
 LESSON 1

The Flatworms

The animal that you most likely think of when you hear the word “worm” is the
earthworm — the worm that you see on pavements or in the soil after the rain. Sometimes,
they are even used as baits by fishermen. You probably wouldn’t think immediately of
tapeworms or any other type of worms. Just what is a worm? Worms are invertebrates with
soft bodies and bilateral symmetry. They have tissues, organs and organ systems. Have you
ever experienced deworming a puppy? If so, did your veterinarian give your pet some
medicine to get rid of the parasitic worms in its intestines? Examples of deworming
medicines include Antiox and Combantrin. They are effective if given in the right dosage.
Not all worms are parasitic though. Some do not need hosts and are even helpful. However,
in this lesson, we will concentrate on the species that affect our health and only talk a little
about the non-parasitic forms.

Let’s Think About This

Before we start our discussion, try to reflect on the following questions first:
1. How do parasitic flatworms live?
2. How can we avoid infection from these worms?
In this lesson, we will try to answer these questions and see how they relate to our
daily lives.

Let’s Try This

You can visit science laboratories in schools near your place. They usually have
bottled specimens of different worms on display. Their collections can help you a lot. You
can ask permission from the right authority and as you start studying the specimens, try to
note the following:
1. shapes and sizes of the worms;
2. sources of the worms;
3. whether the worms are segmented or not; and
4. prominent features of the worms.

4
 If no school laboratory specimens are available, just study the illustrations provided
below. These are examples of flatworms, roundworms and segmented worms that you can
see around you.

Surrounding
Prostomium Clitellum pharynx Eyespot
Mouth
Setae

Earthworm
Scolex
Immature Pharynx Gastrovascular
proglottio sheath cavity Auricle
Turbellarian (Planaria)
Ventral
Sucker

Intestine
Oral Uterus Testes
sucker Excretory
Bladder
Mature
proglottio

Gravid
proglottio
Tape worm
Vitellaria
Genital Ovary Vateline
pore duct
Liver fluke

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. How many types of worms did you see? Are you familiar with all of them?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. From what animals were they taken?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the sizes and shapes of the different specimens collected.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Have your Instructional Manager or Facilitator check your answers.

5
 Let’s Learn

The first group of worms that we will discuss is the flatworms. All flatworms belong
to the phylum Platyhelminthes. This phylum is divided into four classes or groups: the
turbellarians (Turbellaria), the monogeneans (Monogenea), the flukes (Trematoda) and
the tapeworms (Cestoda). Most turbellarians are free-living, meaning they do not depend
on other organisms for food. The other three are exclusively parasitic, meaning they depend
on other organisms (hosts) for food and may even cause damage to their hosts. As their
common name suggests, flatworms are flat. They are also soft-bodied.
Let us first discuss the turbellarians. Look at their parts below.

Ganglia
Auricle Auricle

Eyespot
Nerve
Gastrovascular
cavity

Pharynx
sheath
Surrounding
pharynx

Mouth

Parts of a turbellarian

There are around 6000 species of flatworms. Their bodies are dorso-ventrally
flattened, meaning flattened from back to front. Some flatworms live in freshwater while
others live in seawater. Most flatworms such as flukes and tapeworms are parasites. They
live in or on other organisms that supply their food. The freshwater planaria is around 3
centimeters (cm) long. This worm is free-living. It uses its digestive system to break down
food. Planarians are capable of regeneration, growing lost parts of their bodies again.

6
 Let’s Try This

Prepare the following materials then do the experiment below.

1 small collecting bottle
4 bottle caps
1 sharp blade
4 planarians
1. Put the four planarians in separate bottle caps.
2. Cut each planarian in the following manner:
a. crosswise in half
b. crosswise into three equal parts
c. crosswise at the base of the head
d. lengthwise half
Refer to the illustration below for guidance.
3. Observe them daily. Find out which piece will be able to regenerate its missing
parts.

Now, the illustration on the next page will show you what to expect after a few days.

7
 cut # 2
discard
cut # 1
(a)
(a)

discard discard
(b)

(b)
cuts

cut # 2 discard
(c)

(c)

Notice how interesting planarians are. From this activity, you can conclude that the
more you cut a worm, the more it can increase in number.
Imagine if humans are capable of regeneration too. The world would surely be jam-
packed with people then.

Let’s Try This

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Why are these animals called free-living forms?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What are the advantages of being able to regenerate body parts?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Have your Instructional Manager or Facilitator check your work.

8
 Let’s Learn

Do you know what liver flukes are? Liver flukes are leaf-shaped worms with weakly
developed suckers. Adult liver flukes are usually found attached in the bile ducts of the livers
of some reptiles, birds and mammals. Two species are commonly found in human livers, the
Chlonorchis sinensis and Heterophyes katsuradai. However, we will focus only on
Chlonorchis sinensis, the liver fluke that causes the disease chlonorchiasis in humans. This
liver fluke is found in many regions of the Orient especially in China, Southern Asia, Japan and
Hong Kong. Adult Chlonorchis sinensis measure 8 to 25 millimeters (mm) long and 1.5 to 5
mm wide. They were first discovered in the bile passages of a Chinese carpenter in Calcutta in
1875.
Look at the diagram below to know the different parts of the Chlonorchis sinensis.

Mouth

Oral sucker
Pharynx
Brain
Gastrovascular cavity

Ventral sucker

Uterus
Sperm duct

Yolk glands

Excretory duct

Testes

Parts of Clonorchis sinensis

Chlonorchis sinensis require three hosts to complete their life cycles. Humans are their
primary hosts, while snails and fish act as intermediate hosts. They spend most of their adult
lives in human bodies and their larval stages in the bodies of snails and fish.
Study the life cycle of a liver fluke on the next page.

9
 Metacercarial
cysts in
fish muscle

Liver
Adult fluke
Bile duct

Shelled
miracidium

Miracidium hatches
Cercaria after being eaten by
snail

Redia

Life cycle of a liver fluke

1. Based on the life cycle of the liver fluke, how can you avoid being infected with
this worm?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What measures can you recommend to stop the spread of the liver flukes in
humans? Is it always safe to use pesticides in order to exterminate snails? Why or
why not?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with mine below.
1. Infection with liver flukes can be avoided by not eating raw fish or exterminating
snails that serve as intermediate hosts to the parasites.
2. It’s not always safe to use pesticides to exterminate snails. They may affect other
organisms and pollute the soil.
So how does the liver fluke develop?
An adult fluke sheds or releases eggs with larvae through the feces of humans. If these
are ingested by certain freshwater snails, they develop inside the bodies of the snails, and
free-swimming cercariae emerge. They then find suitable bodies of fish to live in and further
develop. When these are eaten raw by humans, the flukes migrate to their livers and mature,
living there for 15 to 30 years.

10
 People infected with Chlonorchis sinensis may suffer from chlonorchiasis. These worms
may multiply to as much as 10000 to 20000 in a person’s liver. They depend on the person’s
blood and liver cells for food. Because of this, the host may suffer from anemia thereby making
him/her appear thin and malnourished. The presence of these worms can also cause
inflammation of and edema in the liver. Jaundice has also been diagnosed in some cases.
To prevent the spread of this infection it is necessary to have sanitary toilets. This way,
the eggs of these worms will not be able to spread. It would also help if ponds, irrigation
ditches and other bodies of water will be treated with snail-killing pesticides. People should
also avoid eating raw fish to prevent infection from these worms.

Let’s Review

Label the steps in the life cycle of a liver fluke below.

Compare your answers with the illustration on page 10. How well did you do?

11
 Let’s Learn

We will now discuss what tapeworms are. Examine closely the illustration below. It
shows the external features of the beef tapeworm, Taeniarhyncus saginatus. By far, this is
the most common tapeworm that infects humans.

Double row
of hooks

Scolex

Suckers
(Acetabula)

Neck

Young
proglottids

External parts of a Taeniarhyncus saginatus

The Taeniarhyncus saginatus is the most common parasite found nearly in all beef-
eating countries. They can grow up to a length of over 75 feet. The most common of these
though are only 10 to 15 feet in length. Their smallest specimens may consist of as many as
2000 proglottids or segments. Their heads have four powerful suckers and some species
even have hooks on their heads.
Study the life cycle of the Taeniarhyncus saginatus on the next page. Just like with the
liver flukes, note how infection with these can occur. Can you imagine how these worms can
live in our intestines? They must coil back and forth so they can fit in our 24-foot long
intestines.

12
 Eaten by human
in raw beef
Evaginated
cysticerus in
upper intestine

Yolk gland
Ovary
Excretory Vagina Gravid
canal Genital pore proglottid
Testes Sperm
Invaginated Uterus
Sperm duct
cysticerus

Cysts in muscle
(“Measly beef”)
Grass, contaminated with
eggs, ingested by cow

Life cycle of a tapeworm

The embryonated eggs of beef tapeworms are shed from a human host through his/her
feces and remain viable for many weeks on the ground. When ingested by cows or cattle
nearby, the six-hooked larvae hatch, burrow into their blood or lymph vessels and migrate to
their skeletal muscles. They encyst in the cow’s muscles and become bladder worms or
cysticerci. The cows or cattle then contract the disease cysticercosis bovis. Each of these
cysticerci develops and remains inside the cows or cattle until the beef is eaten raw by
humans. In the new host, the worms open up, attach to his/her intestine and mature in two to
three weeks. The ripe proglottids then may be expelled daily for many years. Humans may
be infected by eating raw or “measly” beef. The adult worm may stay in the intestine for
many years folded many times.
Do you have any question about the life cycle? Is everything clear? If so, try the
following simple activity to see if you understood the cycle.

13
 Let’s Review

Complete the illustration of a life cycle of a beef tapeworm below by labeling all the
steps.

Compare your work with the illustration on page 13. How well did you do?

Let’s Learn

Human infection with cysticercosis bovis is highest in areas of the world where beef is
a major food and sanitation is of little concern.
Diarrhea and intestinal obstruction are common results of this infection. Hunger pains
may be experienced too. This also has psychological effects on the infected person
observing the continued migration of the proglottids out of his/her anus.
Prevention of taeniasis, the disease caused by tapeworms, is easy. Just cook beef until
it is no longer pink in the center, since cystecerci are killed at 56°C. Beef can also be
rendered safe by freezing it at –5°C for at least one week. Using sanitary toilets can also
prevent the spread of the disease. Discouraging the use of human feces as fertilizer will also
help.

14
 Let’s Try This

Go around your neighborhood or barangay and do the following:

1. Check if all your neighbors’ houses have sanitary toilets.
2. Check too whether cattle or pigs are roaming around.
3. Report your findings to your municipal health officer or barangay captain for
immediate action.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

A. Match the terms in Column A with their definitions/descriptions in Column B.

Write only the letters of the correct answers in the blanks provided.
A B
____ 1. Worms a. Worms with flattened bodies and
____ 2. Flatworms definite heads but no true cavities
____ 3. Free-living b. Obtaining food and protection from a
____ 4. Parasitic living organism of another species
____ 5. Dorso-ventrically flattened c. An aquatic type of flatworm
____ 6. Planaria d. A leaf-like parasitic flatworm that
____ 7. Regeneration invades the liver of vertebrates and
____ 8. Liver flukes is a serious pest of domesticated
____ 9. Proglottids animals
____10. Cystecerci e. Bladder worms
f. Soft-bodied limbless invertebrates
that are either cylindrical, segmented or
flat
g. Non-parasitic
h. Flattened both in front and at the
back
i. The ability to produce again
j. Segments

B. Answer the questions briefly.

1. In what ways can you help your community stop the spread of tapeworm infection?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

15
2. How can you make beef safe for human consumption?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 33. How well did you do?

Let’s Remember

♦ Flatworms are worms that have soft and dorso-ventrally flattened bodies.
♦ The planaria is an example of a free-living worm. Tapeworms and flukes are
generally parasitic.
♦ Adult liver flukes can be found in the livers of humans while adult tapeworms can
be found in their intestines.
♦ Proper health habits are recommended to avoid the spread of infections from the
different kinds of worms.

16
 LESSON 2

The Roundworms

Members of this phylum can be found almost everywhere. There are more than half a
million species of roundworms under the phylum Nematoda. In fact, there may be a million
in a kilogram of soil! They can be found in freshwater, seawater and in or on plants, humans
and other living organisms.
Roundworms are more complex than flatworms. Their digestive systems run along the
whole length of their bodies. Their digestive systems have two openings — the mouth and
the anus. Many roundworms are parasitic. However, most of them are free-living. Some are
even helpful because they act as decomposers. They digest dead and decaying organic matter
and return their materials to the soil.
Roundworms are commonly found in pigs, humans and dogs. They live in the intestines
of these organisms in big numbers.

Let’s Think About This

When was the last time you took a deworming medicine? Deworming once in a while is
a healthy practice.

Let’s Try This

Do the following activity. Answer the given questions.

1. Get ascaris specimens and examine their parts. Notice that their bodies are
cylindrical and waxy. Why is this so?
2. Compare the shapes of the worms. Do they all have the same shape? Male
roundworms are usually smaller and have bent posterior ends while females are
bigger and with straight ends. Males use their bent ends for copulation or mating.
3. If no specimens are available, just study the illustration on the next page.

17
 Male

Female

Roundworms

1. Describe roundworms.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Compare your male and female specimens.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Roundworms are whitish and cylindrical in appearance. They are also waxy in texture.
The males have bent posterior ends and bluntly pointed tails. They are usually 15 to 31 cm
long and 2 to 4 mm in diameter. The females have straight posterior ends. They can measure
from 20 to 49 cm long and 3 to 6 mm in diameter.

Let’s Learn

Look at the illustration on the next page. Notice that the Ascaris lumbricoides, a
common human roundworm, follows a rather simple life cycle with only a single host,
humans. Once in the human host, the parasite undergoes an extensive internal migration
before ending up in the host’s intestine where it matures. The matured ascaris starts
producing fertilized eggs that pass out of the host’s feces and soon become infective to
another human. Infection occurs when “embryonated” eggs are swallowed with contaminated
food and water. Some of them pass through the stomach and into the small intestine where
they mature. Within 60 to 65 days after being swallowed, they begin to produce eggs. A
mature female can produce 200000 eggs in one day. The eggs are microscopic ranging from
45 to 75 microns.

18
 1 1 Roundworm eggs in
food are ingested by host
4 2 Eggs hatch in the small
intestine

3 Larvae enter blood

vessels and are
carried to the lungs

4 Larvae travel to the throat

and are swallowed

5 Adult ascaris live in the

small intestine
3
6 Eggs leave host through
2
feces
6
5

Life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides

Let’s Try This

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. In which stage of its life cycle is a roundworm infective to humans?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What is the major difference between the life cycles of a tapeworm and a
roundworm?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 33. How well did you do?

19
 Let’s Learn

Infection with ascaris can happen through indiscriminate defecation particularly in the
soil where their eggs remain viable for months or even years. Their longevity accounts for
their continued existence as parasites. Because of this, it is quite impossible to prevent
reinfection when your backyards are “seeded” with ascaris eggs. Infection is especially
common among children. After playing with soil or contaminated objects, some children eat
without properly washing their hands or place soiled fingers and toys in their mouths. The
use of human feces as fertilizer can also be a cause of the spread of this infection.
Ascariasis, the disease caused by ascaris infection, causes little damage when worms
are present in small amounts only. However, when in large amounts, they can cause
malnutrition and underdevelopment in small children. Abdominal pains including rashes, eye
pain, asthma, insomnia and restlessness are some of the symptoms of roundworm infection.
Massive infection can also cause fatal intestinal blockage. These worms tend to form knots
together and form a mass that completely blocks a person’s intestine. Surgery is therefore
needed in such cases.
Ascariasis can be prevented by:
1. washing your hands with soap and water before eating;
2. drinking safe water and eating only clean vegetables;
3. proper sanitation so as not to contaminate the soil with ascaris eggs; and
4. not using human feces as fertilizer for vegetable farms.

Let’s Review

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. How can we get infected with roundworms?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. How do roundworms affect their hosts?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. What measures can we take to prevent infection with roundworms?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34. How well did you do?

20
 Let’s Learn

Other parasitic roundworms include pinworms, hookworms, trichinas and whipworms.

Pinworms

A pinworm
Male pinworms are usually smaller than female ones, measuring only about 1 to 4 mm.
The females may grow up to 8 to 13 mm in length. They are called such because they are
comparable to a small pin. These worms love to stay near the anal opening of the intestine.
One mature worm may lay from 4600 to 16000 eggs. Clothing and beddings of people
infected with these may cause the spread of infections. The most common means of infection
with these worms is placing soiled fingers in your mouth as well as using contaminated
beddings, towels and the like.
These worms can cause an itchy sensation in one’s anus causing him/her discomfort and
even sleepless nights. There are also cases when these worms wander into a female’s vagina
and uterus causing mild irritation. Children afflicted with pinworms are often restless,
nervous and irritable.
Trichinas
The trichina is the smallest nematode parasite that can affect humans. Trichinas exhibit
the most unusual life cycle. They are one of the most widespread and clinically important
parasites in the world. Infection with them can be fatal. People can get infected with
trichinas by eating undercooked pork infested with the worms. Female trichinas can give
birth to 150 worms at one time. They can attack a person’s muscles causing a disease called
trichinosis. The disease can cause severe muscle pains, weakness and even death.

Striated muscle
of host
Fibrous sheath

Juvenile
nematode

Degenerated
muscle cell
Connective
tissues

21
Hookworms
The hookworm Necator americanus does great harm to the body by feeding on the
blood and cells of a person’s intestinal lining. Female hookworms produce many eggs which
leave the host’s body in the feces. In unsanitary living conditions, the eggs hatch and the
young hookworms stay in the soil. They enter the human body by boring through the skin of
the feet or openings in the skin using sharp teeth and hooks. Now, since these hookworms
enter the human body through openings in the skin or in bare human feet, the cycle can be
broken by seeing to it that children use footwear and making sure that human feces do not get
in the soil. Examine the illustration of the life cycle of a hookworm below. How does it
differ from that of the ascaris?

Larvae travel in the

blood to the lungs, up
the windpipe down the
esophagus and finally
reach the small
intestine.

Adult hookworms
attach to walls of the
intestine and release
Hookworm larvae eggs in human
burrow into foot. wastes. Larvae develop and
grow in moist soil.

Life cycle of a hookworm

Let’s Review

Look at the characteristics listed in the box. Then classify where each of them belongs.
Use the table on the next page for your answers.
Their males are usually smaller than their females.
They are the smallest nematode worms that can affect human beings.
They feed on the blood and cells of a human being’s intestinal lining.
They love to stay near the anal openings of the intestines of human beings.
People can get infected with them by eating undercooked pork.
They enter the human body by boring into a person’s feet or into openings
in his/her skin.

22
 Pinworms Trichinas Hookworms

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34. How well did you do?

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following roundworms can be seen almost anywhere?
a. ascaris
b. pinworms
c. hookworms
d. trichinas
2. Which are the possible hosts of Ascaris lumbricoides?
a. human being and cow
b. pig and human being
c. dog and pig
d. cat and dog
3. What is the worm that causes irritation and itching along the perianal opening
called?
a. hookworm
b. trichina
c. pinworm
d. ascaris
4. What disease can you get from eating undercooked pork infested with trichinas?
a. trichinosis
b. taeniasis
c. ascariasis
d. chlonorchiasis
5. Which among the following is not a roundworm?
a. hookworm
b. pinworm
c. tapeworm
d. trichina
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34. How well did you do?

23
Let’s Remember

♦ There are more than half a million species of roundworms that exist today.
♦ Ascaris are the most abundant worms of all. Male ascaris have bent posterior ends
while females have straight posterior ends.
♦ Ascariasis can be spread by improper hygiene when handling food and drinking
water.
♦ Pinworms can be easily found on beddings or clothing of carriers.
♦ Hookworms are so-called because of the presence of hooks on their anterior parts.

24
 LESSON 3

The Segmented Worms

The worms that you see on sidewalks and driveways after a heavy rain or on the ground
near bodies of water belong to the phylum Annelida. Most annelids are free-living. The word
annelid comes from a Greek word meaning “little rings.” There are over 6000 species of
segmented worms.
Annelids can be seen worldwide in seas, freshwater bodies and moist soil. Some
marine annelids live quietly in tubes or burrow into the bottom of mud or sand. Some feed on
organic matter in the mud, others are filter feeders and still others are predators. Examples
of segmented worms are earthworms, leeches and the beautiful fan worms. Some of these are
over 3 meters (m) long. Segmented worms have long, round bodies divided into segments or
rings on the outside. In this lesson, we will discuss the different groups of segmented worms
but we will focus on the most common worm of these types—the earthworms and leeches.
Annelids or segmented worms are divided into three classes, namely, the Polychaeta,
Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. Of the three, we will discuss only the Oligochaeta (earthworms)
and Hirudinea (leeches).

Let’s Try This

Prepare the following materials and do the activity below:

trowel
gloves
rubbing alcohol
forceps
empty mayonnaise bottle
bottle cap with white inside
1. Go to your garden and bring the materials you need with you.
2. Look for a place that is wet and moist all the time.
3. Use the trowel and try to dig slowly into the soil.
4. You will invariably encounter a lot of earthworms.
5. Put your earthworm specimens inside the collecting jars with the rubbing alcohol.
Three or four medium-sized earthworm specimens will do.
6. Once at home, transfer your specimens to the bottle cap and examine closely their
parts. Start from the anterior to the posterior parts of their bodies. Count their body
segments. How many are there? Are they all of the same size?
7. From the anterior to around one third of the body, you will encounter an enlarged
girdle-like segment. This is the clitellum. Can you see it? This is used for
reproduction.
8. Now, focus on the last segment. Is it similar to the other segments? What is this
structure called?

25
 Answer the following questions briefly.
1. In what part of your garden did you find the earthworms?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. What part of their bodies is found in the first segment?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. More or less, how many segments did you find in each earthworm?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. Are the segments of the same size?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5. What is the girdle-like band on the body of the earthworms called? What is it for?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Earthworms are commonly found in wet and moist places. The first segment of their
bodies contains the mouth. An earthworm’s body usually has about 100 segments. All of
these are of the same size except for the first and second segments.

Let’s Learn

Earthworms
The digestive system of an earthworm is made up of a crop, gizzard and intestine. The
soil eaten by the earthworm moves to the crop for storage. Behind it is the gizzard, the
structure that grinds the soil. The food is then broken down in the intestine and absorbed by
the blood. Undigested soil and waste materials leave the worm through the anus.
Earthworms move by peristaltic movement. All earthworms have both male and female
reproductive structures. They are, in a sense, hermaphrodites. However, reproduction in
earthworms still involves two separate individuals. When mating, the worms extend their
anterior ends from their burrows and bring their ventral surfaces together. They are held
together by mucus secreted by the clitellum and by special ventral setae which penetrates
both of their bodies in the regions of contact. Sperm is then discharged and travel to the
seminal receptacles of the other worm in its seminal grooves. After copulation, each worm
secretes mucus around its clitellum and a tough chitin-like band that forms a cocoon. As the
cocoon passes forward, eggs from the oviducts, albumin from the skin glands and sperm
from the mate are poured into it. Fertilization of the eggs now takes place within the cocoon.
When the cocoon leaves the worm, its ends close producing a lemon-shaped body.
Embryonic development occurs within the cocoon and the form that hatches from the egg is a
young worm similar to the adult.

26
 An earthworm

The earthworm is the most helpful annelid to people. Some species of earthworms are
even edible. They are made into burgers and are said to be very nutritious. Earthworms also
help improve soil by allowing air to enter as they burrow through the soil. They are also
used as bait by fishermen.

Leeches
Have you ever had to remove a leech from your body after swimming in a pond, lake or
river? In the provinces, it is a common sight to see leeches attached to carabaos and other
mammals. They suck blood from their hosts. Leeches belong to another group of segmented
worms—the Hirudinea. The scientific name of the common leech is Hirudo medicinalis.
They are very different from earthworms in that their bodies are not round or long and
they do not have setae. They are ectoparasites. They feed on the blood of fish, ducks and
even humans.

Let’s Try This

Collect leech specimens from nearby rivers or lakes. Do the following activity and
answer the given questions afterward. Refer to the diagram provided on the next page.
1. Put your specimens in rubbing alcohol.
2. Study the external parts of your specimens.
3. Count their body segments.

27
 The figure below shows how a leech sucks blood from its host. It uses its two suckers
simultaneously.

Leeches sucking human blood

1. Where did you find your specimens?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. How does a leech look?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. How many segments does a leech have?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. What do leeches use their suckers for?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Leeches are usually found along riverbanks. They have dorso-ventrally flattened bodies
and are dark brown to black in color. Their bodies are divided into around 34 segments
each. They use suckers for sucking the blood of their hosts.

28
 Let’s Learn

Leeches feed on blood. They use two suckers at each end of their bodies to stick to
their hosts. After attaching themselves to their hosts, they cut open wounds and suck two to
ten times their weight of blood. Leeches digest food very slowly because they do not have
enough digestive enzymes inside their guts. Some of them also feed on small invertebrates.
Do you know why wounds caused by leech bites do not stop bleeding immediately
after removing the leech? This is because leeches secrete a substance to keep your blood
from clotting so they can feed more easily. But some hospitals use leeches to perform
delicate microsurgery. They help regulate patients’ blood flows.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. During the dry season, are there many earthworms?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. How are earthworms used by farmers?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34. How well did you do?

Let’s Remember

♦ Segmented worms are worms whose body parts are divided into segments both
externally and internally.
♦ Earthworms love to live in wet and moist places.
♦ Earthworms have lots of uses. Some of them are edible. Some help aerate the soil.
And some used as bait by fishermen.
♦ Leeches feed on the blood of most chordates.
Well, this is the end of the module! Congratulations for finishing it. Did you like it? Did
you learn anything useful from it?
A summary of its main points is given on the next page to help you remember them better.

29
 Let’s Sum Up
This module tells us that:
♦ Flatworms are worms that have soft and dorso-ventrally flattened bodies.
♦ The planaria is an example of a free-living worm. Tapeworms and flukes are
generally parasitic.
♦ Adult liver flukes can be found in the livers of humans while tapeworms can be
found in their intestines.
♦ Proper health habits are recommended to avoid the spread of infections from the
different kinds of worms.
♦ There are more than half a million species of roundworms that exist today.
♦ Ascaris are the most abundant worms of all.
♦ Male ascaris have bent posterior ends while females have straight posterior ends.
♦ Ascariasis can be spread by improper hygiene when handling food and drinking
water.
♦ Hookworms are so-called because of the presence of hooks on their anterior parts.
♦ Segmented worms are worms whose body parts are divided into segments both
externally and internally.
♦ Earthworms love to live in wet and moist places.
♦ Earthworms have lots of uses. Some of them are edible. Some help aerate the soil.
And some are used as bait by fishermen.
♦ Leeches feed on the blood of most chordates.

30
 What Have You Learned?
A. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which among the following worms is not a parasite?
a. tapeworm
b. ascaris
c. planaria
d. hookworm
2. What do you call the host where the adult stage of a parasite is spent?
a. primary host
b. secondary host
c. tertiary host
d. quaternary host
3. Which of the following is the primary host of Chlonorchis sinensis?
a. pig
b. cow
c. human
d. snail
4. Which among the following parasitic worms stays in the bile duct or liver of a
sheep?
a. liver fluke
b. planaria
c. leech
d. tapeworm
5. What structure do leeches use to suck the blood of their hosts?
a. clitellum
b. mouth
c. sucker
d. seta
6. Which of the following cannot be transferred by embryonated eggs?
a. ascaris
b. tapeworms
c. hookworms
d. earthworms
7. Which among the following can cause intestinal obstruction?
a. pinworms
b. earthworms
c. trichinas
d. liver flukes

31
 8. What do you call animals that live on or in the bodies of other organisms?
a. free-living animals
b. parasites
c. saprophytes
d. epiphytes
9. Which among the following groups of worms can be found in undercooked pork?
a. flatworms
b. trichinas
c. hookworms
d. pinworms
10. Which among the following worms occupy the perianal parts of the intestinal tubes
of cows/cattle and can cause severe itchiness?
a. trichinas
b. pinworms
c. tapeworms
d. hookworms
B. Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What can cause a high rate of worm infections among people in a certain area?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Give at least five things that you can do to avoid worm infections.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 34 and 35. How well
did you do?

32
 Answer Key

A. Let’s See What You Already Know (pages 2–3)

1. (c)
2. (b)
3. (a)
4. (a)
5. (c)
6. (d)
7. (d)
8. (a)
9. (b)
10. (b)

B. Lesson 1
Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 15–16)
A. 1. (f)
2. (a)
3. (g)
4. (b)
5. (h)
6. (c)
7. (i)
8. (d)
9. (j)
10. (e)
B. Have your Instructional Manager or Facilitator check your answers.

C. Lesson 2
Let’s Try This (page 19)
1. In the “embryonated” egg stage.
2. Tapeworms have two hosts, while roundworms only have one.

33
 Let’s Review (page 20)
1. We could be infected with the parasite by eating contaminated foods and
drinking unsafe water. Aside from this, the soil with ascaris eggs can also be
a source of infection.
2. Roundworms can suck liquid food in the intestinal wall. This can lead to
malnourishment and underdevelopment in small children. This can also
include abdominal pains, intestinal obstruction, rashes, eye pain, asthma,
insomnia and restlessness.
3. The best thing to do is to observe proper hygiene. Wash hands before eating
or before handling foods. Avoid taking in foods that are not safe since they
might contain “embryonated” eggs.
Let’s Review (pages 22–23)
Pinworms Trichinas Hookworms
Their males are usually They are the smallest nematode They feed on the blood
smaller than their females. worms that can affect human and cells of a human
beings. being’s intestinal lining.
They love to stay near the People can get infected with them They enter the human body
anal openings of the by eating undercooked pork. by boring into a person’s
intestines of human beings. feet or into openings in
his/her skin.

Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 23)

1. (b)
2. (a)
3. (c)
4. (a)
5. (c)

D. Lesson 3
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 29)
1. During the dry season, earthworms stay in the deeper part of the soil in order
to avoid drying up.
2. Earthworms help farmers aerate the soil they use for planting crops.

E. What Have You Learned? (pages 31–32)

A. 1. (c)
2. (a)
3. (c)
4. (a)
5. (c)
6. (d)
7. (d)
8. (b)
9. (a)
10. (b)
34
B. 1. The following can cause a high rate of worm infections among people in
a certain area:
a. improper disposal of wastes, especially human feces
b. type of food eaten
c. drinking unsafe water
d. use of human feces for fertilizing vegetables and other crops
e. not inspecting the meat sold in markets properly
2. a. Cook meat properly at 56°C or higher or freeze it for at least one
week before cooking.
b. Do not handle food with dirty hands.
c. Make sure that your drinking water is clean.
d. Always wear slippers or footwear to avoid contact with the soil.
e. Use your own beddings. Do not share them with others.

35
 Glossary

Annulus A ring-like structure on leeches.

Anterior The head of an organism or the structure seen toward that end.
Clitellum Thickened saddle-like portion of certain mid-body segments of many
oligochaetes and leeches.
Cocoon A protective covering produced by earthworms where fertilization of
the egg cells takes place.
Crop A thick-walled chamber that receives and temporarily stores food materials
in earthworms.
Gizzard A large muscular chamber in which food is pulverized to aid digestion before
it goes to the stomach.
Fluke A member of the class Trematoda or Monogenea.
Hermaphrodite Containing both sexes or an organism with both the male and the
female reproductive organs.
Intermediate host Host in which a parasite develops to some extent but not to sexual
maturity.
Larva Progeny of any animal that is markedly different in body form from the adult.
Oncosphere Rounded larva with hooks common to all cestodes.
Metacercaria Stages between the cercaria and adult stages in the life cycle of a
trematode.
Parasitism A type of association between two organisms in which the parasite benefits
and the host is harmed in some way.
Proglottid Corresponds to a segment.
Scolex Head or holdfast organ of a tapeworm.
Trichinosis Disease caused by infection of a nematode.

36
 References

Balzer, L. and P. L. Goodson. Introduction to Biology. Glenview, Illinois: Scott,

Foresman and Company, 1986.
Daniel, L., E. Ortleb and Alton Biggs. Merill Life Science. New York: Macmillan/
McGraw-Hill, 1994.
Mauseth, James T. Botany. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1996.
Miller, K. R. Biology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1991.
Scmidt, G., et al. Foundations of Parasitology. St. Louis, Missouri: Times Mirror,
Mosby College Publishing, 1989.
Stern, K. R. Introduction to Plant Biology. U.S.A.: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Inc.,
1994.
Wong, H. K. and M. Dolmatz. Biology: The Key Ideas. New York: Globe Book
Company, 1986.

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