The Human Body Is Everything That Makes Up

The human body is everything that makes up, well, you.
The basic parts of the human

body are the head, neck, torso, arms and legs.
[Image Gallery: The BioDigital Human]

Body systems
Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific functions
necessary for everyday living.
The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels, arteries and
veins.
The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together, allow the
body to break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It includes the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and
pancreas also play a role in the digestive system because they produce digestive juices.
The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones into the
blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various bodily
functions, such as metabolism, growth and sexual function.
The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens
that may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes
(including B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes, which are white blood cells.
The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and also
plays a role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make is to make and move lymph,
a clear fluid that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The
lymphatic system also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to
the blood.
The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious movement) and
involuntary actions (like breathing), and sends signals to different parts of the body. The
central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous
system consists of nerves that connect every other part of the body to the central
nervous system.
The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in movement, blood
flow and other bodily functions. There are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which
is connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement, smooth muscle which is
found inside organs and helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle
which is found in the heart and helps pump blood.
The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive system
includes the penis and the testes, which produce sperm. The female reproductive
system consists of the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During
conception, a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that
implants and grows in the uterus. [Related: Awkward Anatomy: 10 Odd Facts About the
Female Body]
Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of 206 bones that are
connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move,
but it's also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The
teeth are also part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones.
The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a
process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the
lungs.
The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is
produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys,
two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the
kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.
The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects us from the
outside world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens.
Our skin also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through
perspiration. In addition to skin, the integumentary system includes hair and nails.
Vital organs
Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain, heart,
kidneys, liver and lungs.
The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending signals to other
organs through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is responsible
for our thoughts, feelings, memory storage and general perception of the world.
The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.
The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The kidneys
take urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other substances to make
urine.
The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful chemicals, breakdown of
drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.
The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we breathe and transferring
it to our blood where it can be sent to our cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide,
which we exhale.
Fun facts
 The human body contains nearly 100 trillion cells.
 There are at least 10 times as many bacteria in the human body as cells.
 The average adult takes over 20,000 breaths a day.
 Each day, the kidneys process about 200 quarts (50 gallons) of blood to filter out about 2
quarts of waste and water
 Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day.
 The human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells
 Water makes up more than 50 percent of the average adult's body weight
You use your eyes to see, your ears to hear and your muscles to do the heavy lifting.
Well, sort of. In fact, most body parts are far more complicated than that, while some
seem to have no business being inside there at all.
Ready for Med School? Test Your Body Smarts

The Circulatory System: An Amazing Circuit That
Keeps Our Bodies Going
By Kim Ann Zimmermann - Live Science Contributor August 08, 2019
Reference Article: Facts about the human circulatory system.
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The human circulatory system keeps blood, oxygen and nutrients flowing through the body.
(Image: © Norman B/Shutterstock)
The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is a vast network of organs and
blood vessels that acts both as a delivery and waste removal system for the body. Nutrients,
oxygen and hormones are delivered to every cell and as these necessities are provided, waste
products such as carbon dioxide are removed, according to the nonprofit Nemours Children's
Health System.
Not only does the circulatory system keep our cells healthy, but it also keeps us alive. The heart
constantly receives signals from the rest of the body that direct how hard it needs to pump to
properly supply the body with what it needs, according to Nemours. For example, when asleep,
the body sends electrical signals to the heart that tell it to slow down. When participating in
heavy exercise, the heart receives the message to pump harder to deliver extra oxygen to the
muscles.
How the circulatory system works

The heart lies at the center of the circulatory system and pumps blood through the rest of the
network. This hollow muscle is made up of four chambers: The left and right atriums make up
the two chambers at the top and the left and right ventricles form the two chambers at the
bottom, according to the University of Michigan. The chambers are separated by one-way valves
to ensure that blood flows in the correct direction.
The rest of the circulatory system is made up of two independent networks that work together:
The pulmonary and systemic systems.
The pulmonary system is responsible for providing fresh oxygen to the blood and removing
carbon dioxide, according to the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
Oxygen-poor blood arrives from veins leading to the right atrium of the heart. The blood is then
pumped through the right ventricle, then through the pulmonary artery, which splits off into two
and divides into increasingly smaller arteries and capillaries before entering the lungs. The tiny
capillaries form a network within the lungs that facilitate the exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen. From the lungs, the oxygen-rich blood flows back toward the heart.
Next, the systemic system of arteries, veins and capillaries takes over. Arteries and veins are not
the same, although they are both types of blood vessels. Arteries carry oxygen- and nutrient-rich
blood from the heart to all parts of your body, according to the National Cancer Institute. Veins
carry the oxygen- and nutrient-poor blood back to the heart. The capillaries are the smallest type
of blood vessel, and provide the bridge between the arteries and veins.
Find out all about the blood, lungs and blood vessels that make up the circulatory system. (Image credit: Ross Toro, Livescience
contributor)
As the oxygen-rich blood arrives from the lungs, it enters the left atrium and then travels through
to the left ventricle before being pumped throughout the body, according to NCBI. The blood
gets pumped through the aorta artery (the largest artery in the body) before entering the smaller
arteries that carry the blood to every part of the body. As the blood delivers nutrients and oxygen
to each cell, carbon dioxide and other waste products are picked up as the blood flows through
the capillaries and into the veins.
The contraction and relaxation of the heart – the heartbeat – is controlled by the sinus node,
which is a cluster of cells situated at the top of the right atrium. The sinus node sends electrical
signals through the electrical conduction system of the heart that direct the muscle to contract or
relax.
The heartbeat is divided into two phases: the systole and diastole phases. In the first, the
ventricles contract and push blood out into the pulmonary artery or the aorta. At the same time,
the valves separating the atria and ventricles snap shut to prevent blood from flowing backwards.
In the diastole phase, the valves connecting to the atrium open, and the ventricles relax and fill
with blood. The sinus node controls the pace of these two phases.
Adult humans have a total of about five to six quarts (a little less than five to six liters) of blood
pumping through their bodies, according to Arkansas Heart Hospital. On average, the heart
pumps about 100,000 times per day, pushing about 2,000 gallons (7,570 liters) of blood through
a total of 60,000 miles (96,560 kilometers) of blood vessels. It only takes about 20 seconds for
blood to travel through the entire circulatory system.
Circulatory system diseases
Heart disease is the leading cause of death for both men and women in the United States,
claiming 610,000 people per year, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Heart disease is a broad term that covers a wide range of diseases and disorders,
including stroke (the blockage of blood to the brain), heart attack (the flow of blood to the heart
is blocked), hypertension (high blood pressure causing the heart to work harder), arteriosclerosis
(the arteries become thick and stiff) and aneurysm (a damaged blood vessel that can lead to
internal bleeding).
Risk factors for heart disease include age, sex, family history, poor diet, smoking and stress, as
well as high blood pressure and elevated cholesterol levels, according to the Mayo Clinic. There
are many ways that heart disease can be prevented, including keeping other health conditions
under control, maintaining a healthy diet, participating in regular physical activity and keeping
stress levels at a minimum.
Digestive System: Facts, Function & Diseases
By Kim Ann Zimmermann - Live Science Contributor March 11, 2016
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Description of the digestive system
Also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the digestive system begins at the mouth, includes
the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (also known as the colon) and rectum,
and ends at the anus. The entire system — from mouth to anus — is about 30 feet (9 meters)
long, according to the American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE).
Digestion begins with the mouth. Even the smell of food can generate saliva, which is secreted
by the salivary glands in the mouth, contains an enzyme, salivary amylase, which breaks down
starch. Teeth, which are part of the skeletal system, play a key role in digestion. In carnivores,
teeth are designed for killing and breaking down meat. Herbivores’ teeth are made for grinding
plants and other food to ease them through the digestion process.

Swallowing pushes chewed food into the esophagus, where it passes through the oropharynx and
hypopharynx. At this point, food takes the form of a small round mass and digestion becomes
involuntary. A series of muscular contractions, called peristalsis, transports food through the rest
of the system. The esophagus empties into the stomach, according to the National Institutes of
Health (NIH).
The stomach’s gastric juice, which is primarily a mix of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, starts
breaking down proteins and killing potentially harmful bacteria, according to ASGE. After an
hour or two of this process, a thick semi-liquid paste, called chyme, forms.
At this point the pyloric sphincter valve opens and chyme enters the duodenum, where it mixes
with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and acidic bile from the gall bladder, according to
the Cleveland Clinic. The next stop for the chyme is the small intestine, a 20-foot (6-meter) tube-
shaped organ, where the majority of the absorption of nutrients occurs. The nutrients move into
the bloodstream and are transported to the liver.
The liver creates glycogen from sugars and carbohydrates to give the body energy and converts
dietary proteins into new proteins needed by the blood system. The liver also breaks down
unwanted chemicals, such as alcohol, which is detoxified and passed from the body as waste, the
Cleveland Clinic noted.
Whatever material is left goes into the large intestine. The function of the large intestine, which
is about 5 feet long (1.5 meters), is primarily for storage and fermentation of indigestible matter.
Also called the colon, it has four parts: the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending
colon and the sigmoid colon. This is where water from the chyme is absorbed back into the body
and feces are formed primarily from water (75 percent), dietary fiber and other waste products,
according to the Cleveland Clinic. Feces are stored here until they are eliminated from the body
through defecation.
Diseases of the digestive system

Many symptoms can signal problems with the GI tract, including: abdominal pain, blood in the
stool, bloating, constipation, diarrhea, heartburn, incontinence, nausea and vomiting and
difficulty swallowing, according to the NIH.
Among the most widely known diseases of the digestive system is colon cancer. According to
the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 51,783 Americans died from colon cancer in 2011 (the
most recent year for available data). Excluding skin cancers, colon and rectal cancer, or
colorectal cancer, is the third most common cancer diagnosed in both men and women in the
United States, according to the American Cancer Society.
Polyp growth and irregular cells, which may or may not be cancerous, are the most common
development paths for colorectal cancers (also referred to as CRC), and can be detected during a
routine colonoscopy, according to Dr. John Marks, a gastroenterologist affiliated with the Main
Line Health health care system.
“The best news is that, if caught early enough, they can also be removed during the colonoscopy
— eliminating the possibility that they grow further and become cancer,” Marks said.
For those patients whose cancer has already spread, there are various minimally invasive surgical
options that have extremely good prognoses. It is recommended that asymptomatic patients
without a family history begin getting tested regularly between the ages 45 and 50, according to
Marks. “Symptoms which may suggest that you need a colonoscopy at an earlier age include
rectal bleeding and stool/bowel habit changes which last for more than a few days.”
While CRC gets a great deal of attention, many diseases and conditions of the digestive system
— including irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis, GERD (acid reflux) and Crohn’s disease —
can be chronic and are difficult to diagnose and treat, according to Dr. Larry Good, a
gastroenterologist affiliated with South Nassau Communities Hospital. “With many of these
diseases, blood work and colonoscopies all looks normal, so there is an absence of red flags.”
Many of the diseases of the digestive system are tied to the foods we eat, and a number of
sufferers can reduce their symptoms by restricting their diets, Good said. “Of course no one
wants to hear that they can’t eat certain foods, but many times, eliminating acidic things from the
diet, such as tomatoes, onions, and red wine, can have an impact,” Good said.
There are a number of tests to detect digestive tract ailments. A colonoscopy is the examination
of the inside of the colon using a long, flexible, fiber-optic viewing instrument called a
colonoscope, according the American Gastroenterological Association. Other testing procedures
include upper GI endoscopy, capsule endoscopy, endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography and endoscopic ultrasound.
Study of the digestive system
Gastroenterology is the branch of medicine focused on studying and treating the digestive system
disorders. Physicians practicing this specialty are called gastroenterologists. The name is a
combination of three ancient Greek words gastros (stomach), enteron (intestine)
and logos (reason). It is an internal medicine subspecialty certified by the American Board of
Internal Medicine.
To be certified as a gastroenterologist, a doctor must pass the Gastroenterology Certification
Examination and undergo a minimum of 36 months of additional training.
Milestones
References to the digestive system can be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. Some milestones
in the study of the gastrointestinal system include:
 Claudius Galen (circa 130-200) lived at the end of the ancient Greek period and reviewed the
teachings of Hippocrates and other Greek doctors. He theorized that the stomach acted independently
from other systems in the body, almost with a separate brain. This was widely accepted until the 17th
century.
 In 1780, Italian physician Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted experiments to prove the impact of
gastric juice on the digestion process.
 Philipp Bozzini developed the Lichtleiter in 1805. This instrument, which was used to examine
the urinary tract, rectum and pharynx, was the earliest endoscopy.
 Adolf Kussmaul, a German physician, developed the gastroscope in 1868, using a sword
swallower to help develop the diagnostic process.
 Rudolph Schindler, known to some as the “father of gastroscopy,” described many of the diseases
involving the human digestive system in his illustrated textbook issued during World War I. He and
Georg Wolf developed a semi-flexible gastroscope in 1932.
 In 1970, Hiromi Shinya, a Japanese-born general surgeon, delivered the first report of a
colonoscopy to the New York Surgical Society and in May 1971 presented his experiences to the
American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy.
 In 2005, Australians Barry Marshall and Robin Warren were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of Helicobacter pylori and its role in peptic ulcer disease.
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Endocrine System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

By Kim Ann Zimmermann - Live Science Contributor February 16, 2018
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The pancreas is located deep inside the abdomen.
(Image: © Sebastian Kaulitzki)
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The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and
mood, among other things.
Function
The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid
glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males), according to the
Mayo Clinic.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning within, and "crinis,"
meaning to secrete, according to Health Mentor Online. In general, a gland selects and removes
materials from the blood, processes them and secretes the finished chemical product for use
somewhere in the body. The endocrine system affects almost every organ and cell in the body,
according to the Merck Manual.
Although the hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of hormone is targeted toward
certain organs and tissues, the Merck Manual notes. The endocrine system gets some help from
organs such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, which have secondary endocrine functions.
The kidney, for example, secretes hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.
The thyroid also secretes a range of hormones that affect the whole body. "Thyroid hormones
impact a host of vital body functions, including heart rate, skin maintenance, growth,
temperature regulation, fertility and digestion," said Dr. Jerome M. Hershman, a professor of
medicine at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and author of the thyroid sections of
the Merck Manual.
"In this way, the thyroid gland is the body's master metabolic control center," said Cindy Samet,
a chemistry professor at Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. "Brain, heart and kidney
function, as well as body temperature, growth and muscle strength — and much more — are at
the mercy of thyroid function."
Diseases of the endocrine system

Hormone levels that are too high or too low indicate a problem with the endocrine system.
Hormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to hormones in the appropriate ways.
Stress, infection and changes in the blood's fluid and electrolyte balance can also influence
hormone levels, according to the National Institutes of Health.
The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a condition in which the
body does not properly process glucose, a simple sugar. This is due to the lack of insulin or, if
the body is producing insulin, because the body is not working effectively, according to Dr.
Jennifer Loh, chief of the department of endocrinology for Kaiser Permanente in Hawaii.
Diabetes can be linked to obesity, diet and family history, according to Dr. Alyson Myers
of North Shore-LIJ Health System. "To diagnose diabetes, we do an oral glucose tolerance test
with fasting."
It is also important to understand the patient's health history as well as the family history, Myers
noted. Infections and medications such as blood thinners can also cause adrenal deficiencies.
Diabetes is treated with pills or insulin injections. Managing other endocrine disorders typically
involves stabilizing hormone levels with medication or, if a tumor is causing an overproduction
of a hormone, by removing the tumor. Treating endocrine disorders takes a very careful and
personalized approach, Myers said, as adjusting the levels of one hormone can impact the
balance of other hormones.
Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive system, particularly in
women, Loh explained.
Another disorder, hypothyroidism, a parathyroid disease, occurs when the thyroid gland does not
produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body's needs. Loh noted that insufficient thyroid
hormone can cause many of the body's functions to slow or shut down completely. It has an easy
treatment, though. "Parathyroid disease is a curable cause of kidney stones," said Dr. Melanie
Goldfarb, an endocrine surgeon and director of the Endocrine Tumor Program at Providence
Saint John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California, and an assistant professor of surgery at
the John Wayne Cancer Institute in Santa Monica. The damaged part of the gland is removed
surgically.
Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin to
change, grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor, according to Loh. Tumors — both
benign and cancerous — can also disrupt the functions of the endocrine system, Myers
explained. Between the years of 1975 and 2013, the cases of thyroid cancer diagnosed yearly
have more than tripled, according to a 2017 study published in the Journal of the American
Medical Association (JAMA). "While overdiagnosis may be an important component to this
observed epidemic, it clearly does not explain the whole story," said Dr. Julie Sosa, one of the
authors of the new study and the chief of endocrine surgery at Duke University in North
Carolina. The American Cancer Society predicts that there will be about 53,990 new cases of
thyroid cancer in 2018 and around 2,060 deaths from thyroid cancer.
Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood glucose
drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for diabetes when too
much insulin is taken. While Loh noted that the condition can occur in people not undergoing
treatment for diabetes, such an occurrence is fairly rare.
What is an endocrinologist?
After completing four years of medical school, people who want to be endocrinologists then
spend three or four years in an internship and residency program. These specialty programs
cover internal medicine, pediatrics, or obstetrics and gynecology, according to the American
Board of Internal Medicine.
Endocrinologists-in-training then spend two or three more years learning how to diagnose and
treat hormone conditions. Overall, an endocrinologist's training will take more than 10 years
after the undergraduate degree. They are certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine.
Endocrinologists typically specialize in one or two areas of endocrinology, such as diabetes or
infertility. These specialists treat patients with fertility issues and also assess and treat patients
with health concerns surrounding menstruation and menopause, Loh noted.
Milestones in the study of the endocrine system

200 B.C.: The Chinese begin isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine and using
them for medicinal purposes
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1025: In medieval Persia, the writer Avicenna (980-1037) provides a detailed account on
diabetes mellitus in "The Canon of Medicine" (c. 1025), describing the abnormal appetite, the
collapse of sexual functions and the sweet taste of diabetic urine.
1835: Irish doctor Robert James Graves describes a case of goiter with bulging eyes
(exophthalmos). The thyroid condition Graves' disease was later named after the doctor.
1902: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling perform an experiment in which they observe that
acid instilled into the duodenum (part of the small intestine) causes the pancreas to begin
secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two organs.
1889: Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski observe that surgically removing the pancreas
results in an increase of blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death.
1921: Otto Loewi in 1921 discovers neurohormones by incubating a frog's heart in a saline bath.
1922: Leonard Thompson, at age 14, is the first person with diabetes to receive insulin.
Drugmaker Eli Lilly soon starts mass production of insulin.
Immune System: Diseases, Disorders & Function
By Kim Ann Zimmermann - Live Science Contributor October 17, 2018
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T-cells attacking a cancer cell.
(Image: © Andrea Danti | Shutterstock)
The role of the immune system — a collection of structures and processes within the body — is
to protect against disease or other potentially damaging foreign bodies. When functioning
properly, the immune system identifies a variety of threats, including viruses, bacteria and
parasites, and distinguishes them from the body's own healthy tissue, according to Merck
Manuals.
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Innate vs. adaptive immunity
The immune system can be broadly sorted into categories: innate immunity and adaptive
immunity.
Innate immunity is the immune system you're born with, and mainly consists of barriers on and
in the body that keep foreign threats out, according to the National Library of Medicine (NLM).
Components of innate immunity include skin, stomach acid, enzymes found in tears and skin
oils, mucus and the cough reflex. There are also chemical components of innate immunity,
including substances called interferon and interleukin-1.
Innate immunity is non-specific, meaning it doesn't protect against any specific threats.
Adaptive, or acquired, immunity targets specific threats to the body, according to the NLM.
Adaptive immunity is more complex than innate immunity, according to The Biology Project at
The University of Arizona. In adaptive immunity, the threat must be processed and recognized
by the body, and then the immune system creates antibodies specifically designed to the threat.
After the threat is neutralized, the adaptive immune system "remembers" it, which makes future
responses to the same germ more efficient.
Major components
Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that produce and store cells that fight infection and
disease and are part of the lymphatic system — which consists of bone marrow, spleen, thymus
and lymph nodes, according to "A Practical Guide To Clinical Medicine" from the University of
California San Diego (UCSD). Lymph nodes also contain lymph, the clear fluid that carries those
cells to different parts of the body. When the body is fighting infection, lymph nodes can become
enlarged and feel sore.
Spleen: The largest lymphatic organ in the body, which is on your left side, under your ribs and
above your stomach, contains white blood cells that fight infection or disease. According to
the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the spleen also helps control the amount of blood in the
body and disposes of old or damaged blood cells.
Bone marrow: The yellow tissue in the center of the bones produces white blood cells. This
spongy tissue inside some bones, such as the hip and thigh bones, contains immature cells, called
stem cells, according to the NIH. Stem cells, especially embryonic stem cells, which are derived
from eggs fertilized in vitro (outside of the body), are prized for their flexibility in being able to
morph into any human cell.
Lymphocytes: These small white blood cells play a large role in defending the body against
disease, according to the Mayo Clinic. The two types of lymphocytes are B-cells, which make
antibodies that attack bacteria and toxins, and T-cells, which help destroy infected or cancerous
cells. Killer T-cells are a subgroup of T-cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses and
other pathogens or are otherwise damaged. Helper T-cells help determine which immune
responses the body makes to a particular pathogen.
Thymus: This small organ is where T-cells mature. This often-overlooked part of the immune
system, which is situated beneath the breastbone (and is shaped like a thyme leaf, hence the
name), can trigger or maintain the production of antibodies that can result in muscle weakness,
the Mayo Clinic said. Interestingly, the thymus is somewhat large in infants, grows until puberty,
then starts to slowly shrink and become replaced by fat with age, according to the National
Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.
Leukocytes: These disease-fighting white blood cells identify and eliminate pathogens and are
the second arm of the innate immune system. A high white blood cell count is referred to as
leukocytosis, according to the Mayo Clinic. The innate leukocytes include phagocytes
(macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells), mast cells, eosinophils and basophils.
Diseases of the immune system
If immune system-related diseases are defined very broadly, then allergic diseases such as
allergic rhinitis, asthma and eczema are very common. However, these actually represent a
hyper-response to external allergens, according to Dr. Matthew Lau, chief, department of allergy
and immunology at Kaiser Permanente Hawaii. Asthma and allergies also involve the immune
system. A normally harmless material, such as grass pollen, food particles, mold or pet dander, is
mistaken for a severe threat and attacked.
Other dysregulation of the immune system includes autoimmune diseases such

as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.
"Finally, some less common disease related to deficient immune system conditions are antibody
deficiencies and cell mediated conditions that may show up congenitally," Lau told Live Science.
Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and
cancer, according to the NIH.
Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is not as strong as normal, resulting in
recurring and life-threatening infections, according to the University of Rochester Medical
Center. In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe
combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or through the use of
immunosuppressive medication.
On the opposite end of the spectrum, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system
attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign bodies, according to the University of Rochester
Medical Center. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid
arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1 and systemic lupus erythematosus. Another disease considered
to be an autoimmune disorder is myasthenia gravis (pronounced my-us-THEE-nee-uh GRAY-
vis).
Diagnosis and treatment of immune system diseases

Even though symptoms of immune diseases vary, fever and fatigue are common signs that the
immune system is not functioning properly, the Mayo Clinic noted.
Most of the time, immune deficiencies are diagnosed with blood tests that either measure the
level of immune elements or their functional activity, Lau said.
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Allergic conditions may be evaluated using either blood tests or allergy skin testing to identify
what allergens trigger symptoms.
In overactive or autoimmune conditions, medications that reduce the immune response, such as
corticosteroids or other immune suppressive agents, can be very helpful.
"In some immune deficiency conditions, the treatment may be replacement of missing or
deficiency elements," Lau said. "This may be infusions of antibodies to fight infections."
Treatment may also include monoclonal antibodies, Lau said. A monoclonal antibody is a type of
protein made in a lab that can bind to substances in the body. They can be used to regulate parts
of the immune response that are causing inflammation, Lau said. According to the National
Cancer Institute, monoclonal antibodies are being used to treat cancer. They can carry drugs,
toxins or radioactive substances directly to cancer cells.
Milestones in the history of immunology
1718: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador to Constantinople,
observed the positive effects of variolation — the deliberate infection with the smallpox disease
— on the native population and had the technique performed on her own children.
1796: Edward Jenner was the first to demonstrate the smallpox vaccine.
1840: Jakob Henle put forth the first modern proposal of the germ theory of disease.
1857-1870: The role of microbes in fermentation was confirmed by Louis Pasteur.
1880-1881: The theory that bacterial virulence could be used as vaccines was developed. Pasteur
put this theory into practice by experimenting with chicken cholera and anthrax vaccines. On
May 5, 1881, Pasteur vaccinated 24 sheep, one goat, and six cows with five drops of live
attenuated anthrax bacillus.
1885: Joseph Meister, 9 years old, was injected with the attenuated rabies vaccine by Pasteur
after being bitten by a rabid dog. He is the first known human to survive rabies.
1886: American microbiologist Theobold Smith demonstrated that heat-killed cultures of
chicken cholera bacillus were effective in protecting against cholera.
1903: Maurice Arthus described the localizing allergic reaction that is now known as the Arthus
response.
1949: John Enders, Thomas Weller and Frederick Robbins experimented with the growth of
polio virus in tissue culture, neutralization with immune sera, and demonstration of attenuation
of neurovirulence with repetitive passage.
1951: Vaccine against yellow fever was developed.
1983: HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) was discovered by French virologist Luc
Montagnier.
1986: Hepatitis B vaccine was produced by genetic engineering.
2005: Ian Frazer developed the human papillomavirus vaccine.
Lymphatic System: Facts, Functions & Diseases
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The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste
and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport
lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.
The lymphatic system primarily consists of lymphatic vessels, which are similar to the veins and
capillaries of the circulatory system. The vessels are connected to lymph nodes, where the lymph
is filtered. The tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system.
Description of the lymphatic system
There are hundreds of lymph nodes in the human body. They are located deep inside the body,
such as around the lungs and heart, or closer to the surface, such as under the arm or groin,
according to the American Cancer Society. The lymph nodes are found from the head to around
the knee area.
The spleen, which is located on the left side of the body just above the kidney, is the largest
lymphatic organ, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). "The spleen . . .
acts as a blood filter; it controls the amount of red blood cells and blood storage in the body, and
helps to fight infection," said Jordan Knowlton, an advanced registered nurse practitioner at the
University of Florida Health Shands Hospital.
If the spleen detects potentially dangerous bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms in the
blood, it — along with the lymph nodes — creates white blood cells called lymphocytes, which
act as defenders against invaders. The lymphocytes produce antibodies to kill the foreign
microorganisms and stop infections from spreading. Humans can live without a spleen, although
people who have lost their spleen to disease or injury are more prone to infections.
The lymphatic system helps keep the body healthy by eliminating infections and diseases. (Image credit: by Ross Toro,
Infographics Artist)
The thymus is located in the chest just above the heart, according to Merck Manual. This small
organ stores immature lymphocytes (specialized white blood cells) and prepares them to become
active T cells, which help destroy infected or cancerous cells.
Tonsils are large clusters of lymphatic cells found in the pharynx. According to the American
Academy of Otolaryngology, they are the body's "first line of defense as part of the immune
system. They sample bacteria and viruses that enter the body through the mouth or nose." They
sometimes become infected, and although tonsillectomies occur much less frequently today than
they did in the 1950s, it is still among the most common operations performed and typically
follows frequent throat infections.
Lymph is a clear and colorless fluid; the word "lymph" comes from the Latin word lympha,
which means "connected to water," according to the National Lymphadema Network.
Plasma leaves the body's cells once it has delivered its nutrients and removed debris. Most of this
fluid returns to the venous circulation through tiny blood vessels called venules and continues as
venous blood. The remainder becomes lymph, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Unlike blood, which flows throughout the body in a continue loop, lymph flows in only one
direction — upward toward the neck. Lymphatic vessels connect to two subclavian veins, which
are located on either sides of the neck near the collarbones, and the fluid re-enters the circulatory
system, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system

Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system are typically treated by immunologists. Vascular
surgeons, dermatologists, oncologists and physiatrists also get involved in treatment of various
lymphatic ailments. There are also lymphedema therapists who specialize in the manual drainage
of the lymphatic system.
The most common diseases of the lymphatic system are enlargement of the lymph nodes (also
known as lymphadenopathy), swelling due to lymph node blockage (also known
as lymphedema) and cancers involving the lymphatic system, according to Dr. James Hamrick,
chief of medical oncology and hematology at Kaiser Permanente in Atlanta.
When bacteria are recognized in the lymph fluid, the lymph nodes make more infection-fighting
white blood cells, which can cause swelling. The swollen nodes can sometimes be felt in the
neck, underarms and groin, according to the NLM.
Lymphadenopathy is usually caused by infection, inflammation, or cancer. Infections that cause

lymphadenopathy include bacterial infections such as strep throat, locally infected skin wounds,
or viral infections such as mononucleosis or HIV infection, Hamrick stated. "The enlargement of
the lymph nodes may be localized to the area of infection, as in strep throat, or more generalized
as in HIV infection. In some areas of the body the enlarged lymph nodes are palpable, while
others are to deep to feel and can be seen on CT scan or MRI."
Inflammatory or autoimmune conditions occur when a person's immune system is active, and
can result in enlargement of lymph nodes. This can happen in lupus, according to Hamrick.
Lymphoma:
This refers to cancer of the lymph nodes. It occurs when lymphocytes grow and multiply
uncontrollably. There are a number of different types of lymphoma, according to Dr. Jeffrey P.
Sharman, director of research at Willamette Valley Cancer Institute and medical director of
hematology research for the U.S. Oncology Network.
"The first 'branch point' is the difference between Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin
lymphoma (NHL)," Sharman said. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more common of the two,
according to the Lymphoma Research Foundation.
The most common types of NHL are follicular, which accounts for about 30 percent of all NHL
cases; diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), which comprises 40 to 50 percent of NHL
cases; and Burkitt's lymphoma, which accounts for 5 percent of NHL cases. "The remainder of
cases makes up the bewildering complexity of NHL," Sharman said.
"Though there can be a significant range within an individual category, the clinical approach to
each category is unique and the expectations of patient outcome varies by category," Sharman
said.
When a person has had surgery and/or radiation to remove a cancer, the lymphatic flow back to
the heart and can result in swelling or lymphedema, Hamrick noted. This most commonly
occurs in women who have had surgery to remove a breast cancer. Part of the operation to
remove the breast cancer involves removing lymph nodes in the armpit.
The more lymph nodes removed the higher the risk of chronic bothersome swelling and pain due
to lymphedema in the arm, Hamrick explained. "Fortunately, modern surgical techniques are
allowing for fewer lymph nodes to be removed, and thus fewer cases of severe lymphedema for
breast cancer survivors."
Some interesting research has been done on why people possibly get lymphoma. For example,
VU University Medical Center in Amsterdam researched a nationwide Dutch pathology registry
between 1990 and 2016. From the research, they estimated that the risk of developing anaplastic
large cell lymphoma in the breast after getting implants is 1 in 35,000 at age 50, 1 in 12,000 at
age 70, and 1 in 7,000 at age 75. The study was published in the Jan. 4, 2018 issue of the journal
JAMA Oncology.
Castleman disease:
This disease refers to a group of inflammatory disorders that cause lymph node enlargement and
can result in multiple-organ dysfunction, according to the Castleman Disease Cooperative
Network. While not specifically a cancer, it is a similar to a lymphoma and is often treated with
chemotherapy. It can be unicentric (one lymph node) or multicentric, involving multiple lymph
nodes.
Lymphangiomatosis:
This disease involves multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels, according to
the Lymphangiomatosis & Gorham's Disease Alliance. It is thought to be the result of a genetic
mutation.
Tonsil stones are another problem that can happen to the lymphatic system. Small bits of debris
catches on the tonsils and white blood cells attack the debris and leave behind hard a hard
biofilm that breaths oxygen. They are not smooth like regular stones, though. "Instead, they look
like prunes, with crevices where bacteria can accumulate," said Chetan Kaher, a dentist in
London. Usually, tonsil stones fall away and get swallowed, but sometimes they need to be
manually removed.
Diagnosis and treatment

Diseases of the lymphatic system are usually diagnosed when lymph nodes are enlarged,
Hamrick noted. This may be discovered when the lymph nodes become enlarged enough to be
felt ("palpable lymphadenopathy") or are seen on imaging studies such as CT scans or MRIs.
The majority of enlarged lymph nodes are not dangerous; they are the body's way of fighting off
an infection, such as a viral upper respiratory infection. If the lymph nodes become significantly
enlarged and persist longer than the infection, then they are more worrisome. There is no specific
size cutoff, but typically nodes that persist at larger than a centimeter are more worrisome and
warrant examination by a doctor.
Common symptoms of any lymphatic disorder include swelling of the arm or groin, weight loss,
fever and night sweats, according to Stephanie Bernik, chief of surgical oncology at Lenox Hill
Hospital in New York. "A PET or CAT scan is usually ordered to further investigate."
The diagnosis of lymphadenopathy depends on the location of the abnormal lymph nodes and
other things that are going on with the patient. If the patient has a known infection, then the
lymph nodes can simply be followed to await resolution with treatment of the infection. If the
nodes are growing quickly and there is no obvious explanation then typically a biopsy is
warranted to look for a cancer or an infection. If the node can be felt then this can be done at the
bedside with a needle, according to Hamrick.
If the lymph node is deeper, such as in the abdomen or pelvis, Hamrick said the biopsy might
need to be done by an interventional radiologist using image guidance to place the needle into
the node. Sometimes the biopsy needs to be done by a surgeon in the operating room. This is
often where the most tissue can be obtained to make a diagnosis, he said.
With many types of lymphoma and leukemia, there are unique treatment options for each type,
according to Sharman. "There is no one 'summary' of treatment options. Treatment options can
include traditional chemotherapy, immunotherapy (such as using antibodies or immune
modulating drugs), and even radiation."
Treatment of lymphatic diseases depends on treating the underlying cause. Infections are treated
with antibiotics, supportive care (while the immune system does its job, as in a viral infection) or
antivirals. Lymphedema can be treated by elevation, compression and physical therapy. Cancers
of the lymphatic system are treated by chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, or a combination of
those modalities, Hamrick noted.
In last several years, Sharman noted that there has been explosion of new treatment options.
"There are a handful of newly approved drugs that target the actual disease causing processes
within cells. Ibrutinib, idelalisib, obinutuzumab, lenalidomide have been approved in various
indications and it is likely that we will see multiple more in coming years."
Muscular System: Facts, Functions & Diseases
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The human body has more than 600 muscles.
(Image: © Jacob Lund/Shutterstock)
While most people associate muscles with strength, they do more than assist in lifting heavy
objects. The 650 muscles in the body not only support movement — controlling walking,
talking, sitting, standing, eating and other daily functions that people consciously perform — but
also help to maintain posture and circulate blood and other substances throughout the body,
among other functions.
Muscles are often associated with activities of the legs, arms and other appendages, but muscles
also produce more subtle movements, such as facial expressions, eye movements and respiration,
according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
Three types of muscles
The muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth and
cardiac, according to the NIH.
Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body and control every
action that a person consciously performs. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones
across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other, according
to The Merck Manual.
Visceral, or smooth, muscle is found inside organs such as the stomach and intestines, as well as
in blood vessels. It is called a smooth muscle because, unlike skeletal muscle, it does not have
the banded appearance of skeletal or cardiac muscle. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral
muscles contract to move substances through the organ, according to The Merck Manual.
Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as
involuntary muscle, as it cannot be controlled by the conscious mind.
Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle responsible for pumping blood
throughout the body, according to The Merck Manual. The heart's natural pacemaker is made of
cardiac muscle that signals other cardiac muscles to contract. Like visceral muscles, cardiac
muscle tissue is controlled involuntarily. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the
rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract.
Muscle shapes
Muscles are further classified by their shape, size and direction, according to the NIH. The
deltoids, or shoulder muscles, have a triangular shape. The serratus muscle, which originates on
the surface of the second to ninth ribs at the side of the chest, and runs along the entire anterior
length of the scapula (shoulder blades), has a distinctive sawlike shape. The rhomboid major,
which attaches the scapula to the spinal column, is a diamond shape.
Size can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The gluteal region (the
buttocks) contains three muscles differentiated by size: the gluteus maximus (large), gluteus
medius (medium) and gluteus minimus (smallest), the NIH noted.
The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In the abdominal
region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles, according to the NIH. The muscles whose
fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones running transversely (left to
right) are the transverse abdominis and the ones running at an angle are the obliques. As any
exercise enthusiast knows, obliques are among the hardest muscles to develop to achieve "six-
pack" abs.
Muscles also can be identified by their function. The flexor group of the forearm flexes the wrist
and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that allows you to roll your wrist over to face palm up.
Adductor muscles in the legs adduct, or pull together, the limbs, according to the NIH.
Diseases of the muscular system

There is no single type of doctor that treats muscular diseases and disorders. Rheumatologists,
orthopedists and neurologists may all treat conditions that affect the muscles, according to the
American Medical Association.
There are a number of common neuromuscular disorders, according to Dr. Robert Schabbing,
chief of neurology at Kaiser Permanente in Denver.
Common primary muscle disorders include inflammatory myopathies, including polymyositis,
which is characterized by inflammation and progressive weakening of the skeletal muscles;
dermatomyositis, which is polymyositis accompanied by a skin rash; and inclusion body
myositis, which is characterized by progressive muscle weakness and wasting. Other common
disorders are muscular dystrophies and metabolic muscle disorders, he said. Muscular dystrophy
affects muscle fibers. Metabolic muscle disorders interfere with chemical reactions involved in
drawing energy from food.Neuromuscular junction disorders impair the transmission of nerve
signals to muscles, Schabbing noted.
The most common neuromuscular junction disorder is myasthenia gravis, which is characterized
by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal muscles. Schabbing said. "There are many types
of peripheral neuropathies that can be secondary to other medical conditions, such as diabetes, or
due to a variety of other causes, including toxins, inflammation and hereditary causes," he said.
Motor neuron disorders affect the nerve cells that supply muscles, Schabbing said. The most
recognizable motor neuron disease is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS, commonly known as
Lou Gehrig's disease.
Learn about the muscles that move your body and keep you alive. (Image credit: by Ross Toro, Infographics Artist)
Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment

The most common symptom or sign of a muscle disorder is weakness, although muscle disorders
can cause a number of symptoms, according to Schabbing. In addition to weakness, symptoms
include abnormal fatigue with activity, as well as muscle spasms, cramping or twitching.
Neuromuscular disorders affecting the eyes or mouth can cause drooping eyelids or double
vision, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing or, sometimes, difficulty breathing.
Electromyography — commonly referred to as an EMG — is often used to diagnose muscular

disorders. An EMG helps characterize causes of nerve and muscle disorders by stimulating
nerves and recording responses, Schabbing noted. Rarely, nerve or muscle biopsies are needed.
Steroids and other medications can help to reduce spasms and cramping. Milder forms of
chemotherapy can help treat many muscular disorders, according to Dr. Ricardo Roda, an
assistant professor of neurology, neuroscience and physiology at NYU Langone Medical Center.
Nervous System: Facts, Function & Diseases
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The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons
that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body's electrical
wiring.
Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health, the central nervous
system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of
sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that connect to one another and to the
central nervous system.
Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or voluntary,
component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The autonomic nervous system
regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of breathing, that work
without conscious effort, according to Merck Manuals. The somatic system consists of nerves
that connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin.
Description of the nervous system
Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and branch out to
every other part of the body, according to the University of Michigan Medical School.
Neurons send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals
known as neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses, the NIH noted. There are
over 100 trillion neural connections in the average human brain, though the number and location
can vary. For example, a new study published January 2018 in the journal Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences found that out of the 160 participants studied, the brains of highly
creative people have more connections among three specific regions of the brain than less
creative thinkers.
"You have these three different systems that are all located in different parts of the brain, but
they are all co-activated at once," said lead study author Roger Beaty, a postdoctoral fellow
studying cognitive neuroscience at Harvard University. "People who are better able to co-
activate them [came] up with more-creative responses."
A synapse gives a command to the cell and the entire communication process typically takes
only a fraction of a millisecond. Signals travel along an alpha motor neuron in the spinal cord
268 mph (431 km/h); the fastest transmission in the human body, according to Discover
magazine.
Sensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send feedback to the
central nervous system about the body's surrounding environment, according to the American
Psychological Association. Motor neurons, located in the central nervous system or in peripheral
ganglia, transmit signals to activate the muscles or glands. [Here's What You'd Look Like as Just
a Nervous System]
Glial cells, derived from the Greek word for "glue," are specialized cells that support, protect or
nourish nerve cells, according to the Oregon Institute of Health and Science University.
The brain's connections and thinking ability grew over thousands of years of evolution. For
example, a virus bound its genetic code to the genome of four-limbed animals, and the code can
still be found in humans' brains today, according to two papers published in the January 2018
journal Cell. This code packages up genetic information and sends it from nerve cells to other
nearby nerve cells, a very important process in the brain. [An Ancient Virus May Be Responsible
for Human Consciousness]
Find out about the workings of the brain and nerves. (Image credit: Ross Toro, Livescience.com contributor)
Diagnosing nervous system conditions

There are a number of tests and procedures to diagnose conditions involving the nervous system.
In addition to the traditional X-ray, a specialized X-ray called a fluoroscopy examines the body
in motion, such as blood flowing through arteries, according to the NIH.
Other standard neurological exams include an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), CT scan, and
an electroencephalogram (EEG), which records the brain's continuous electrical activity. Positron
emission tomography (PET) is a procedure that measures cell or tissue metabolism and brain
activity to detect tumors or diseased tissue or tumors, the NIH noted.
A spinal tap places a needle into the spinal canal to drain a small amount of cerebral spinal fluid
that is tested for infection or other abnormalities, according to the NIH.
Diseases of the nervous system

"Of all the diseases of the nervous system, the most common difficulty that people have is pain,
and much of that is nerve-related," according to Dr. Shai Gozani, founder and CEO of
NeuroMetrix, a medical device company. "There are 100 million people who live with chronic
pain."
According to the Mayo Clinic, patients with nerve disorders experience functional difficulties,

which result in conditions such as:
 Epilepsy, in which abnormal electrical discharges from brain cells cause seizures
 Parkinson's disease, which is a progressive nerve disease that affects movement
 Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is attacked by the body's
immune system
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron
disease which weakens the muscles and progressively hampers physical function
 Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve cells in the brain to
degenerate
 Alzheimer's disease, which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts mental functions,
particularly memory.
Mayo Clinic also noted that the nervous system can also be affected by vascular disorders such
as:
 Stroke, which occurs when there is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow to the brain is
obstructed;
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA), which are mini-type strokes that last a shorter period of time but
mimic stroke symptoms; and
 Subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is specifically bleeding in the space between your brain and the
surrounding membrane that can be the result of a trauma or rupturing of a weak blood vessel;
Infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess can also affect the
nervous system, the NIH noted.
Treatments vary from anti-inflammatory medications and pain medications such as opiates, to
implanted nerve stimulators and wearable devices, Gozani said. "Many people also turn to herbal
and holistic methods to reduce pain, such as acupuncture."
Study of the nervous system

The branch of medicine that studies and treats the nervous system is called neurology, and
doctors who practice in this field of medicine are called neurologists. Once they have completed
medical training, neurologists complete additional training for their specialty and are certified by
the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN).
There are also physiatrists, who are physicians who work to rehabilitate patients who have
experienced disease or injury to their nervous systems that impact their ability to function,
according to the ABPN.
Neurosurgeons perform surgeries involving the nervous system and are certified by
the American Association of Neurological Surgeons.
Reproductive System: Facts, Functions & Diseases
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An illustration of a sperm cell penetrating an egg.
(Image: © Jezper, Shutterstock)
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs — in both males and
females — that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland Clinic.
Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists argue that the reproductive
system is among the most important systems in the entire body.
How reproductive systems work
The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are produced,
and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to both the urinary and
reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum,
where they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm
production.
The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia minora, labia
majora and Bartholin's glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The major internal organs of
the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus — which act as the receptacle for
semen — and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus
through the cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to
hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg — or more in the case of multiple births — is released and
sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated during
menstruation.
The female reproductive system. (Image credit: National Institute of Health)
Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg. While the
fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also happen in the uterus itself. The egg then
becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis (in
which the embryo forms) and morphogenesis (in which the fetus begins to take shape). When the
fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates, and contractions of the
uterus propel it through the birth canal.
Variations in the reproductive system

Around 49.5 percent of the world's population is female, so there are slightly more men on the
planet than women, according to World Bank. A person's sex is determined by what reproductive
system the person has, but it isn't always so simple. Some humans are born with parts of both
male and female reproductive systems or incomplete reproductive organs of one sex or the other.
Those with both male and female reproductive parts are considered intersex. Sometimes children
are labeled as male or female, depending on how complete or functional one sexual reproductive
system is over the other. Then, the other organs are removed.
Today, many parents are opting to leave both sets of reproductive organs intact with the intent of
letting the child decide to keep or remove the various parts when they are older. A baby is born
atypical genitalia in one in about 1,500 to 2,000 births, according to Intersex Society of North
America.
Females that are born without all of their reproductive system are labeled as having Mayer
Rokitansky Kuster Hauser Syndrome. This occurs in one in 5,000 female births, according to
the Center for Young Women’s Health.
Diseases of the female reproductive system
Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In females,
cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs, according to
the American Cancer Society.
Many experts have seen what they refer to as the "Angelina Jolie" effect, where women are
taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal reproductive organs removed if they
have a family history of cancer before there are signs of the disease. "With better genetic testing
and screening, we have seen a number of women who are being more proactive about their
reproductive health," said Dr. Shana Wingo, who specializes on gynecologic oncology
at Arizona Oncology.
Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological cancers, Ross noted,
because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed significantly. "There is no standard
screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is very difficult to identify it early."
Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal
cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer Institute.
There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular changes
in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test identifies the
presence of infection with high-risk HPV, the strains that are linked to cervical cancer, according
to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.
A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening misses more
cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on approximately 8.6 million
women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold improvement in the cancer detection
rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.
Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when they turn 21
and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plus-HPV test, or co-testing,
is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are negative repeated every five years,
regardless of whether they have received HPV vaccination. "However, there is compelling
scientific evidence that co-testing every three years misses less cases of cancer and pre-cancer
than every five-year co-testing," Dubin noted.
While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually
transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States — male and
female — will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience any symptoms.
In a small portion of women, it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts; in men, it can
cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to the NIH.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes, gonorrhea
and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a disease of the
immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact; sexual activity is one of
the ways that the HIV virus is spread.
For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common disease of the
reproductive system occurs with a woman's monthly menstrual period, according to Dr. Sheryl
Ross, OB/GYN and Women's Health Specialist at Providence Saint John’s Health Center.
"Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days and disrupt
your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially," Ross noted. Diagnosis is made by
the patient's medical history and a pelvic exam. The best treatment includes medications that
block the effects of prostaglandins and include ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill
also works well in treating dysmenorrhea by decreasing the blood flow, Ross noted.
Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast infection, which
is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully treated with over-the-counter
medications, according to WebMD.
Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus — the
endometrium — ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the tissue
lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain, according to the Mayo
Clinic.
Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive organs,
including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and
chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. "Any of
these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include
chronic pelvic pain and infertility," Ross said.
Respiratory System: Our Avenue for Gas Exchange
Reference Article: Respiratory system facts, function and diseases.
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The respiratory system is what allows us to breathe and exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
(Image: © Shutterstock)
The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs, which
carry out this exchange of gases as we breathe.
The lungs work with the circulatory system to pump oxygen-rich blood to all cells in the body.
The blood then collects carbon dioxide and other waste products and transports them back to the
lungs, where they're pumped out of the body when we exhale, according to the American Lung
Association.
The human body needs oxygen to sustain itself. After only about five minutes without oxygen,
brain cells begin dying, according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke,
which can lead to brain damage and ultimately death. [Gasp! 11 Surprising Facts About the
Respiratory System]
In humans, the average breathing, or respiratory rate, mostly depends on age. A newborn's
normal breathing rate is about 40 to 60 times each minute and may slow to 30 to 40 times per
minute when the baby is sleeping, according to Stanford Children's Health. The average resting
respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 16 breaths per minute, and up to 40 to 60 breaths per minute
during exercise, according to the European Respiratory Society.
Parts of the respiratory system
As we breathe, oxygen enters the nose or mouth and passes the sinuses, which are hollow spaces
in the skull that help regulate the temperature and humidity of the air we breathe.
From the sinus, air passes through the trachea, also called the windpipe, and into the bronchial
tubes, which are the two tubes that carry air into each lung (each one is called a bronchus). The
bronchial tubes are lined with tiny hairs called cilia that move back and forth, carrying mucus up
and out. Mucus is a sticky fluid that collects dust, germs and other matter that has invaded the
lungs and is what we expel when we sneeze and cough.
The bronchial tubes split up again to carry air into the lobes of each lung. The right lung has
three lobes while the left lung has only two, to accommodate room for the heart, according to
the American Lung Association. The lobes are filled with small, spongy sacs called alveoli,
which is where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs.
From the trachea, air enters the bronchial tubes which split up and reach into the three lobes of the right lung and the two lobes of
the left lung. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
The alveolar walls are extremely thin (about 0.2 micrometers) and are composed of a single layer
of tissues called epithelial cells and tiny blood vessels called pulmonary capillaries. Blood in the
capillaries picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide. The oxygenated blood then makes its
way to the pulmonary vein. This vein carries oxygen-rich blood to the left side of the heart,
where it is pumped to all parts of the body. The carbon dioxide the blood left behind moves into
the alveoli and gets expelled in our exhaled breath.
The diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs, controls breathing and
separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. When air gets taken in, the
diaphragm tightens and moves downward, making more space for the lungs to fill with air and
expand. During exhalation, the diaphragm expands and compresses the lungs, forcing air out.
Infographic on the respiratory system. Click the image to enlarge. (Image credit: Ross Toro, Livescience contributor)
Respiratory system diseases

Diseases and conditions of the respiratory system fall into two categories: Infections, such
as influenza, bacterial pneumonia and enterovirus respiratory virus, and chronic diseases, such as
asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). According to Dr. Neal Chaisson,
who practices pulmonary medicine at the Cleveland Clinic, there is not much that can be done
for viral infections but to let them run their course. "Antibiotics are not effective in treating
viruses and the best thing to do is just rest," he said.
For most healthy individuals, the most common respiratory ailment they may face is an infection,
according to Dr. Matthew Exline, a pulmonologist and critical care expert at The Ohio State
University Wexner Medical Center. A cough is the first symptom, possibly accompanied by a
fever. [The Gross Science of a Cough and a Sneeze]
"However, cough can be a sign of chronic respiratory conditions such as asthma, chronic
bronchitis or emphysema," he said. "In chronic lung disease, most respiratory diseases present
with shortness of breath, initially with exertion, such as walking a significant distance or
climbing several flights of stairs."
Asthma is a chronic inflammation of the lung airways that causes coughing, wheezing, chest
tightness or shortness of breath, according to Tonya Winders, president of the Allergy & Asthma
Network. These signs and symptoms may be worse when a person is exposed to their triggers,
which can include air pollution, tobacco smoke, factory fumes, cleaning solvents, infections,
pollens, foods, cold air, exercise, chemicals and medications. According to the CDC, more than
25 million people (or 1 in 13 adults and 1 in 12 children) in the United States have asthma.
Coughing is usually the first sign of a respiratory infection. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
COPD, sometimes called chronic bronchitis or emphysema, is a chronic and progressive disease
where the air flow in and out of the lungs decreases, making it harder to breathe. Over time, the
airways in the lungs become inflamed and thicken, making it harder to get rid of waste carbon
dioxide, according to the American Lung Association. As the disease progresses, patients
experience a shortness of breath, and it can limit activity. More than 15 million Americans are
affected by COPD, according to the CDC.
Lung cancer is often associated with smoking, but the disease can affect nonsmokers as well. It is
the second most common cancer for both men and women, outranked by prostate and breast
cancers, respectively. The American Cancer Society estimates that in 2019, there will be about
228,150 new cases of lung cancer (116,440 in men and 111,710 in women) and around 142,670
deaths from lung cancer (76,650 in men and 66,020 in women) in the United States.
The Human Skeletal System
Reference Article: Facts about the human skeletal system, its function and
common skeletal diseases.
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A 3D illustration of the human skeletal system.
(Image: © Shutterstock)
The human skeletal system is not quite as simple as the popular children's song suggests. The
"head bone" (actually made up of 22 separate bones) is not connected to the "neck bone," but
rather to a series of small bones that go all the way down the back. And the "toe bone" is actually
made up of several bones that connect to another set of bones that provide structure for the foot.
In total, the human skeleton consists of a whopping 206 bones.
In addition to all those bones, the human skeletal system includes a network of tendons,
ligaments and cartilage that connect the bones together. The skeletal system provides the
structural support for the human body and protects our organs. Our bones also serve several other
vital functions, including producing blood cells and storing and releasing fats and minerals,
according to the online textbook "Anatomy & Physiology" (BC Campus Open Textbooks).
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Development and structure of the skeleton
Infants are born with about 300 separate bones, according to Nemours, a nonprofit children's
health provider. As a child grows, some of those bones fuse together until growth stops, typically
by the age of 25, leaving the skeleton with 206 bones.
Our bones are separated into two categories based on the purpose and location of the bones: The
axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton, according to "Anatomy & Physiology."
The axial skeleton contains 80 bones, including the skull, spine and rib cage. It forms the central
structure of the skeleton, with the function of protecting the brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs.
The remaining 126 bones make up the appendicular skeleton; they include the arms, legs,
shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle. The lower portion of the appendicular skeleton protects the
major organs associated with digestion and reproduction and provides stability when a person is
walking or running. The upper portion allows for a greater range of motion when lifting and
carrying objects.
Bones are further classified by their shape: long, short, flat, irregular or sesamoid, according
to "Anatomy & Physiology".
 Long bones are found in the arms, legs, fingers and toes. These bones are longer than they are
wide and are cylindrical. They move when the muscles around them contract, and they are the most
mobile parts of the skeleton.
 Short bones are found in the wrists and ankles and are about equal in their length, width and
thickness.
 Flat bones make up the skull, shoulder blades, sternum and ribs. These curved, thin bones protect
internal organs and provide an anchor for muscles.
 Irregular bones are those in the spinal cord and face, which, because of their unique dimension,
don't fit in any of the other shape categories.
 Sesamoid bones are found in the hands, wrists, feet, ears and knees. These small, round bones are
embedded in tendons and protect them from the great pressure and force they encounter.
There are some variations between male and female skeletons. For example, the female pelvis is
typically more broad, thin, and round than the male pelvis, according to "Anatomy &
Physiology." [Image Gallery: The BioDigital Human]
What's inside your bones?
All about your body's skeleton, the framework of bones that keeps you together. (Image credit: Ross Toro, Livescience
contributor)
Three main types of material make up every bone in your body: compact bone, spongy bone and
bone marrow, according to the School of Life Sciences at Arizona State University.
Approximately 80% of every bone is compact bone, which is the hardest and strongest type of
bone and is what allows the body to support its weight. Compact bone makes up the outer layers
of the bone and protects the inner parts of the bones where many vital functions occur, such as
bone marrow production. Compact bone consists primarily of cells called osteocytes.
Microscopic passages in between the cells to allow nerves and blood vessels to pass through.
About 20% of each bone is spongy bone, which is filled with large holes and passages. Most
often found toward the ends of individual bones, the spongy bone material is filled with bone
marrow, nerves and blood vessels.
Two types of bone marrow fill the pores in spongy bone. Approximately half is red bone
marrow, which is found mainly within flat bones such as shoulder blades and ribs. This is where
all red and white blood cells and platelets (cells that help a cut stop bleeding) are made. Infant's
bones contain all red bone marrow to produce enough blood cells to keep up with the youngsters'
growth.
The other half of marrow is yellow bone marrow, which is found in long bones, such as thigh
bones, and consists primarily of fat. Blood vessels run through both types of bone marrow to
deliver nutrients and remove waste from the bones.
There are four main types of cells within bones: Osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts and lining
cells.
Osteoblasts are cells that create new or repair existing bone material as the bones grow or break.
The cells create a flexible material called osteoid and then fortify it with minerals to harden and
strengthen it. When osteoblasts successfully finish their job, they retire to become osteocytes or
lining cells.
Osteocytes, found in the compact bone, are responsible for exchanging minerals and
communicating with other cells in the vicinity. They are formed from old osteoblasts that have
gotten stuck in the center of bones.
Osteoclasts break down existing bone material and reabsorb it. These cells often work with
osteoblasts to heal and reshape bone after a break (the osteoclasts break down the extra callus
formed by the healing process) to make room for new blood vessels and nerves and to make
bones thicker and stronger.
Lining cells are flat bone cells that completely cover the outside surface of bones. Their primary
function is controlling the movement of minerals, cells and other materials into and out of the
bones.
Bear Bones and Osteoporosis

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Diseases of the skeletal system

As with any part of the human body, bones are susceptible to injury and disease.
Some of the most common diseases that can affect the skeletal system include:
 Osteoporosis is a disease that causes the density and strength of bones to decrease because bone
loss occurs faster than bone growth. It can be caused by genetics or unhealthy lifestyle habits (such as
lack of calcium or vitamin D, and heavy smoking or drinking with little exercise).
 Leukemia is a type of cancer that starts in the bone marrow and the lymphatic system, according
to the Mayo Clinic. Several types of leukemia affect various blood cells and other systems of the body.
 Osteoarthritis is a disease that causes the breakdown of the cartilage that protects the ends of
bones in joints. This lack of cartilage leads to bone-on-bone rubbing, which can cause significant pain,
damage to the bones and connective tissues, inflammation of the surrounding tissue and restricted motion,
according to the Mayo Clinic.
Skin: The Human Body's Largest Organ

By Kim Ann Zimmermann - Live Science Contributor October 22, 2018
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The majority of skin is water-proof because of keratin, a fibrous protein.
(Image: © PanicAttack | Shutterstock)
Skin is more than a fleshy surface for pimples, tattoos and wrinkles. Skin is the body's largest
organ, and along with hair, nails, glands and nerves, is part of the integumentary system,
according to Oregon State University. This system acts as a protective barrier between the
outside and the inside of the body.
In adults, skin accounts for about 16 percent of total body weight and covers a surface area of
approximately 22 square feet (2 square meters).
There are different thicknesses and textures of skin on different parts of the body. For example,
skin is paper-thin underneath the eyes, but is thick on the soles of the feet and palms of the hand,
according to the Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library.
Three layers of tissue
Human skin is composed of three layers of tissue: the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis,
according to the Cleveland Clinic.
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Epidermis
The epidermis is the top, visible layer of skin and it's constantly being renewed as dead skin cells
are shed on a daily basis. The main functions of the epidermis include:
 Making new skin cells. New skin cells form at the bottom of the epidermis. As these newer cells
form, it takes them about one month to reach the top layer of the epidermis. The new cells will replace the
old cells found on the skin surface, which are dead and continuously flake off.
 Giving skin its color. The epidermis contains melanocytes, which are cells that produce melanin,
the pigment that gives skin its color. Melanin is also responsible for suntans and freckles.
 Protecting skin. Keratin, a protein made by cells found in the epidermis, gives skin its toughness
and strength, and protects skin from drying out.
Dermis
The dermis is the middle layer of skin, found underneath the epidermis. It is the thickest layer of
skin and contains nerves and blood vessels. It is also home to the sweat glands, oil glands
and hair follicles. The dermis gives skin its flexibility and strength, according to the Johns
Hopkins Medicine Health Library. It is made up mostly of a protein called collagen that makes
skin stretchy and strong.
According to the National Library of Medicine, the roles of the dermis include:
 Sensing pain and touch. Nerve endings in the dermis contain receptors that transmit sensations,
such as pain, pressure, touch, itchiness and temperature to the brain.
 Producing sweat and oils. Sweat glands help to cool the body, and sebaceous glands make the
oils that keep skin soft and moist.
 Growing hair. Hair follicles found in the dermis grow the hair on your head, face and body. That
hair also helps to control body temperature and protect the body from injury.
 Bringing blood to the skin. Blood vessels found in the dermis nourish the skin and help control
body temperature. When skin becomes too hot, blood vessels enlarge to release heat from the skin's
surface, while cold constricts blood vessels so they retain body heat.
 Fighting infection. Lymphatic vessels, which drain fluid from the tissues and are an important
part of the immune system, are housed in the dermis. They help ward off infections and other harmful
substances.
Hypodermis
The hypodermis — also called subcutaneous fat — is the deepest layer of skin. This layer is
made up mostly of fatty tissue, which helps to insulate the body from heat and cold. The
hypodermis also serves as an energy storage area for fat. This fat provides padding to cushion
internal organs as well as muscle and bones, and protects the body from injuries, according to the
Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library.
Common skin conditions
Dermatologists are physicians who specialize in treating diseases, disorders and injuries of the
skin, hair and nails. They treat common conditions such as acne and warts; chronic skin
conditions such as eczema and psoriasis; and more serious diseases like skin cancer, according to
the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD).
Warts and moles
Warts are benign (noncancerous) growths on the skin caused by the human papillomavirus
(HPV), according to the AAD. They often occur on the hands and soles. Sometimes, tiny black
dots will be visible in a wart.
"These are blocked blood vessels, which are a common occurrence with a papilloma viral
infection," said Dr. Charles E. Crutchfield, a clinical professor of dermatology at the University
of Minnesota Medical School, and medical director of Crutchfield Dermatology.
The best treatment for warts is to cause a mild irritation of these skin growths — usually by
freezing them, applying a chemical such as salicylic acid or using lasers — so the immune
system can recognize the viral infection and get rid of it.
Moles are another type of common growth on the skin. They're most often brown or black, but
some can be red or skin-colored, and they may appear flat or raised. If a mole starts changing in
size, color or shape, or if it bleeds and doesn't heal on its own in three weeks, it should be
evaluated to make sure it's not turning into skin cancer, Crutchfield said.
Acne and eczema
Acne, a disorder of the hair and oil glands, is among the most common skin conditions treated by
dermatologists, Crutchfield told Live Science.
Acne occurs when hair follicles become plugged with oil and dead skin cells, according to the
Mayo Clinic. The condition presents itself as red bumps and pimples on the face, chest and back,
Crutchfield said. Treatments for acne include vitamin A products (retinols prevent plugging of
hair follicles), salicylic acid (to unplug pores), benzoyl peroxides (to decrease bacteria) and
antibiotics (to reduce inflammation).
Eczema looks like patches of red, itchy, bumpy skin, and the most common type is known as
atopic dermatitis. The condition can occur anywhere on the skin. Sometimes, it flares up on its
own, and at other times, it is caused by a specific trigger, such as a skin irritant like poison ivy,
or exposure to an allergen, according to Crutchfield.
Eczema is best treated with topical anti-inflammatory creams and ointments, which can reduce
itching and redness. For mild symptoms, over-the-counter medications work well, but a
prescription-strength cortisone product may be needed for more severe cases.
Skin cancer
Skin cancer is an abnormal growth of skin cells, and the most common type is basal cell
carcinoma, Crutchfield said. More than 4 million cases of basal cell carcinoma are diagnosed in
the United States each year, according to the Skin Cancer Foundation. This type of cancer is skin
colored, pink or has a slight pearly white color to it, and usually appears on sun-exposed areas of
the face, ears or neck, according to the Mayo Clinic. It rarely spreads to other parts of the body,
but it can be very problematic if it's not treated, Crutchfield cautioned.
The second most common type of skin cancer is squamous cell carcinoma. It may appear as a
pink or white bump, a rough, scaly patch or a sore that won't heal, according to the AAD.
The most serious skin cancer is melanoma, which looks like a dark, changing, bleeding skin spot,
Crutchfield said. This cancer begins in the skin's pigment-producing cells, and although it is the
rarest form of skin cancer, it causes the majority of skin cancer deaths.
Urinary System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

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The urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, stores and eliminates
urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering
wastes and extra water from blood. Urine travels from the kidneys through two thin
tubes called ureters and fills the bladder. When the bladder is full, a person urinates
through the urethra to eliminate the waste.
The urinary system is susceptible to a variety of infections and other problems, including
blockages and injuries. These can be treated by a urologist or another health care
professional who specializes in the renal system.
Description of the urinary system

The urinary system works with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of
chemicals and water in the body. Adults eliminate about 27 to 68 fluid ounces (800 to
2,000 milliliters) per day based on typical daily fluid intake of 68 ounces (2
liters), National Institutes of Health (NIH). Other factors in urinary system function include
fluid lost through perspiring and breathing. In addition, certain types of medications,
such as diuretics that are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure, can also affect
the amount of urine a person produces and eliminates. Some beverages, such as
coffee and alcohol, can also cause increased urination in some people.
The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are bean-shaped
organs that are located just below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys
remove urea — waste product formed by the breakdown of proteins — from the blood
through small filtering units called nephrons, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Each
nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a
small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances,
forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the
kidney.
From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes, called ureters, to the bladder. The
ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long (20 to 25 centimeters), according to the Cleveland
Clinic.
Muscles in the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax to force urine away from the
kidneys, according to the NIH. A backup of urine can cause a kidney infection. Small
amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15
seconds.
The bladder is a hollow, balloon-shaped organ that is located in the pelvis. It is held in
place by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones, according to
the Kidney & Urology Foundation of America. The bladder stores urine until the brain
signals the bladder that the person is ready to empty it. A normal, healthy bladder can
hold up to 16 ounces (almost half a liter) of urine comfortably for two to five hours.
To prevent leakage, circular muscles called sphincters close tightly around the opening
of the bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The
only difference between the female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra,
according to Merck Manuals. In females, the urethra is about 1.5 to 2 inches long (3.8 to
5.1 cm) and sits between the clitoris and the vagina. In males, it is about 8 inches (20
cm) long, runs the length of the penis and opens at the end of the penis. The male
urethra is used to eliminate urine as well as semen during ejaculation.
Diseases of the urinary system
Different specialists treat urinary system ailments. Nephrologists treat kidney diseases,
while urologists treat problems with the urinary tract, including the kidneys, adrenal
glands, ureters, bladder and urethra, according to the American Urological
Association (AUA). Urologists also treat the male reproductive organs, while
gynecologists often treat urinary diseases or disorders in females, including yeast
infections. Nephrologists and urologists often work with endocrinologists or oncologists,
depending on the disease.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract; they can affect
the urethra, bladder or even the kidneys. While UTIs are more common in women, they
can occur in men. UTIs are typically treated with antibiotics, according to Dr. Oscar
Aguirre, a urogynecologist in Denver. In the United States, about 8.1 million people have
a urinary tract infection each year, according to the American Urological Association.
Incontinence is another common disease of the urinary system. "The most common
bladder problems I see in my practice in women are frequent urges to urinate and
leakage of urine," said S. Adam Ramin, urologic surgeon and founder of Urology
Cancer Specialists in Los Angeles. "The most common bladder problems in men are
frequent urination at nights and incomplete bladder emptying. This is usually due to an
enlarged prostate causing obstruction of bladder emptying."
Problems can come in the form of a pelvic prolapse, which can result in leakage and
can be the result of a vaginal delivery. Then there is the overactive bladder, "which we
see a lot and is not related to having children or trauma," Aguirre said. A third condition
involves overflow, in which the bladder does not completely empty.
"Holding your urine for a short period of time, usually up to one hour, is typically okay,"
said Ramin. "However protracted and repeated holding of urine may cause over-
expansion of bladder capacity, transmission of excess pressure into the kidneys, and
the inability to completely empty the bladder. These problems in turn may lead to UTI
[urinary tract infection], cystitis and deterioration of kidney function."
Some common treatments involve medications, physical therapy and pelvic mesh
surgery, Aguirre noted. Vaginal laser surgery is also becoming a viable treatment
option, he explained. "In another 10 to 15 years, vaginal laser surgery will be another
common option for the treatment of urinary conditions."
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Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic bladder

condition, primarily in women, that causes bladder pressure and pain and, sometimes,
pelvic pain to varying degrees, according to the Mayo Clinic. It can cause bladder
scarring, and can make the bladder less elastic. While the cause isn't known, many
people with the condition also have a defect in their epithelium, the protective lining of
the bladder.
Prostatitis is a swelling of the prostate gland and, therefore, can only occur in men.
Often caused by advanced age, symptoms include urinary urgency and frequency,
pelvic pain and pain during urination, the Mayo Clinic noted.
Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary
tract. Kidney stones form when chemicals in the urine become concentrated enough to
form a solid mass, according to the Cleveland Clinic. They can cause pain in the back
and sides, as well as blood in the urine. Many kidney stones can be treated with
minimally invasive therapy, such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, which
disintegrates the kidney stones with shock waves.
Kidney failure, also called renal failure and chronic kidney disease, can be a temporary
(often acute) condition or can become a chronic condition resulting in the inability of the
kidneys to filter waste from the blood. Other conditions, such as diabetes and
hypertension, can cause chronic kidney disease, according to the Mayo Clinic. Acute
cases may be caused by trauma or other damage, and may improve over time with
treatment. However, renal disease may lead to chronic kidney failure, which may
require dialysis treatments or even a kidney transplant.
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Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 75,000 Americans each year and is more frequent in men
and the elderly according. It is predicted that 81,190 new cases of bladder cancer (about 62,380
in men and 18,810 in women) and bout 17,240 deaths from bladder cancer (about 12,520 in
men and 4,720 in women) will occur in 2018, according to American Cancer Society. The
symptoms, including back or pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and or frequent urination,
mimic other diseases or disorders of the urinary system

The Human Body Is Everything That Makes Up

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The Human Body Is Everything That Makes Up

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The human body is everything that makes up, well, you.

The basic parts of the human

[Image Gallery: The BioDigital Human]

Ready for Med School? Test Your Body Smarts

(Image: © Norman B/Shutterstock)

How the circulatory system works

[Image Gallery: The BioDigital Human]

Diseases of the digestive system

Endocrine System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

The pancreas is located deep inside the abdomen.

(Image: © Sebastian Kaulitzki)

Diseases of the endocrine system

Milestones in the study of the endocrine system

T-cells attacking a cancer cell.

(Image: © Andrea Danti | Shutterstock)

What are the Human Biological Systems?

Other dysregulation of the immune system includes autoimmune diseases such

Diagnosis and treatment of immune system diseases

Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system

Lymphadenopathy is usually caused by infection, inflammation, or cancer. Infections that cause

Diagnosis and treatment

The human body has more than 600 muscles.

(Image: © Jacob Lund/Shutterstock)

Diseases of the muscular system

Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment

Electromyography — commonly referred to as an EMG — is often used to diagnose muscular

Diagnosing nervous system conditions

Diseases of the nervous system

According to the Mayo Clinic, patients with nerve disorders experience functional difficulties,

Study of the nervous system

An illustration of a sperm cell penetrating an egg.

The female reproductive system. (Image credit: National Institute of Health)

Variations in the reproductive system

Respiratory system diseases

Coughing is usually the first sign of a respiratory infection. (Image credit: Shutterstock)

What are the Human Biological Systems?

Bear Bones and Osteoporosis

Diseases of the skeletal system

Skin: The Human Body's Largest Organ

The majority of skin is water-proof because of keratin, a fibrous protein.

 How Much Blood is in the Human Body?

 Slime Made Simple! Live Science Shows You How

 Marching for Science with Live Science! | Video

Urinary System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

What are the Human Biological Systems?

Description of the urinary system

Sim-Kidney Makes Real Urine

Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic bladder

Kidney Matching Software = Faster Donations

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