UNIT IV MOBILE COMMUNICATION ESSENTIALS

Cell phone working fundamentals - Cell phone frequencies & channels - Digital cell phone
components - Generations of cellular networks - Cell phone network technologies /
architecture -Voice calls & SMS

CELL PHONE WORKING FUNDAMENTALS

Mobile phone-portable telephone that does not use wired connection

Cellular network uses a number of low power transmitters called base stations and each base
station covers unit area called cell.
In wireless telephony, a cell is the geographical area covered by a cellular telephone transmitter.
TRADITIONAL CELLULAR CONCEPT
1. High power transmiiters to cover large area
2. Inefficient use of radio spectrum
3. If user leaves an coverage arrea they had to reinitiate call on different frequency channel
4. In beginning there was no handoff and cellular system size depends on hum much
centralised base station is able to handle
5. Capacity was limited because a number of radio channels were available for radio systems
6. They had to find away to reuse available frequency basic idea of cellular system is
frequency reuse

1
FREQUENCY REUSE
Use of radio channels on same carrier frequency to cover different areas that are Separated from
one another by different stations. The users in different cells use the same frequency. This
technique maximizes number of mobile phones served in a Geographical area and spectrum
efficiency
ADVANTAGES
1. A large subscriber capacity
2. Efficient use of spectrum resources
3. Nationwide coverage
CELL
The cell provided by a cell site can be from one mile to twenty miles in diameter, depending on
terrain and transmission power. Several coordinated cell sites are called a cell system.
Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal communication systems,
wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high
power transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more
transmitters for data transmission.
TYPES OF CELL
Microcell, less than 2 kilometres
A microcell is a cell in a mobile phone network served by a low power cellular base station (tower),
covering a limited area such as a mall, a hotel, or a transportation hub.
Picocell, less than 200 metres

2
A picocell is a small cellular base station typically covering a small area, such as in-building (offices,
shopping malls, train stations, stock exchanges, etc.), or more recently in-aircraft.
Femtocell, around 10 metres
In telecommunications, a femtocell is a small, low-power cellular base station, typically designed
for use in a home or small business.
CELL SHAPES
HEXAGON SHAPE OF CELLS
• provides best approximation to circular omni directional radio pattern
• economical to use since hexagon requires fewer cells
• practical realization of overlapping circles
• hexagon has largest area, approximates circular radiation pattern
HANDOFF
 Mobile users are mobile they can be mobile while using the phone
 Network should be able to access as they move
 If user moves from one cell to another a handoff is required
 The user can move around while using mobile phone which is the advantage of handoff
 If the user moves within a cell,but moving from cell to another cell handoff is required
 Process of transferring active cell from first cell to another without disconnecting a call
when a mobile moves into different cell while the call is in progress MSC TRANSFERS
automatically transfers to new BS

1. Handoff involves identifying a new base station along with transfer of voice and control
signals
2. A user is transmitting and receiving from a given base station

3
 3. Assume the user moves from coverage area of one base station BS1 to another base
station BS2
4. BS1 notices the signal is degrading
5. BS2 notices the signal is improving
6. The users signal is weak in bs1 the communication is transferred from BS1 to BS2

SOFT AND HARD HANDOFF

hard handoff

4
  Break before make
 Connection to the old bs is broken before new connection is made
 Hard handoff occurs between different radio systems,differnt frequency assignments and
different technologies
soft handoff
 make before break
 connection is not broken until a connection is made
 normally connected to another base station
 when sectors of same bs within msc is involved
CO CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
Channels that use same set of frequency is called co channel and interference caused by channels
is called co channel interference
Occurs mainly reusing an identical frequency channel
To reduce cci minimum frequency distance reuse is used
INCREASING USER CAPACITY
1. Add new channels
New channels are added between bs and ms
2. Frequency borrowing
frequencies are taken from adjacent cells to congested cells
3. Cell splitting
cells in areas of high usage can be split in to smaller cells
4. Cell sectoring
cells are divided into a number of wedge shaped sectors each of their own set of channels
5. Microcells
bs antennas move to lamp post and building

5
CELL SPLITTING
1. process of dividing radio coverage of a cell site into two or more cell sites
2. performed by increasing capacity within original cell by increasing number of BS
3. splitting provides more number of cells
4. reduction in cell size
5. reduction in height and transmission power
6. cell radius(r) reduction by a factor f reduces the coverage area and increases number of bs
by a factor of f2

FREQUENCY CARRIES/CHANNELS
– The information from sender to receiver is carrier over a well defined frequency band.
• This is called a channel

6
– Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in KHz) and Capacity (bit-rate)
– Different frequency bands (channels) can be used to transmit information in parallel and
independently.

Example
– Assume a spectrum of 90KHz is allocated over a base frequency b for communication
between stations A and B
– Assume each channel occupies 30KHz.
– There are 3 channels
– Each channel is simplex (Transmission occurs in one way)
– For full duplex communication:
» Use two different channels (front and reverse channels)
» Use time division in a channel
1. Channels: it is a range of frequency allotted to particular service or systems.
2. Control Channel: Radio channel used for transmission of call setup, call request, call
initiation and other beacon or control purposes.
3. Forward Control Channel(FCC): Radio channel used for transmission of information from
the base station to the mobile
4. Reverse Channel(RC): Radio channel used for transmission of information from the mobile
to base station.
5. Voice Channel(VC): Radio channel used for voice or data transmission.
6. control channels
setup and paging channels
paging in downlink and setup in uplink
7. traffic channels
active during voice conversations

Channel 1 (b - b+30)
Station A Channel 2 (b+30 - b+60) Station B
Channel 3 (b+60 - b+90)

7
SIMPLEX COMMUNICATION
normally, on a channel, a station can transmit only in one way.
communication is possible in one direction
DUPLEX COMMUNICATION
simultaneous two way reception between between subscriber and bas station
FREQUENCY DIVISION DUPLEX
fdd requires two separate communications channels.two seperate frequencies for uplink and
downlink

Forward Channel and Reverse Channel use different frequency bands

TDD
uses single frequency to transmit signals in both uplink and downlink

CELL PHONE NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES / ARCHITECTURE

COMPONENTS OF MOBILE CELLULAR SYSTEM
 BASE STATION
 MOBILE STATION
 BASE STATTION SWITCHING CENTER
 MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER
 PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK
MOBILE STATION
The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital signal
processors, and the SIM card.

8
mobile station (MS) comprises all user equipment and software needed for communication with a
mobile network.
ANTENNA CONVERTS RF SIGNAL TO EM WAVE
BASE STATION
PROVIDES DIRECT COMMUNICATION WITH MOBILE PHONES AND IT DEFINES
A CELL
when cells are grouped together cluster is formed two frequencies are required to establish
communication between bs and ms a group of bs are connected to form bsc
first part of bs is electronics section located in a container tower at the base of the antenna
tower.the various electronic devices for communcating with mobile handsets include rf
amplifiers,transceivers,combiners,control, communication links,power with backup
second part of the bs is the antenna and feeder to connect the base tranceiver station
if the antenna is too low or in a poor location there will be insufficient coverage leaving of
coverage.

9
10
BS OR CELL SITE ANTENNA
omni directional or directional antenna are used
In radio communication, an omnidirectional antenna is a class of antenna which radiates radio
wave power uniformly in all directions in one plane, with the radiated power decreasing with
elevation angle above or below the plane, dropping to zero on the antenna's axis.
has three faces with several frequency each face covers 120 degree of the cell
A base station controller (BSC) is a critical mobile network component that controls one or more
base transceiver stations (BTS), also known as base stations or cell sites. Key BSC functions
include radio network management (such as radio frequency control), BTS handover management
and call setup.
MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER
The MSC is the heart of the GSM network.
It handles call routing, call setup, and basic switching functions.
An MSC handles multiple BSCs and also interfaces with other MSC’s and registers. It also
handles inter-BSC handoffs as well as coordinates with other MSC’s for inter-MSC handoffs.
The Mobile Switching Centre Server, or MSC Server abbreviated MSS, is a 3G core network
element which controls the network switching subsystem elements.
GENERATION OF MOBILE SYSTEMS
Transmitting voice and data using electromagnetic waves in open space

11
 • Electromagnetic waves
8
• Travel at speed of light (c = 3x10 m/s)
• Has afrequency(f) andwavelength

» c=fx

• Higher frequency means higher energy photons

• The higher the energy photon the more penetrating is the radiation

Origin of em waves can be ttraced back in year 1857 where behaivour of em waves
were explained by maxwell

Maxwell found that Electric and magnetic fields arising from varying field of electric
and magnetic fields arising from varying fi]elds of electric charges and current

Twenty years later hertz came to conclusionn that an oscillatory electric charge q=q 0
sin t radiates em waves and these waves carry energy and was able to produce em
waves of frequency 3*10^10 hertz

Hertz radio system consists of

• Switch and induction coil to generate spark across two electrodes

• When the transmitter generated a spark a small spark was seen to jump in the
gap in receiving coil. This is the basis of antenna theory

1. Marconi demonstrated the first radio based wireless systems successfully using
electromagnetic waves in 1901 for a distance of 1 mile

2. Bandwidth was small and information

3. Marconi was the leading pioneer of long range radio communication

4. Armstrong developed frequency modulation which was technological

breakthrough

12
 The modulation of a radio or other wave by variation of its frequency,
especially to carry an audio signal.

First Mobile Telephone Service in 1940s in united states

• Single cell systems is restricted by mobility ,limited service and poor speech quality

In 1964 AT&T introduced the improved mobile telephone service (IMTS). This provided full
duplex operation, automatic dialing, and automatic channel searching. Initially 11 channels were
provided, but in 1969 an additional 12 channels were made available. Since only 11 (or 12)
channels were available for all users of the system within a given geographic area (such as the
metropolitan area around a large city), the IMTS system faced a high demand for a very limited
channel resource. Moreover, each base-station antenna had to be located on a tall structure and
had to transmit at high power in order to provide coverage throughout the entire service area

13
14
PARTS OF DIGITAL PHONE

Antenna Switch: It is found in the Network Section of a mobile phone Cell Phone Antenna Switch

Cell Phone Antenna Switch and is made up of metal and non-metal. In GSM sets it is found in
white color and in CDMA sets it is found in golden metal.

Work: It searches network and passes forward after tuning.

Faults: If the Antenna Switch is faulty then there will be no network in the mobile phone.

P.F.O: It is found near the Antenna Switch in the Network Section of the Cell Phone PFO

Cell Phone PFO

PCB of Mobile Phone. It is also called P.A (Power Amplifier) and Band Pass Filter.

Work: It filters and amplifies network frequency and selects the home network.

Faults: If the PFO is faulty then there will be no network in the mobile phone. If it gets short then
the mobile phone will get dead.

RF IC / Hagar / Network IC: This electronic component found near Cell Phone Network IC / RF
IC

15
Cell Phone Network IC / RF IC

the PFO in the Network Section of a Mobile Phone. It is also called RF signal processor.

Work: It works as transmitter and receiver of audio and radio waves according to the instruction
from the CPU.

Faults: If the RF IC is faulty then there will be problem with network in the mobile phone.
Sometimes the mobile phone can even get dead.

26 MHz Crystal Oscillator: It is found near the PFO in the Network Mobile Phone 26 MHz
Crystal Oscillator

Mobile Phone 26 MHz Crystal Oscillator

Section of a Mobile Phone. It is also called Network Crystal. It is made up of metal.

Work: It creates frequency during outgoing calls.

Faults: If this crystal is faulty then there will be no outgoing call and no network in the mobile
phone.

VCO: It is found near the Network IC in the Network Section of a Mobile Mobile Phone VCO

Mobile Phone VCO

Phone.

Work: It sends time, date and voltage to the RF IC / Hager and the CPU. It also creates frequency
after taking command from the CPU.

Faults: If it is faulty then there will be no network in the mobile phone and it will display “Call
End” or “Call Failed”.

RX Filter: It is found in the Network Section of a Mobile Phone. Mobile Phone RX Filter

Mobile Phone RX Filter

Work: It filters frequency during incoming calls.

Faults: If it is faulty then there will network problem during incoming calls.

TX Filter: It is found in the Network Section of a Mobile Phone. Mobile Phone TX Filter

16
Mobile Phone TX Filter

Work: It filters frequency during outgoing calls.

Faults: If it is faulty then there will network problem during outgoing calls.

ROM: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone. Mobile Phone ROM

Mobile Phone ROM

Work: It loads current operating program in a Mobile Phone.

Faults: If ROM is faulty then there will software problem in the mobile phone and the set will get
dead.

RAM: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone. Mobile Phone RAM

Mobile Phone RAM

Work: It sends and receives commands of the operating program in a mobile phone.

Faults: If RAM is faulty then there will be software problem in the mobile phone and it will get
frequently get hanged and the set can even get dead.

Flash IC: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone. It is also Cell Phone Flash IC

Cell Phone Flash IC

called EEPROM IC, Memory IC, RAM IC and ROM IC.

Work: Software of the mobile phone is installed in the Flash IC.

Faults: If Flash IC is faulty then the mobile phone will not work properly and it can even get dead.

Power IC: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone. There are Cell Phone Power IC

Cell Phone Power IC

many small components mainly capacitor around this IC. RTC is near the Power IC.

Work: It takes power from the battery and supplies to all other parts of a mobile phone.

Faults: If Power IC is faulty then the set will get dead.

Charging IC: It is found in the Power Section near R22. Cell Phone Charging IC

17
Cell Phone Charging IC

Work: It takes current from the charger and charges the battery.

Faults: If Charging IC is faulty then the set will not get charged. If the Charging IC is short then the
set will get dead.

RTC (Simple Silicon Crystal): It is Real Time Clock and is found in Mobile Phone RTC (Real
Time Clock)

Mobile Phone RTC (Real Time Clock)

the Power Section near Power IC. It is made up of either metal or non-metal. It is of long shape.

Work: It helps to run the date and time in a mobile phone.

Faults: If RTC is faulty then there will be no date or time in the mobile phone and the set can even
get dead.

CPU: It is found in the Power Section. It is also called MAD IC, RAP IC Cell Phone CPU

Cell Phone CPU

It is the largest IC on the PCB of a Mobile Phone and it looks different from all other ICs.

Work: It controls all sections of a mobile phone.

Faults: If CPU is faulty then the mobile phone will get dead.

Logic IC / UI IC: It is found in any section of a mobile phone. It has 20 Cell Phone Logic IC

Cell Phone Logic IC

pins or legs. It is also called UI IC and Interface IC.

Work: It controls Ringer, Vibrator and LED of a mobile phone

18
 CHANNELS IN GSM

In telecommunications a channel, refers either to a physical transmission medium

such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio
channel.

The channel used in the air interface is divided into two types: Physical channel and
Logical channel.

1. Physical channel : It is the medium over which the information is carried.

2. Logical channel : It consist of information carried over a physical channel.

Physical Channel

When an MS and a BTS communicate, they do so on a specific pair of radio

frequency (RF) carriers, one for the up-link and the other for the down-link
transmissions, and within a given time slot. This combination of time slot and carrier
frequency forms what is termed a physical channel .

19
Logical channels

1. It transports either user data during a call or signalling information for MS or

base station.
2. The data, whether user traffic or signalling information, are mapped onto the
physical channels by defining a number of logical channels .

Two groups of logical channels:

Traffic Channels, for call data

Control channels, to communicate service data between network equipment nodes.

Logical channels

Traffic channels (TCHs)

The traffic channels are intended to carry encoded speech or user

data.

Control Channels (CCHs)

The control channels are intended to carry signalling and Synchronization data
between the base station and the Mobile station. Logical are used by the system and
the MS for different purposes

Traffic Channel

Traffic channel (TCH) : Traffic channels are intended to carry encoded speech and
user data.

-Full rate traffic channels at a net bit rate of 22.8 Kb/s (TCH/F)

-Half rate traffic channels at a net bit rate of 11.4 Kb/s (TCH/H)

Speech Channels : Speech channels are defined for both full rate and half rate traffic
channels.

Data Channels :

Data channels support a variety of data rates (2.4, 4.8 and 9.6 Kb/s) on both half and
full rate traffic channels. The 9.6 Kb/s data rate is only for full rate application

20
Control channel

Control channels carry signalling information between an MS and a BTS. There are
several forms of control channels in GSM, and they can generally be divided into
three categories according to the manner in which they are supported on the radio
interface and the type of signalling information they carry.

1.Broadcast control channel

2.Common control channel

3.Dedicated control channel

Broadcast control channels

Broadcast control channels are transmitted in downlink direction only i.e. only
transmitted by BTS.

The broadcast channels are used to broadcast synchronization and general network
information to all the MSs within a cell.

Such as Location Area Identity (LAI) and maximum output power.

It has three types

1. FCCH FREQUENCY CORRECTION CHANNEL

2. SCH SYNCHRONISATION CHANNEL

3. BCCH BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL

Broadcast Channel

Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH):-

1. Used for the frequency correction / synchronization of

a mobile station.
2. FCCH is transmitted on the downlink, point-to-multipoint.

Synchronization Channel (SCH):-

1. Allows the mobile station to synchronize time wise with the BTS.

21
 2. Repeated broadcast (every 10 frames) of Synchronization
Bursts is called (SCH)
3. SCH is transmitted on the downlink, point to multipoint.
4. Broadcast Channel

Broadcast control channel(BCCH):-

1. The broadcast control channel(BCCH) is used to broadcast control

information to every MS within a cell.
2. This information includes details of the control channel configuration used at
the BTS, a list of the BCCH carrier frequencies used at the neighbouring
BTSs and a number of parameters that are used by the MS when accessing
the BTS.
3. BCCH is transmitted On the downlink, point-to-multipoint.

Common Control Channel

The common control channels are used by an MS during the paging and access
procedures.

Common control channels are of following types

1. Random Access Control Channel (RACH)

2. Paging Channel (PCH)
3. Access Grant Control Channel (AGCH)
4. Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH)

CCCH

Random Access Control Channel :-

1. Transmitted by the mobile when it wishesto access to

the system
2. This occurs when mobile initiates a call or responds to a page.

Paging Channel :-

1. Transmitted by the BTS when it wishes to contact a mobile.

2. The reason for contact may be an incoming call or short message.

22
Access Grant Control Channel :-

1. It carries data which instructs the mobile to operate

in a particular physical channel (Time slot).
2. The AGCH is used by the network to grant, or deny, an MS access to the
network by supplying it with details of a dedicated channel, i.e. TCH or
SDCCH, to be used for subsequent communications

CCCH

Cell Broadcast Channel :-

This channel is used to transmit messages to be broadcast to all mobiles within a cell
e.g. traffic info.

Dedicated Control Channel

Signalling information is carried between an MS and a BTS using associated and

dedicated control channels during or not during a call.

The are of following type :-

1. Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

2. Associated Control Channel (ACCH)
3. Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
4. Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

DCH

Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) :-

The MS is on the SDCCH informed about which physical channel (frequency and
time slot) to use for traffic (TCH).

It also carries information for call forwarding and Transmission of short message.

Associated Control Channel (ACCH) :-

These Channel Could be associated with either a SDCCH or a TCH.

They are used for carrying out information associated with the process being carried
out on either SDCCH or TCH.
23
They are of two type

1. Fast ACCH

2. Slow ACCH

DCH

Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) :-

1. Conveys power control and timing information in the downlink direction.

2. Receive signal strength Indicator and link quality report in uplink direction.

Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) :-

1. The FACCH is used to carry out user authentication and handover.

2. A complete FACCH message may be sent once in every 20 ms

GENERATIONS OF MOBILE

FIRST GENERATION

1. 1G refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile

telecommunications which was first introduced in 1980s and completed in
early 1990s.
2. It's Speed was upto 2.4kbps.
3. It allows the voice calls in 1 country. 1G network use Analog Signal.
4. AMPS was first launched in USA in 1G mobile systems]

DRAWBACKS

1. Poor Voice Quality

2. Poor Battery Life
3. Large Phone Size
4. No Security
5. Limited Capacity
6. Poor Handoff Reliability

24
SECOND GENERATION

1. 2G technology refers to the 2nd generation which is based on GSM.

2. It was launched in Finland in the year 1991.
3. 2G network use digital signals.
4. It’s data speed was upto 64kbps.

FEATURES INCLUDES:

1. It enables services such as text messages,

2. picture messages and MMS (multi media message).
3. It provides better quality and capacity .
4. 2G requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there
is no network coverage in any specific area , digital signals would weak.
5. These systems are unable to handle complex data such as Videos.

25
 6. 2.5G is a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G)
generation of mobile telephony.
7. 2.5G is sometimes described as 2G Cellular Technology combined with
GPRS.

FEATURES INCLUDES:

1. Phone Calls
2. Send/Receive E-mail Messages
3. Web Browsing
4. Speed : 64-144 kbps
5. Camera Phones
6. Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. Mp3 song

THIRD GENERATION

1. 3G technology refer to third generation which was introduced in

year 2000s.
2. Data Transmission speed increased from 144kbps- 2Mbps.
3. Typically called Smart Phones and features increased its bandwidth
4. and data transfer rates to accommodate web-based applications and
audio
5. and video files.
6. Providing Faster Communication
7. Send/Receive Large Email Messages
8. High Speed Web / More Security Video Conferencing / 3D Gaming
9. TV Streaming/ Mobile TV/ Phone Calls
10. Large Capacities and Broadband Capabilities
11. 11 sec – 1.5 min. time to download a 3 min Mp3 song.

DRAWBACKS

1. Expensive fees for 3G Licenses Services

2. It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
3. High Bandwidth Requirement
4. Expensive 3G Phones.
5. Large Cell Phones

26
FOURTH GENERATION

1. 4G technology refer to or short name of fourth Generation which

was started from late 2000s.
2. Capable of providing 100Mbps – 1Gbps speed.
3. One of the basic term used to describe 4G is MAGIC. MAGIC:
4. Mobile Multimedia Anytime Anywhere Global Mobility Support
5. Integrated Wireless Solution Customized Personal Services
6. Also known as Mobile Broadband Everywhere.
7. The next generations of wireless technology that promises higher data
rates and expanded multimedia services.
8. Capable to provide speed 100Mbps-1Gbps. High QOS and High
Security
9. Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements,
anywhere.

FEATURES INCLUDE:

1.More Security
2.High Speed
3.High Capacity
4.Low Cost Per-bit etc
5.Battery uses is more
6.Hard to implement
7.Need complicated hardware Expensive equipment required
to implement next generation network.
FIFTH GENERATION

1. 5G technology refer to short name of fifth Generation which was

started from late 2010s.
2. Complete wireless communication with almost no limitations.
3. It is highly supportable to WWWW (Wireless World Wide Web).
4. High Speed, High Capacity
5. 5G technology providing large broadcasting of data in Gbps .
6. Multi - Media Newspapers, watch T.V programs with the clarity
7. as to that of an HD Quality.
8. Faster data transmission that of the previous generations.
27
 9. Large Phone Memory, Dialing Speed, clarity in Audio/Video.
10. Support interactive multimedia , voice, streaming video, Internet and
other

Ps and cs –packet switched and circuit switched data

System Architecture Evolution (SAE) is the core network architecture of

3GPP's LTE wireless communication standard.

International Mobile Telecommunications-Advanced (IMT-Advanced

Standard) are requirements issued by the ITU-R of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) in 2008 for what is marketed as 4G (or
sometimes as 4.5G) mobile phone and Internet access service.

HSCSD (High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data) is essentially a new high speed

implementation of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) data
transfer. Four times faster than GSM, with a transfer rate of up to 57.6Kbps.

 1G (first generation) – voice-oriented systems based on analog

technology; ex.: Advanced Mobile Phone Systems (AMPS) and cordless
systems

 2G (second generation) - voice-oriented systems based on digital

technology; more efficient and used less spectrum than 1G; ex.: Global

28
 System for Mobile (GSM) and US Time Division Multiple Access (US-
TDMA)

 3G (third generation) – high-speed voice-oriented systems integrated

with data services; ex.: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 4G (fourth generation) –provides voice, data and multimedia service to

subscribers

ESN

Electronic serial numbers (ESNs) were created by the U.S. Federal

Communications Commission (FCC) to uniquely identify mobile devices, from
the days of AMPS in the United States starting in the early 1980s. The
administrative role was taken over by the Telecommunications Industry
Association in 1997 and is still maintained by them. ESNs are currently
mainly used with CDMA phones (and were previously used by AMPS and
TDMA phones), compared to International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI) numbers used by all GSM phones

MIN

The mobile identification number (MIN) or mobile subscription identification

number (MSIN) refers to the 10-digit unique number that a wireless carrier
uses to identify a mobile phone, which is the last part of the international
mobile subscriber identity (IMSI).

The MIN is a number that uniquely identifies a mobile phone working under
TIA standards for cellular and PCS technologies.

SIM

A subscriber identity module or subscriber identification module (SIM) is an

integrated circuit that is intended to securely store the international mobile
subscriber identity (IMSI) number and its related key, which are used to
identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices (such as

29
mobile phones and computers). It is also possible to store contact information
on many SIM cards. SIM cards are always used on GSM phones; for CDMA
phones, they are only needed for newer LTE-capable handsets. SIM cards can
also be used in satellite phones, computers, or cameras.

The SIM circuit is part of the function of a universal integrated circuit card
(UICC) physical smart card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded
contacts and semiconductors. "SIM cards" are transferable between different
mobile device

ADC
An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and
outputs a binary number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as
such:

A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an

analog voltage or current signal. In block diagram form, it looks like this:

VOICE CALL

Voice Call Continuity (VCC) specifications in order to describe how a voice call can be persisted,
as a mobile phone moves between circuit switched and packet switched radio domains (3GPP TS
23.206).

30
Many mobile phones are becoming available that support both cellular and other broadband radio
technologies.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is one of the most popular standards for voice and video
calling over the web.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a technology that enables one to make and receive phone
calls through the Internet instead of using the traditional analogy

PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) lines.

How VoIP Works

With VoIP, analog voice calls are converted into packets of data. The packets travel like any other
type of data, such as e-mail, over the public Internet and/or any private Internet Protocol (IP)
network.

Using a VoIP service, you can call landline or cell phones. You can also call computer-to-
computer, with both parties speaking into a computer microphone and listening through computer
speakers or headsets.

When evaluating, it's worth noting that you can make or receive calls using landline telephones. All
you need is an analog telephone adapter connected to your network. Also, to ensure the best voice
quality and security, consider using your VoIP or other communications system on a private IP
network.

VoIP – How does it work?

Converting the voice signal

}
ADC (analog to digital)
}
DAC (digital to analog)

Voice (source) - - ADC - - - Internet - - - DAC - - Voice (dest)

}
Transmission of voice traffic in packets

1. Compression – voice is compressed typically with one of the following codecs, G7.11
64k, G7.29AB 8k, G723.1 6.3k
}
2. Encapsulation – the digitized voice is wrapped in an IP packet
}
3. Routing – the voice packet is routed thru the network to its final destination

31
Voip network model

SIP

RTP, RTCP, RTSP

Transport Layer (UDP, TCP)
Network Layer (IP, IP Multicast)
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer

VoIP SIP

32
SMS

SMS (Short Message Service), commonly referred to as "text messaging," is a service for sending
short messages of up to 160 characters (224 characters if using a 5-bit mode) to mobile devices,
including cellular phones, smartphones and PDAs.

SMS is similar to paging. However, SMS messages do not require the mobile phone to be active
and within range and will be held for a number of days until the phone is active and within range.
SMS messages are transmitted within the same cell or to anyone with roaming service capability.
They can also be sent to digital phones in a number of other ways, including:

 From one digital phone to another

 From Web-based applications within a Web browser
 From instant messaging clients like ICQ
 From VoIP applications like Skype
 From some unified communications applications.

Typical uses of SMS include:

 Notifying a mobile phone owner of a voicemail message

 Notifying a salesperson of an inquiry and contact to call
 Notifying a doctor of a patient with an emergency problem
 Notifying a service person of the time and place of their next call
 Notifying a driver of the address of the next pickup

Enhanced messaging service (EMS), an adaptation of SMS that allows users to send and receive
ringtones and operator logos, as well as combinations of simple media to and from EMS-
compliant handsets.

Many of these uses depend upon short telephone numbers called common short codes (CSCs),
usually consisting of five digits, that are used to address SMS and MMS messages from cellular
telephones.

Description of Routing Algorithms

Definition: The routing algorithm is that part of the network layer software responsible for
deciding which output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on.

Properties of routing algorithm: correctness, simplicity, robustness, stability, fairness, and

optimality.

33
Category of algorithm:

Nonadaptive algorithms do not base their routing decisions on measurements or estimates of the
current traffic and topology.

Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect changes in the topology,
and usually the traffic as well.

SHORTEST PATH ROUTING

Dijkstra algorithm:

Each node is labeled (in parentheses) with its distance from the source node along the best
known path. Initially, no paths are known, so all nodes are labeled with infinity. As the algorithm
proceeds and paths are found, the labels may change, reflecting better paths. A label may be either
tentative or permanent.

Initially, all labels are tentative. When it is discovered that a label represents the shortest possible
path from the source to that node, it is made permanent and never changed thereafter.

34
The shortest path from A to D ABEFHD

Flooding

a) Flooding algorithm:every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing line except the
one it arrived on.
b) Flooding obviously generates vast numbers of duplicate packets, in fact, an infinite number
unless some measures are taken to damp the process.
c) One such measure is to have a hop counter contained in the header of each packet, which
is decremented at each hop, with the packet being discarded when the counter reaches
zero.
d) An alternative technique for damming the flood is to keep track of which packets have
been flooded, to avoid sending them out a second time.
e) A dynamic routing algorithm

DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING ALGORITHMS

Operate by having each router maintain a table (i.e, a vector) giving the best known distance to
each destination and which line to use to get there. These tables are updated by exchanging
information with the neighbors. (also named the distributed Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and
the Ford- Fulkerson algorithm )

Table content: In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table indexed by, and
containing one entry for, each router in the subnet. This entry contains two parts: the preferred
outgoing line to use for that destination and an estimate of the time or distance to that destination.

Table updating method:Assume that the router knows the delay to each of its neighbors. Once
every T msec each router sends to each neighbor a list of its estimated delays to each destination.
It also receives a similar list from each neighbor.

LINK STATE ROUTING

a) A dynamic routing algorithm

The idea behind link state routing can be stated as five parts. Each
router must do the following:

1. Discover its neighbors and learn their network addresses.

2. Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighbors.
3. Construct a packet telling all it has just learned.
4. Send this packet to all other routers.
5. Compute the shortest path to every other router.

35
 IT8201 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ESSENTIALS

UNIT V APPLICATION ESSENTIALS

5.1 Creation of simple interactive applications,Simple database applications, Multimedia applications
5.2 Design and development of information systems, Personal Information System, Information retrieval
system
5.3 Social networking applications

UNIT V APPLICATION ESSENTIALS

Creation of simple interactive applications - Simple database applications - Multimedia applications - Design
and development of information systems - Personal Information System - Information retrieval system - Social
networking applications
5.1 Creation of simple interactive applications, Simple database applications, Multimedia applications
An interactive application is a collection of objects intended for performing certain task when user triggers the
command. It shares a graphical user interface.
• It consists of forms which has components such a buttons, text fields, radio buttons.
• One page may get linked with other pages dynamically through hyperlinks.
• Examples of interactive applications: online course registration, online shopping
• Non-interactive applications operate without human involvement.
• Eg: compiler and batch processing applications
• Compiler – program which converts high level programs in the machine language
• Batch processing – execution of a series of jobs in a program on a computer without manual intervention.
Advantages of creating interactive applications
• Increase engagement of users in the collaborative productions.
• Files can be easily shared, accessed, edited and saved.
• Boosts the communication. Information can be shared using email, print and files.
• Effective changes can be made while handling the interactive application. Tools like 3D modeling, hyperlinks,
video links can be embedded.
• Inter-connectivity among the interactive applications allows the greater availability. Users can connect to
interactive applications using iOS and android smart devices.
• Information can be made available to the fingertips by using touch screen technologies.
User’s perspective about interactive applications
There are two modes of browsing the information.They are,
• Known item searching - Users know what they are looking for.
• Casual browsing – Users do not know what they are looking for.
Producer’s perspective about interactive applications
• The points to be noted while building the interactive application are
– Organizational goals and vision must be clear to information architect.
– Decision of the contents to be placed on the main page should be taken prior to implementation of the
architecture.
– The site should be designed, so that the intended audience will get the satisfaction of using it.
Steps for creating simple interactive web applications
1. Understanding Data Items and the Data Dictionary
2. Understanding Table Design
3. Understanding Business View Design
4. Understanding Form Design
5. Understanding Report Design
6. Understanding Data Structure Design
7. Understanding Event Rules Design
8. Understanding System Functions
1. Understanding Data Items and the Data Dictionary
• A data item identifies a unit of information. It defines how the item can be used and includes information
such as the type of item and its length.
• Data dictionary is a collection of descriptions of the data objects or items in a data model for the benefit of
programmers and others who need to refer to them.
• Applications access the data dictionary at run time and immediately reflect modifications to data item
attributes such as field descriptions, column headings, decimals.
• The data dictionary can be used to create, view, and update attributes for data items.
2. Understanding Table Design
• A relational database table stores the data that an application uses in columns and rows.
• Each column is a data item, and each row is a record. We can create one or more tables for use in an
application.
• To create a table, we select data items (the data items must already exist in the data dictionary) to include in
the table and assign key fields as indices for retrieving and updating data.
• Create a new table.
• Add or delete a data item.
• Add or modify an index.
• An index identifies records in a table. A primary index identifies unique records in a table. An index is
composed of one or more keys, or data items, within the table. An index enables a database management
system (DBMS) to sort and locate records quickly.
3. Understanding Business View Design
• A business view is a selection of data items from one or more tables. After we create a table, we use Business
View Design to choose only the data items that are required for our application.
• Use appropriate SQL statements necessary to retrieve data from any of the supported databases.
• After we define a business view, we can create a form that updates data in an interactive application.
4. Understanding Form Design
• Applications are composed of forms, and a form is the interface between a user and a table.
• This interface should present the data logically and contain the functions that are necessary to enter and
manipulate data.
• It consists of forms which has the components such a buttons, text fields, radio buttons.
5. Understanding Report Design
• Report Design is used to present business data stored in the database.
• Data is stored in databases using relational tables. The data is typically presented using batch applications
that access the data through business views.
• Each report is comprised of sections, which are the building blocks of all reports. Within the template, we can
add, hide, remove, and rearrange sections as needed.
6. Understanding Data Structure Design
• Data structures are a key element of any programming language or environment.
• A data structure is a list of parameters that passes data among applications and tables or forms.
7. Understanding Event Rules Design
• Event are the activities that occur on the form of an interactive application.
• Event Rules are logic statements that we can create and attach to events.
• Event rules can be created for following purposes
– Perform a mathematical calculation.
– Pass data from a field on a form to a field on another form.
– Counts grid rows that are populated with data.
– Interconnect two forms.
– Hide or display a control using a system function.
– Evaluate If/While and Else conditions.
– Assign a value or an expression to a field.
– Create variables or programmer-defined fields at runtime.
– Perform a batch process upon completion of an interactive application.
– Process table input and output, validate data, and retrieve records.
8. Understanding System Functions
System Functions are procedures provided by the tool and are usually specific to the type of component being
used. For example, there are system functions to hide and show fields on an application.
5.1.1 Simple database applications
Database is an organized collection of data. A DBMS is a computer software application that interacts with the
user, other applications and the database itself to capture and analyze data.
Examples:
• MSACCESS
• Oracle
• MySQL
• Microsoft SQL Server
Characteristics of Database Applications
• It supports query language
•ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability (normally
shortened as ACID). These concepts are applied on transactions, which manipulate data in a database. ACID
properties helps the database stay healthy in multi-transactional environments and in case of failure.
• Less redundancy
• Security
Advantages of DBMS
Improved data sharing
An advantage of the database management approach is, the DBMS helps to create an environment in which
end users have better access to more and better-managed data.
Improved data security
The more users access the data, the greater the risks of data security breaches. Corporations invest
considerable amounts of time, effort, and money to ensure that corporate data are used properly.
Better data integration
Wider access to well-managed data promotes an integrated view of the organization’s operations and a clearer
view of the big picture. It becomes much easier to see how actions in one segment of the company affect other
segments.
Improved data access
The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries. From a database perspective, a query
is a specific request issued to the DBMS for data manipulation—for example, to read or update the data. Simply
put, a query is a question, and an ad hoc query is a spur-of-the-moment question. The DBMS sends back an
answer (called the query result set) to the application.
Increased end-user productivity
The availability of data, combined with the tools that transform data into usable information, empowers end
users to make quick, informed decisions that can make the difference between success and failure in the global
economy.
Disadvantages of DBMS
Increased costs
One of the disadvantages of DBMS is Database systems require sophisticated hardware and software and highly
skilled personnel. The cost of maintaining the hardware, software, and personnel required to operate and
manage a database system can be substantial.
Maintaining currency
To maximize the efficiency of the database system, we must keep our system current. Therefore, we must
perform frequent updates and apply the latest patches and security measures to all components.
Because database technology advances rapidly, personnel training costs tend to be significant.
Vendor dependence: Given the heavy investment in technology and personnel training, companies might be
reluctant to change database vendors.
Management complexity
Database systems interface with many different technologies and have a significant impact on a company’s
resources and culture. The changes introduced by the adoption of a database system must be properly
managed to ensure that they help advance the company’s objectives.
Data Models
Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are fundamental entities
to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is connected to each other and how they are
processed and stored inside the system.
• Describes the logical structure of database, relationship between the database stored in database.
• It organizes the data for different users.
There are different types of models
– Hierarchical model
– Network model
– Relational Model
– E-R model
Hierarchical model
In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.
This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like index of a book, recipes etc.
In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one one-to-many relationship between two
different types of data, for example, one department can have many courses, many professors and of-course
many students.

Advantage and Disadvantages

• Advantage:
• Groups the data into tables and define the relationship between the tables.
• Disadvantages
• For searching any data, have to start from the root and move downwards.
• Fails to handle many to many relationship efficiently.
Network Model
This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is organised more like a graph, and are
allowed to have more than one parent node.
In this database model, data is related as more relationships are established in this database model. Also, as the
data is more related, hence accessing the data is also easier and fast. This database model was used to map
many-to-many data relationships.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages
– Capability to handle more relationships
– Ease of data access
– Data Integrity
• Disadvantages
– Complex to implement
– Difficult to change structure
Relational Model
In this model, data is organised in two-dimensional tables and the relationship is maintained by storing a
common field.
This model was introduced by E.F Codd in 1970, and since then it has been the most widely used database
model, in fact, we can say that the only database model used around the world.
The basic structure of data in the relational model is tables. All the information related to a particular type is
stored in rows of that table.
Hence, tables are also known as relations in relational model.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages
– Simple to implement and manage.
– Insertion, deletion and retrieval of data becomes easy.
– Data can be easily linked with other table.
• Disadvantages
• Can facilitate poor design and implementation.
• Cannot handle data in the form of images, audio or video.
E-R model
In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into entity and its characteristics
into attributes.
Different entities are related using relationships.
E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make it easier for different
stakeholders to understand.
• Components of E-R diagram:
– Entity - object(rectangle symbol)
– Relationship associates several entities (diamond symbol)
– Attribute – record field(ellipse symbol)
Notations used in E-R diagram

ER DIAGRAM EXAMPLE
<iframe width="400" height="280" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/I_rxqSJAj6U" frameborder="0"
allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
5.1.2 Multimedia applications
Multi-Media
The great strides made recently in delivering multimedia, which is the coordination of text, video and audio
media capabilities, it is one of the most significant developments in communications today. Multimedia can
provide salient opportunities for service providers to attract new customers and increase the loyalty of current
ones, while increasing Average Revenue Per User (ARPU). Businesses can use multimedia to increase the
employee communication and significantly upgrade the effectiveness of critical functions such as the contact
center.
Basic Concepts of data compression
In general, data compression is the process of reducing the amount of data needed to represent a given
quantity of information.
Data Redundancy
Data is the one by which the information is conveyed. For a given information, various types of representations
may be used and each representation will have different amounts of data.
Some representations may have data which do not convey any useful information. Therefore, these
representations are said to contain data redundancy. If this redundancy is removed, compression can be
achieved.
Relative Data Redundancy
Let there be two data sets that represent the same information and m, n 2are the number of information -
carrying units (i.e. bits) in the data sets.
Now, the relative data redundancy Rd of the first data set is given by,

----------(1)
Where, Cr - compression ratio defined as,

-----------(2)
Based on n1 and n2 values there can be three different cases as below.
(i)n2 = n1 → CR = 1 and RD = 0 - First set has no redundant data.
(ii)n2 << n1 → CR → ∞ and RD = 1 - First set contains highly redundant data.
(iii)n2 >> n1 ⇒ Cr → 0 and Rd = ∞ - Second set has more data than the original (1st) set. This case is undesirable.
Thus, a redundancy of 0.9 means that 90% of data in the first set is redundant and so on.
Types of Redundancy
Three types of data redundancies can be found in image compression. They are,
(i)Coding Redundancy
(ii)Interpixel Redundancy
(iii)Psychovisual Redundancy
Reducing these redundancies provides data compression.
(i) Coding Redundancy
A code is a system of symbols used for representing an information. A code word is a sequence of symbols
representing a piece of information. Thus, the code length is defined as the number of symbols in each code
word.
A resulting image is said to have coding redundancy if its gray levels are coded using more code symbols than
actually needed to represent each gray level.
Average Length of Code Words
The gray - level histogram of an image is used to construct codes to reduce data redundancy.
Multiplying the number of bits used to represent each gray level with the probability of occurance of that gray
level and adding all such products gives the average length of code words assigned to different gray levels.

----------(3)
Where, l(rk) - Number of bits used to represent each gray level
Pr(rk) - Probability of occurrence of gray level rk.
This is the average number of bits needed to represent each pixel.
The probability of occurance of a gray level rk which is in the interval [0, 1] in a histogram is,

-------------(4)
Where, L - Number of gray levels
nk - Number of times the kth gray level appear in the image
n - Total number of pixels.
Total Number of Bits
Now, the total number of bits required to code an M x N image is given by,
L M x N = M.N.Lavg -------------(5)
To Avoid Redundancy
Coding redundancy can be avoided and thus data compression can be achieved by assigning fewer bits to more
probable gray levels and more bits to less probable gray levels. This process is known as variable-length coding.
Natural (or) Binary Coding
This type of coding assigns same number of bits to both the most and least probable gray levels. Therefore, it
cannot help to minimize coding redundancy.
(iii) Inter pixel Redundancy
It is caused by the Inter pixel correlations within an image. Inter pixel correlations are the structural and
geometric relationships between objects in the image.
Other Names:
Inter-pixel redundancy is also known as,
• Spatial Redundancy
• Geometric Redundancy
• Inter frame Redundancy
Autocorrelation Coefficient
The autocorrelation coefficients can be computed by using,

---------(6)
Where A(∆n) - scaling factor given by,

--------(7)
n - Number of pixels
To Reduce:
Inter-pixel redundancies in an image can be reduced by transforming the 2-D pixel array into a more efficient
format. Transformations used for this purpose are known as mappings. If the original image elements can be
reconstructed from the transformed data set, the mappings are called reversible mappings.
Example for mapping: Representing an image using the difference between adjacent pixels.
(iii)Psycho visual Redundancy
The human eye does not respond to all information with equal sensitivity. As, some information may be given
less importance when compared to other information in normal visual processing. Such information is said to
be psycho-visually redundant.
Properties:
Psycho visual redundancy has the following properties:
• It is basically different from other redundancies.
• It is related with real or quantifiable visual information.
• Removal of this redundancy will not affect the perceived image quality, since the data is not essential for
normal visual processing.
Perception Process:
Human perception does not involve quantitative analysis of every pixel in an image. It does only qualitative
analysis which contains the following steps:
(i) Differentiating features in an image such as edges-are searched by the observer.
(ii) The features are combined into recognizable groups by the observer.
(iii) The brain of the observer relates these groupings with its prior knowledge and completes the image
perception process.
Drawback:
When psycho visual redundancy is removed, there may be a loss in real or quantitative information. This is
known as ‘quantization’. Therefore, this is a type of lossy data compression.
Fidelity Criteria
Fidelity criteria is used to evaluate the information loss during data compression.
Need:
There is a loss of real or quantitative visual information when psycho-visual redundancy is removed. Thus, there
is a chance for losing the information of interest. Therefore, there is a need to quantify the nature and extent of
the information loss using a repeatable and reproducible criteria.
Types:
Two types of fidelity criteria are used for the assessment Of information loss. They are
(i)Objective Fidelity Criteria
(ii)Subjective Fidelity Criteria
(i) Objective Fidelity Criteria
The objective of fidelity criteria expresses the level of information loss as a function of two parameters. They
are
• The original or input image
• The compressed and successively decompressed output image.
Example - rms Error
The root-mean-square (rms) error between the input and output image is a very good example for objective
fidelity criteria.

The error between two images f(x, y) and (x,y) is given by,

e(x, y)= (x, y) -f (x, y) --------(8)

The total error between two M × N size images is,

-----------(9)

Now, the root-mean-square error erms between (x, y) and (x, y) is obtained by taking the square root of
the squared error, which is averaged over the M × N array.

-----(10)
Advantage:
Objective fidelity criteria is a simple and convenient technique to evaluate information loss.
(ii) Subjective Fidelity Criteria
Since human perception is based on subjective quality, it is more suitable to use subjective fidelity criteria to
evaluate the information loss.
Concept:
• This method is implemented by showing a “typical” decompressed image to a number of viewers.
• Then, their evaluations are averaged to take a decision.
• These evaluations may be done using a rating scale or side-by-side comparisons.
Continuous Tone Still Image Compression Standards - JPEG
Many continuous tone i.e. color image compression standards are defined by the CCITT and ISO.
Unlike binary compression standards, continuous tone standards are based on the lossy transform coding
techniques. These standards address monochrome image compression also.
Three important such standards which define good image quality and compression performance are:
(1)The original DCT based JPEG standard
(2)Wavelet - based JPEG 2000 standard → recently proposed.
(3)JPEG - LS standard → a loss less to near loss less adaptive prediction scheme.
JPEG Standard
JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group. It is very popular continuous tone, still frame compression
standard.
No particular file format, spatial resolution or color space model is specified for this standard. It defines three
different coding systems:
(1) A lossy baseline coding system
- It is used in almost all compression applications
(2) An extended coding system
- It is used for greater compression, higher precision or progressive reconstruction applications.
(3)A loss less independent coding system
- It is used for reversible compression.
Baseline Coding System
• It is also known as sequential baseline system.
• This system is based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT).
• Its input and output data precision is limited to 8 bits and the quantized DCT values are limited to 11 bits.
• If a system needs to be compatible with JPEG, it should have support for the baseline system.
Compression Procedure
The general block diagram of JPEG Encoder is shown in figure.

JPEG Encoder
The baseline system performs compression in three steps as below
Step 1: DCT Computation
- First, the image is subdivided into images of size 8 x 8.
- All the sub images are processed from left to right and top to bottom
- Each sub image will have 8x8 = 64 pixels. Now, 2n-1 is subtracted from all the pixels to level shift them,
2n maximum number of gray levels.
- Then, the 2-D DCT of the pixel blocks i.e. Sub images is computed.
Step 2: Quantization
- The pixels are quantized using,

- The quantized coefficients are reordered in the zigzag pattern to form a 1-D sequence of quantized
coefficients.
Step 3: Variable - Length Code Assignment
- The reordered array will have been arranged according to increasing spatial frequency.
- Now, the nonzero AC coefficients are coded using a variable - length code.
- The DC coefficient is difference coded with respect to the DC coefficient of the previous sub image.
Decoding
The JPEG Decoder which performs the opposite function of encoder explained above is shown in figure.

JPEG Decoder
Advantages:
The JPEG coding procedure has the following advantages:
(1) The reordering of quantized coefficients may result in long runs of zeros. This makes the computation
easier.
(2) Instead of default coding tables and quantization arrays, the user is allowed to construct custom tables
and/or arrays according to the image characteristics.
JPEG 2000 Standard
• JPEG 2000 is an extension of the initial JPEG standard
• The standard is based on wavelet coding techniques
• It is developed to provide flexibility in
(i) Compression of continuous tone still images and
(ii)Access to the compressed data.
•Therefore, the portions of the JPEG 2000 compressed image can be extracted and hence for re-transmitted,
stored, displayed and edited.
JPEG 2000 Algorithm
The JPEG 2000 encoding and decoding processes are together called the JPEG 2000 algorithm. Based on the
methods used it can be,
• Reversible JPEG 2000 algorithm (or)
• Irreversible JPEG 2000 algorithm
JPEG 2000 encoding
The encoding process of the JPEG 2000 standard has the following steps
(1)Level Shifting
First, the samples of the n-bit image to be coded are DC level shifted by subtracting 2n-1. Here each color
component is shifted individually.
(2) Optional De-correlation (or) Component Transformation
If only three color components are present in the image, they are de-correlated using a reversible or
nonreversible linear combination of the components. This step is optional. It is used to improve the
compression efficiency.
(3) Tiling
‘Tiles’ are rectangular arrays of pixels which contain the same relative portion of all components. Here, the
components of the image are divided into tiles. These tile components can be extracted and reconstructed
independently, so that accessing and manipulating a limited region of the coded image is possible.
(4) Transformation
It computes 1-D discrete wavelet transform of the rows and columns of each tile component. This is performed
by a lifting-based approach which consists of six sequential “lifting’ and “scaling” operations.
For example, a lifting operation is:
Y(2n +1) = X(2n +1) + α [X(2n) + X(2n + 2)], i0-3≤2n + l < i1 + 3
Where, X - Tile component being transformed
Y - Resulting transform
i0, i1 - Position of tile component
α - Lifting parameter
The end of this process produces a wavelet transformed image in which Total number of transform coefficients
= Total number of samples in the original image.
(5)Quantization
Quantization is needed because the important visual information is present only in a few transformed
coefficients. Therefore, the number of bits representing the transform should be reduced. This process called
“coefficient quantization” is implemented to individual scales and sub bands.
A coefficient ab(u,v) of sub-band b is quantized to value qb(u,v) by,

Rb - Nominal dynamic range of sub-band, b.

εb,μb - Number of bits allotted to the exponent and mantissa of sub-band coefficients.
(6)Coefficient Bit Modeling
Here, the coefficients of each transformed tile component’s sub-bands are arranged into rectangular blocks
called ‘code blocks'. These code blocks will have several bit planes which are represented by several bits.
(7) Arithmetic Coding
Each bit of the bit planes in the code blocks, starting from the most significant bit plane is sent through any one
of the three passes, namely •Significance propagation • Magnitude refinement and • Cleanup
The outputs of these passes are arithmetically coded.
(8) Bit - Stream Layering
The arithmetically coded bit planes are grouped with similar passes from other code blocks to form layers.
Thus, a ‘layer’ is an arbitrary number of groupings of coding which passes from each
code block.
(9)Packetizing
The layers obtained from the bit-stream layering process are divided into packets here. These packets are the
fundamental units of the encoded code stream.
JPEG 2000 Decoding
JPEG 2000 decoders perform the inverted operations of the encoder. The process has the following steps:
(1)Reconstruction of Tile Components
First, the tile component sub-bands of the original image are reconstructed by decoding the bit modeled,
arithmetically coded, layered and packetized code - stream.
(2)De-quantization
Even though Mb bit planes are encoded, only Nb bit planes are selected for decoding. This is equal to coding the
coefficients of the code block using a step size of 2Mb-Nb ∇b.

Here, the coded coefficients are denoted as b(u,v) and the non coded coefficients are set to zero.
Now, the de-quantized transform coefficients Rqb (u,v) are obtained as:

(3)Inverse Transformation
The inverse transform of the de-quantized coefficients is now computed by row and by column using the
inverse fast Walsh transform (FWT-1). This can also be performed by lifting based operations. For example, the
inverse lifting operation of equation is
X(2n + l) = X(2n+l)-α[X(2n) + X(2n + 2)], i0≤2n + l<i
(4)Reconstruction of Tiles
As one of the final decoding steps, the tile components are assembled to reconstruct the tiles.
(5)Inverse Component Transformation
This is performed only if component transformation was done during the encoding process. Based on the
technique used in encoding, either reversible or irreversible method can be followed.
(6)DC Level Shifting
Finally, the transformed pixels are level shifted by adding 2n-1 . Thus, the reconstructed image is obtained.
Video Compression Standard - MPEG
•Video compression standards are developed by extending the transform-based still image compression
techniques
• These standards provide methods for reducing temporal or frame-to-frame redundancies.
Types:
Based on the applications, two broad categories of video compression standards are available. They are:
(1) Video Teleconferencing Standards
(2) Multimedia Standards
Video Teleconferencing Standards
The video teleconferencing standards are defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) which is
the successor of CCITT.
Some of the important such standards are given below.
(1)H . 261
• This standard is developed for operations at affordable telecom bit rates.
• It supports full motion video transmission over T1 lines with delays less than 150ms. T1 lines are the
transmission lines introduced by Bell system for digital voice communications over short distances.
(2) H. 263
During the development of H.263, the target bit-rate was determined by the maximum bit rate achievable at
the general switched telephone network (GSTN), which was 28.8 Kbits/sec at that time. At these bit-rates, it
was necessary to keep the overhead information at a minimum.
• It is designed for very low bit rate video.
• The range of bit rate supported is: 10 - 30 kbit/s
(3) H . 320
• This standard is a superset of H.261 standard
• It is constructed for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) bandwidths
Coding Scheme:
All the above three standards are based on a Motion Compensated, DCT - Based coding scheme.
First, a motion compensated prediction error is computed by comparing the neighboring ‘macro-blocks’ of
adjacent frames. Macro-blocks are just blocks of pixels. This prediction error is then discrete cosine
transformed in 8 x 8 blocks, quantized and coded for transmission or storage.
Multimedia Standards
Multimedia video compression standards are developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) of the
CCITT and ISO.
The main standards are given below:
(1)MPEG-1
• It is an “entertainment quality” coding standard
• It is developed for storage and retrieval of video on digital media.
Example: Compact Disk Read - Only Memories (CD - ROMs)
• The bit rates supported are in the order of 1.5 M bit/s
(2)MPEG-2
• This standard addresses applications involving video quality in the range between NTSC/PAL
and CCIR 601 standards [NTSC - National Television System Committee; PAL - Phase Alternate Line; CCIR -
International Radio Consultive Committee].
• It supports bit rates from 2-10 M bit/s.
•The bit rates of cable TV distribution and narrow-channel satellite broadcasting are also supported by this.
The aim of MPEG - 1 and MPEG -2 standards is to provide an efficient storage and transmission of digital audio
and video (AV) material.
(3) MPEG-4
• The range of bit rates supported by this standard are:
- 5 - 64 kbit/s for mobile and Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) applications.
- Upto 4 M bits/s for TV and film applications.
• It can support constant bit rate coding as well as variable bit rate coding.
MPEG-4 is still an evolving standard and is divided into a number of parts. Companies promoting MPEG-4
compatibility do not always clearly state which "part" level compatibility they are referring to.
The key parts to be aware of are MPEG-4 Part 2 (including Advanced Simple Profile, used by codecs such as
DivX, Xvid, Nero Digital and 3ivx and by QuickTime 6) and MPEG-4 part 10 (MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 or Advanced
Video Coding, used by the x264 encoder, Nero Digital AVC, QuickTime 7, and high-definition video media like
Blu-ray Disc).
Most of the features included in MPEG-4 are left to individual developers to decide whether or not to
implement. This means that there are probably no complete implementations of the entire MPEG-4 set of
standards.
• This standard provides:
(i) Improved video compression efficiency
(ii) Content - based interactivity; e.g: AV object - based access
(iii) Increased robustness in error - prone environments
(iv) Ability to add or drop AV (Audio & Video) objects
(v) Object resolution scalability
(vi) A great amount of video content which is readily available in the form of video objects.
Coding Scheme:
Similar to teleconferencing standards, multimedia standards also use motion estimation and coding techniques
for applications such as,
• Video on demand
• Digital HDTV broadcasting and
• Image/video database services.
MPEG Encoder (or) DPCM / DCT Coder
The MPEG standards are based on a DPCM/DCT coding scheme. It is a hybrid block - based coding scheme
which uses the following properties:
• Redundancies within and between adjacent video frames
• Motion uniformity between frames
• Psycho-visual properties of the human visual system.
Block Diagram:
A basic DPCM/DCT encoder for motion compensated video compression is shown in figure.

DPCM/DCT Encoder
Input:
The input to the encoder is an image block which consists of an 8x8 array of pixels
Other standard inputs are,
• Macro-block - A 2 x 2 array of image blocks i.e. a 16 x 16 array of pixels
• Slice - A row of non-overlapping macro-blocks.
Operation:
The path having the DCT quantizer and variable length coding block in figure is known as the primary input-to-
output path. The encoder performs simultaneous transformation, quantization and variable - length coding
operations on the input with the use of these blocks .
Encoded Output Frames
The input given to the encoder can be of two types. It will be either a conventional image block or the
difference between a conventional image block and its prediction based on previous or future video frames.
Therefore, based on the input, three types of encoded output frames are produced. They are:
(1)Intra-frame or Independent Frame (I - frame)
As the name states, this frame is compressed independently i.e. it does not depend on any previous or future
video frames.
- Among the three encoded output frames I - frame has high resemblance with a JPEG encoded image.
- It is used as the reference point for the generation of future P and B frames.
- I - frames provide
(i)Highest degree of random access
(ii)Ease of editing and
(iii)High resistance to the propagation of transmission error.
(2)Predictive Frame (P - frame)
P - frame is the compressed difference between the current frame and its prediction is based
on the previous I or P-frame. A P-frame (Predicted picture) holds only the changes in the image from the
previous frame. For example, in a scene where a car moves across a stationary background, only the car's
movements need to be encoded. The encoder does not need to store the unchanging background pixels in the
P-frame, thus saving space. P-frames are also known as delta-frames. The motion estimation here is done in
the macro-block level.
The motion compensated prediction is performed by the following steps
(i) Compute the correlation between pixels using the decoded block in figure.
(ii) Do variable - length coding of the computed motion vector
(iii) Transmits the result with the encoded data stream as its completing part.
(3) Bi-directional Frame (B - frame)
B - frame is the compressed difference between the current frame and its prediction based on the previous I -
or P - frame and next P - frame. A bi-directional predictive frame (B-Frame) is part of an MPEG video
compression standard.
In this method, groups of sequential pictures are aggregated to form a group of pictures (GOP), which are
displayed in sequence to provide video. A single bi-directional predictive frame relates to other frames directly
preceding or following it.
Therefore, the corresponding decoder should be able to access both the past and future reference frames.
Rate Controller:
To adjust the quantization parameters in order to match the generated bit stream and video channel capacity, a
rate controller is used. This rate controller works based on the content of the output buffer.
Decoding:
The encoder frames are reordered before transmission, so that the decoder will be able to reconstruct and
display them in the proper sequence.
5.2 Design and development of information systems, Personal Information System, Information retrieval
system
IS is a set of interrelated components that collect, manipulate, store and disseminate data and information and
provide feedback mechanism to meet an objective. There are so many ways that information systems are
changing our lives both in our personal lives and in the businesses and corporations that are around us.
Examples: Supple Chain Management, Customer Relationship Management, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
Parts of IS
There are four components for all information systems:Inputs – activity of gathering and capturing raw
data.Processing Mechanisms – Converting or transforming data into useful outputs.Outputs – Production of
useful information, usually in form of documents and reports.Feedback – Output that is used to make changes
to input or processing activities.
Characteristics of IS
• Accurate
• Complete
• Relevant
• Reliable
• Secure
• Simple
Components of IS
An information system is essentially made up of five components hardware, software, database, network and
people. These five components integrate to perform input, process, output, feedback and control.
Hardware consists of input/output device, processor, operating system and media devices. Software consists of
various programs and procedures. Database consists of data organized in the required structure. Network
consists of hubs, communication media and network devices. People consist of device operators, network
administrators and system specialist.
Information processing consists of input; data process, data storage, output and control. During input stage,
data instructions are fed to the systems which during process stage are worked upon by software programs and
other queries. During output stage, data is presented in structured format and reports.
Types of IS

Design and Development of IS

The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model of the phases of the information system. The
typical systems development life cycle model suggests five fundamental phases of information systems
development process: planning, analysis, design, implementation, and maintenance.

The planning phase is the process of preliminary investigation to understand why a new information system
should be created for the organization. The deliverable of the planning phase includes a report of the feasibility
study and the work plan for the new information system development project. Once the organization decides
to create a new information system, a full-scale project of information system development is then started.
The analysis phase is the first stage of the full-scale information system development project to investigate
what the new information system will do. In this phase, the project team fully investigates the current
information system (or the as-is system) of the organization and the specific business needs (or the system
requirements) for the new information system. The new information system that meets the system
requirements is called the to-be system.
The deliverable of the analysis phase reports on the following major system analysis results:
• The differences between the as-is system and to-be system.
• The system requirements for the to-be system.
• The strategy of system development for the design phase.
The design phase determines how the the system will be created and how it will operate in terms of hardware,
software, networking, system personnel, and operational procedures. The deliverable of the design phase are
the detailed system specifications of system infrastructure, hardware, software and networking for the
implementation phase. The design phase actually provides the solution to the system.
The implementation phase builds the new information system based on the system specifications provided by
the design phase. The methods applied to the system implementation phase vary depending on the strategies
of systems development.
By the end of the implementation phase, the new information system replaces the old information system. The
business environment changes constantly and also the newly built information system needs improvement.
The maintenance phase improves the new information system and because of the innovation of information
technology and significant changes of the business environment, the cost of system maintenance eventually
becomes unjustified at a certain point.
The next generation of information system in the organization will be inevitable. The information system
development starts a new cycle.
5.2.1 Personal Information System, Information retrieval system
Personal Information system
The Personnel Information system is a Computer based system for maintenance of the Service registers of
individuals in an organization. The details pertaining to personnel, postings, qualifications, departmental tests
passed, training attended, family details etc are stored in this system. Retrieval of information is possible based
on any individuals or on collective information grouped by certain categories namely designation, retirement,
length of service, place of working etc.
Set of activities in which people perform in order to acquire, organize, maintain, retrieve and use personal
information such as documents, web pages, email messages to accomplish assigned task. Maintains
information about employees in qualification, postings, promotions, leave and incentives.
Examples: Personal Notes, E-mail Notifications, Reminders and Alert systems
Information retrieval system
Information retrieval is the activity of obtaining information resources relevant to an information need from a
collection of information resources. Searches can be based on full-text or other content-based indexing. The
primary goal is to “Retrieve all the documents which are relevant to a user query, while retrieving as few non-
relevant documents as possible.”
Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called information overload. An IR
systems is a software that provide access to books, journals and other documents, which stores them and
manages the document. Web search engines are the most visible IR applications.
An information retrieval process begins, when a user enters a query into the system. Queries are formal
statements of information needs, for example search strings in web search engines. In information retrieval, a
query does not uniquely identify a single object in the collection. Instead, several objects may match the query,
perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.
An object is an entity that is represented by information in a content collection or database. User queries are
matched against the database information. However, as opposed to a classical SQL queries of a database, in
information retrieval the results returned may or may not match the query, so results are typically ranked. This
ranking of results is a key difference of information retrieval searching compared to database searching. The
top ranking objects are then shown to the user. The process may then be iterated, if the user wishes to refine
the query.
Depending on the application, the data objects may be text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos.

Architecture of information retrieval system

Important Issues in Information
• Retrieval Process
• Relevance
• Evaluation
• User and Information need
Important Issues in Information Retrieval Process
Information retrieval researchers have focused on a few key issues that remain just as important in the era of
commercial web search engines working with billions of web pages as they were when tests were done in the
1960s on document collections containing about 1.5 megabytes of text. One of these issues is relevance.
• Relevance
• Evaluation
• User and Information need
Relevance
Relevant document contains the information that a person was looking for when she submitted a query to the
search engine. These factors must be taken into account when designing algorithms for comparing text and
ranking documents. UNIX produces very poor result in terms of relevance This is referred to as the vocabulary
mismatch problem in information retrieval.
Evaluation
The quality of a document ranking depends on how well it matches a person’s expectations, it was necessary
early on to develop evaluation measures and experimental procedures for acquiring this data and using it to
compare ranking algorithms. Two of the measures are used, Precision and recall, are still popular. Precision is a
very intuitive measure, and is the proportion of retrieved documents that are relevant.
User and information need
The users of a search engine are the ultimate judges of quality. This has led to numerous studies
on how people interact with search engines and, in particular, to the development of techniques to help people
express their information needs.
Eg: Balance for Bank Account
<iframe width="400" height="280" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vvqL5x7BjxY" frameborder="0"
allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
5.3 Social networking applications
Social networking is the practice of expanding the number of one's business or social contacts by making
connections through individuals, often through social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and
Google+.
Online technologies allows users to communicate with each other. Social networking sites allow users to share
ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, and to inform others about online or real-world activities and events
with people in their network. While in-person social networking – such as gathering in a village market to talk
about events – has existed since the earliest development of towns, the Web enables people to connect with
others who live in different locations, ranging from across a city to across the world. Depending on the social
media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact
anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, and so on.
The success of social networking services can be seen in their dominance in society today, with Facebook
having a massive 2.13 billion active monthly users and an average of 1.4 billion daily active users in 2017.
LinkedIn, a career-oriented social-networking service, generally requires that a member personally know
another member in real life before they contact them online. Some services require members to have a
preexisting connection to contact other members.
Types of Social Networking Applications
• Messengers Applications
• Live streaming applications
• Applications for inspiration
• Lifestyle applications
• Social blogging applications
• Business social applications
• Anonymous social applications
Social Impact of Social Networking Applications
• Psychological effects
• Interpersonal Communication
• Awareness of Rights
• Social Anxiety
• Growth of patents
CASE STUDIES

CASE STUDY 1
Railway reservation system
INDEX PAGE

<html>
<head>
<style>
div.container {
width: 100%;
height:100%;
}
header, footer {
padding: 1em;
color: white;
background-color: BLUE;
clear: left;
text-align: left;
}
nav {
width: 100%;
height:100%;
float: right;
max-width: 160px;
height: 134px;
}
article {
width: 100%;
height:100%;
padding: 1em;
background-color: PINK;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<div class="container">

<header>
<h1>ONLINE RAILWAY RESERVATION FORM
</h1>
</header>
<nav>
<h1>MENU</h1>

<ul>
<li><a href="#">ABOUT US</a></li>
<li><a href="#">CONTACT US</a></li>
<li><a href="http://localhost/rail.php">RESERVE</a></li>
<li><a href="#">FEEDBACK</a></li>
</ul>
</nav>
<article>
<h1>ARTICLE</h1>

<p>Now we will create a layout using the following: header, nav, section, article, aside, footer,
details, summary, style, also there can be an image:<img src="http://gifimage.net/wp-
content/uploads/2017/11/gif-info-9.gif" style="height: 50px;"></p>
</article>
<footer>RESERVATION WEBSITE</footer>
</div>
</body>
</html>

RAILWAY RESERVE PHP

<html>
<style>
body
{
background-color:pink;
}
p
{

font-size:20px;
font-family:verdana;
color:#963;
}
</style>
<body>
<form method="post">
<h1>RESERVATION FORM</h1>
<p>NAME<input type="TEXT" name="fname" size="20" maxlength="99" /></p>
<p>AGE<input type="number" name="age" size="12" maxlength="99" /></p>
<p>ADDRESS<input type="TEXT" name="address" size="42" maxlength="99" /></p>
<p>EMAIL<input type="TEXT" size="30" name="email" maxlength="99" /></p>
<p>TELEPHONE<input type="number" size="10" name="tel" maxlength="99" /></p>
<p>SELECT YOUR BERTH </p>
<select name="choices" size="3">
<option>TATKAL</option>
<option>LADIES</option>
<option>GENRAL</option>
</select>
<p>SOURCE CITY</p>
<select name="source">
<option selected="selected">DELHI</option>
<option>MUMBAI</option>
 <option>KOLKATA</option>
<option>CHENNAI</option>
<br/><br/>
</select>
<p>DESTINATION CITY</p>
<select name="dest">
<option selected="selected">DELHI</option>
<option>MUMBAI</option>
<option>KOLKATA</option>
<option>CHENNAI</option>
</select>
<br/><br/>
<input type="submit" value="click here to submit" />
<input type="reset" value="clear this form" />
</form>
<?php
if($_POST)
{
$name=$_POST['fname'];
$age=$_POST['age'];
$addr=$_POST['address'];
$email=$_POST['email'];
$telephone=$_POST['tel'];
$ch=$_POST['choices'];
$s=$_POST['source'];
$d=$_POST['dest'];

$servername = "localhost";
$username = "root";
$password = "";
$dbname = "test";

// Create connection
$conn = mysqli_connect($servername, $username, $password, $dbname);
// Check connection
if (!$conn) {
die("Connection failed: " . mysqli_connect_error());
}

$sql = "INSERT INTO

train(`name`,age,`address`,`email`,telephone,`coices`,`city`,`dest`)VALUES('$name',$age,'$addr'
,'$email',$telephone,'$ch','$s','$d')";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {
echo "New record created successfully";
} else {
echo "Error: " . $sql . "<br>" . mysqli_error($conn);
}

mysqli_close($conn);
 }
?>
</body>
</html>

CASE STUDY 2
Library information system
//EnterBooks.php
<html>
<body bgcolor="pink">
<center><h2>Simple Library Management System</h2></center>
<!--Once the form is submitted, all the form data is forwarded to InsertBooks.php -->
<form action="InsertBooks.php" method="post">
<table border="2" align="center" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5">
<tr>
<td> Enter ISBN :</td>
<td> <input type="text" name="isbn" size="48"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Enter Title :</td>
<td> <input type="text" name="title" size="48"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Enter Author :</td>
<td> <input type="text" name="author" size="48"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Enter Edition :</td>
<td> <input type="text" name="edition" size="48"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Enter Publication: </td>
<td> <input type="text" name="publication" size="48"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>
<input type="submit" value="submit">
<input type="reset" value="Reset">
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</form>
</body>
</html>
//InsertBooks.php
<html>
<body bgcolor="blue">
<center><h2>Simple Library Management System</h2></center>
<br>
<?php
include("DBConnection.php");
$isbn=$_POST["isbn"];
$title=$_POST["title"];
$author=$_POST["author"];
$edition=$_POST["edition"];
$publication=$_POST["publication"];
$query = "insert into book_info(isbn,title,author,edition,publication)
values('$isbn','$title','$author','$edition','$publication')"; //Insert query to add book details into the
book_info table
$result = mysqli_query($db,$query);
?>
<h3> Book information is inserted successfully </h3>
<a href="SearchBooks.php"> To search for the Book information click here </a>
</body>
</html>

//DisplayBooks.php
<html>
<body bgcolor="87ceeb">
<center><h2>Simple Library Management System</h2></center>
<br>
<?php
include("DBConnection.php");
$search = $_REQUEST["search"];
$query = "select ISBN,Title,Author,Edition,Publication from book_info where title like
'%$search%'"; //search with a book name in the table book_info
$result = mysqli_query($db,$query);
if(mysqli_num_rows($result)>0)if(mysqli_num_rows($result)>0)
{
?>
<table border="2" align="center" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5">
<tr>
<th> ISBN </th>
<th> Title </th>
<th> Author </th>
<th> Edition </th>
<th> Publication </th>
</tr>
<?php while($row = mysqli_fetch_assoc($result))
{
?>
<tr>
<td><?php echo $row["ISBN"];?> </td>
<td><?php echo $row["Title"];?> </td>
<td><?php echo $row["Author"];?> </td>
<td><?php echo $row["Edition"];?> </td>
<td><?php echo $row["Publication"];?> </td>
</tr>
<?php
}
}
else
echo "<center>No books found in the library by the name $search </center>" ;
?>
</table>
</body>
</html>
//DBConnection.php
<?php
//Establishing connection with the database
define('DB_SERVER', 'localhost');
define('DB_USERNAME', 'root');
define('DB_PASSWORD', '');
define('DB_DATABASE', 'books'); //where books is the database name
$db = mysqli_connect(DB_SERVER,DB_USERNAME,DB_PASSWORD,DB_DATABASE);
?>