Production

Logging
Up
Gradio Run
Down
Temperature Run
600
Perforations

Spinners

700

Flowmeter

800

150 BPD

80o 89o 90o 91o

Jan 1997
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 Schlumberger
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. INTRODUCTION – THE RESERVOIR

A.1 Introduction – The Reservoir A-1
A.2 Fluids A-2
A.3 Fluid Flow A-8
A.4 Perforation A-12
A.5 Appendix A-14

B. PRODUCTION PROBLEMS
B.1 Saturation B-1
B.2 Cementing B-2
B.3 Corrosion B-3
B.4 Appendix – Conditions Promoting Corrosion B-5

C. MONITORING
C.1 Introduction C-1
C.2 Saturation Monitoring C-1
C.3 Cement Monitoring C-10
C.4 Corrosion Monitoring C-11

D. DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION LOGGING

D.1 Definition of Production Logging D-1
D.2 History of Production Logging D-1
D.3 Uses of Production Logging D-1
D.4 Production Logging Measurements D-3
D.5 Production Logging Environment D-4
D.6 Logging and Interpretation Procedures D-5
D.7 Production Logging Operations D-7

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Introduction to Production Logging

E. FLOW VELOCITY: SPINNER TOOLS

E.1 Introduction E-1
E.2 Spinner Tools E-1
E.3 Calibration and Intrepretation of Single Phase Flow
Using Spinner Data E-6
E.4 Slip Velocity E-10
E.5 Special Considerations E-11
E.6 Requirements E-11
E.7 Examples E-11
E.8 Answers E-16

F. FLUID DENSITY MEASUREMENTS

F.1 Fluid Density Measurements F-1
F.2 The Gradiomanometer* Fluid Density Tool F-1
F.3 Other Effects F-3
F.4 Current Gradiomanometer Tool F-4
F.5 Nuclear Fluid Density Tool F-5
F.6 The Capacitance (Dielectric or Watercut) Tool F-6
F.7 Flowrate Calculations Using Fluid Density and a Slip Model F-7
F.8 Summary F-9
F.9 Examples F-11

G. OTHER SENSORS
G.1 Pressure Measurement G-1
G.2 Temperature Measurement Techniques G-4
G.3 Caliper Tools G-8
G.4 Alternative Flow Measurement Devices G-10
Appendix A G-19
G.5 Fluid Sampling G-24
Appendix B G-26
Examples G-28

(01/97)
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H. SURVEY PLANNING
H.1 Introduction H-1
H.2 Objectives H-1
H.3 Types of Survey H-1
H.4 Data Gathering H-2
H.5 Summary H-5
H.6 After Survey Checks on Data Quality H-5
H.7 Specific Measurements H-6
H.8 Pressure Control Equipment For Production Logging Jobs H-6

I. COMPUTER EVALUATION METHODS

I.1 Computer Evaluation Methods I-1
I.2 Production Logging Quicklook Highlights I-1
I.3 Well Test Quicklook Highlights I-3
I.4 Advanced Computer Methods I-4
Appendix Field Computation Constants I-8

J. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
J.1 FloView Measurement J-1
J.2 Flagship Project J-17

K. EXAMPLES
K.1 Examples K-1
K.2 Answers K-6

(01/97)
 Schlumberger
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A. INTRODUCTION – THE RESERVOIR

A.1 INTRODUCTION - THE Here the questions are different. Here the em-
RESERVOIR phasis is on production, fluids and pressures.
In the first “half” of a well’s life, it is drilled, We need to know:
cased, cemented, perforated and completed.
• Production flow rates
• Perforation efficiency
• Fluid mix
• Zone Production
• Pressures

Different techniques are employed. Well test-

ing, production logging and reservoir moni-
toring tools are used to answer most of the
questions. Some specialist devices such as
corrosion monitoring tools may be required.
Lithology? This phase of the well's life lasts for a much
Cement Quality?
Porosity? longer time, often years; hence there will be a
Saturation?
number of surveys during this time.
Fig. A1: Life of a well - Part 1
In the multiple well case the problem is com-
In an open hole well evaluation the questions plicated, the questions become related to the
asked are simple, where is the oil and how space between the wells, the reservoir scale.
much is there. The question is effectively,
How much hydrocarbon is in these wells? Where is it?
where will we perforate?

Is there communication What is the extent of this reservoir?

between these reservoirs? How much will it produce?
Will it require enhanced
recovery techniques?

Fig. A3: Reservoir Questions

Fig. A2: Life of a well - Part 2
Are the zones connected, are the beds con-
tinuous and so on. These questions cannot be
In the second “half” of a well’s life the well is
easily answered by measurements taken in a
produced, there may be workover activity and
single, or indeed, many wells. Interwell meas-
recompletion.
urements (well tests or crosswell seismic)
provide some of the answers. These tech-
(01/97) A-1
Introduction to Production Logging
niques are often, difficult to do and give in-
conclusive answers.
In addition, there is the question of time, how
long will it produce, will the fluid mix
change, are there any production problems
developing. The latter questions can only be
answered with surveys and tests over the pro-
ducing life of the reservoir.
The lithology of a reservoir is important in
open hole evaluation and the measurement of
the amount of hydrocarbon in place. There are
two major reservoir lithology types, clastics
and carbonates.
Clastics are composed of sandstones and
shales, the latter of limestone, dolomite and
evaporites such as salt or anhydrite. Sand-
stone reservoirs are usually regular in forma-
tion while carbonate reservoirs have very ir-
regular structures. Flow from the this type of
reservoir rock is often from fractures which
can lead to irregular flow patterns and even
flow from only those few perforations which
intresect with the fracture.
The sandstones are often completed on multi-
ple small zones of differing permeability. This
may mean that only some of the higher per-
meability zones actually flow.
The description of the reservoir rock is usu-
ally simple, sandstone or carbonate.
(01/97) A-2
A.2 FLUIDS
Liquids are defined as fluids relatively free to
flow but restricted enough by cohesive forces
so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume.
Gases are defined as fluids relatively free to
flow but unresrtricted by cohesive forces so as
to have no definite volume.
Reservoir fluids need to be described in a dif-
ferent way from the rocks. The first definition
is one of contacts, where the fluids would be
in equilibrium. These are the gas-oil-contact,
the oil-water-contact and the gas-water-
contact. The latter is only possible in a well
with gas and water (no oil). The second defi-
nition is the oil in place, the amount of hydro-
carbon in the reservoir. The final definition is
one of the hydrocarbon properties, the gas-oil-
ratio; how much gas is in the oil. Due to the
complexity of the hydrocarbons in the reser-
voir there are many other parameters which
are needed to fully describe the fluids.
A reservoir normally contains either water or
hydrocarbon or a mixture. The hydrocarbon
may be in the form of oil or gas. The specific
hydrocarbon actually produced depends on
the reservoir pressure and temperature. Other
gases can be found in wells, these include,
helium, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sul-
phide. In most cases these occur as traces to-
gether with the hydrocarbon and water nor-
mally found.
The formation water is uniquely described by
its salinity which may be fresh or salty. Using
the reference of seawater with a salinity of
around 30000 ppm chlorine, this varies from
500 ppm to 250000 ppm; a wide range.
The amount and type of fluid produced de-
pends on the initial reservoir pressure, rock
properties and the drive mechanism. The ma-
jor rock property involved in production is the
permeability.
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A.2.1 Hydrocarbon Classification H H H

Hydrocarbons vary widely in their properties.
H C H H C C H
The first classification is by fraction of each
component. This ranges from a dry gas which
H H H
is mostly C1 (methane) to tar which is mostly
the heavier fractions. The black oil normally PARAFFIN SERIES, METHANE AND ETHANE
found is between the two extremes, with some H H
C1 and some heavier fractions.
C
H NAPTHALENE SERIES
Every hydrocarbon extracted from a reservoir H
C C
is of a different composition. H H CYCLOPENTANE

Typical hydrocarbons have the following H C C H

composition in Mol Fraction: H H

H
Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+
Dry gas .88 .04 .04 .01 .01 .01 C
5 5 AROMATIC SERIES
H C C H
Condensate .71 .08 .04 .04 .04 .08 BENZENE
Volatile oil .6 .08 .05 .04 .03 .2
Black oil .41 .03 .05 .05 .04 .42
Heavy oil .11 .03 .01 .01 .04 .8 H C C H
Tar/bitumen 1.0 C
Table A1: Hydrocarbon Types H
Fig. A4: Hydrocarbon Structure

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of car-

bon atoms in the molecular chain.
Another way to describe the hydrocarbons is
by the mixtures of the groups of hydrocarbon
structure types. The three major groups are
shown. The simplest and most abundant is the
paraffin series, with the more complex struc-
tures in varying proportions.
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane,
CH4. Some heavier gases make up the rest.
Gas can contain impurities such as Hydrogen
Sulphide, H2S and Carbon Dioxide, CO2.
Gases are classified by their specific gravity
which is defined as:
"The ratio of the density of the gas to that of
air at the same temperature and pressure".
Gas specific gravity with respect to air should
not be confused with the specific gravity with
respect to water.

Oil is more complex than gas and has to be

defined in a more complete manner. The Gas-
Oil Ratio, GOR (symbol Rs) is a measure of
how much gas is in the oil and hence how
light it is. This is measured at a specific pres-
sure, for example the reservoir pressure.
The API gravity is a weight.

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Introduction to Production Logging

The table gives some typical values: The pressures in the oil and gas depend on the
gradients (densities) of these fluids. The dif-
GOR API Gravity ference in gradients with the water gradient
Wet gas 100mcf/b 50-70 depends on the specific gravity with respect to
Condensate 5-100mcf/b 50-70 water.
Volatile oil 3000cf/b 40-50
Black oil 100-2500cf/b 30-40
Heavy oil 0 10-30
Tar/bitumen 0 <10
Table A2: Hydrocarbon Classification

The specific gravity of an oil is defined as

 141.5 
API =   − 131.5


 specific gravity(60 F )


A.2.2 Reservoir Pressures and

Temperatures
Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled
by the gradient in the aquifer. The pressure in
the reservoir is controlled by the aquifer as it
is assumed that it is, somewhere, connected to
surface. This means that the pressure in the
water is effectively continuously controlled by
the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient
depends on the salinity of the water, the tem-
perature and the regional tectonic stresses. It
is usually constant over a large area. Al-
though, high pressures exist in some reser-
voirs.
Fig. A6: Reservoir Temperatures
The chart shows three possible temperature
gradients. The temperature can be determined
if the depth is known. Temperature in wells
depends on a regional gradient. There can be
local “hot spots” where this is sharply in-
creased. The temperature is measured during
each logging run. Local knowledge is impor-
tant.
Temperatures gradients are greatest near the
edges of the plates and lowest near the centres
of the old continental plates as these are the
thickest points of the crust.

Fig. A5: Reservoir Pressures

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A.2.3 Hydrocarbon Phases
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state,
e.g.: gas or oil. In a reservoir oil and gas exist
together at equilibrium, depending on the
pressure and temperature. The behaviour of a
reservoir fluid is analyzed using the proper-
ties; Pressure, Temperature and Volume
(PVT). There are two simple ways of showing
this:
• Pressure against temperature keeping
the volume constant.
• Pressure against volume keeping the
temperature constant.
The pressure and temperature are two quanti-
ties that can be easily measured. Thus it is
useful to describe the fluids behaviour during
production in these terms. Experimentally it is
easier to measure pressure and volume hence
the classical experiment is done using these
parameters at a constant temperature.
Fig. A7: PVT Experiment
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The easiest experiment is to keep the tempera-
ture constant, measuring volumes and pres-
sures.
The fluid used is a pure, single component
hydrocarbon. (This is not found in a reservoir
fluid which consists of a number of compo-
nents.) Starting in the liquid and increasing
the volume, the pressure drops rapidly with
small changes in volume until the first bubble
of gas occurs. This is the Bubble Point.
Further increase in the volume causes no
change in the pressure until a point is reached
where all the liquid has vaporised.
This is the Dew Point.
Increasing the volume beyond this point
causes the pressure to drop, but much slower
than with the liquid phase.
The experiment is conducted at different tem-
peratures. The final plot of Pressure against
Temperature is made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the
Bubble Point and Dew Point, (for a single
component they coincide).
Fig. A8: Pressure temperature phase diagram for a
single hydrocarbon component
This is a plot for the single hydrocarbon com-
ponent used in the experiment. The Vapour
pressure curve terminates in the Critical Point.
This is a unique point for any substance, pure
or a mixture. This is the point at which all
properties of the coexisting gas and liquid
phases become identical.
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Introduction to Production Logging

At pressures and temperatures above the criti-

cal point, for a single-component system,
there is only one fluid present and, depending
on the pressure and temperature, the fluid may
have the properties of a liquid or a gas.
The plot describes how this fluid behaves
with changing pressure and temperature.

If it starts in the liquid and the pressure is re-

duced, keeping the temperature constant, it
will cross the vapour pressure curve and be-
come a gas. Starting as a liquid at constant
pressure and increasing the temperature will
also change it to a gas. Fig. A9: Phase diagram for an oil reservoir

Reservoirs do not have simple single-

component hydrocarbons. There is now an
envelope where two phases, oil and gas, exist
in equilibrium. This is due to there being both
heavy and light components in the fluid. The
Bubble Point and Dew Point curves still meet
at the critical point.
The critical pressure and temperature are no
longer necessarily the maximum pressure and
temperature (cricondentherm) at which liquid
and gas can co-exist. The shape of the enve-
lope and location of the critical pressure, criti-
cal temperature, maximum pressure, and cri-
condentherm are determined by the
composition of the mixture.
The Pressure/Temperature (PT) phase dia-
gram for an oil reservoir is used to describe
how the oil at reservoir conditions behaves
when it is produced to surface (Figure A9).
Point 'A' is the initial reservoir condition of
pressure and temperature.
If the reservoir is produced at a constant tem-
perature until the fluid reaches the wellbore,
the line to Point 'B' is drawn. This represents
the flow of fluid from the reservoir to the
borehole.
The fluid travelling to surface now drops in
both temperature and pressure arriving at the
"separator conditions" (s) with a final volume
of oil and gas.
Gas condensates, as the name suggests, start
as a gas and condense out some liquid (Figure
A10. This type of gas reservoir is commer-
cially very good as the liquid can easily be
sold. Point 'C' is at the initial reservoir condi-
tions. The reservoir is produced at a constant
temperature from C to D. Fluids flowing up
the well now drop in temperature and pres-
sure, crossing the Dew point line and liquid
condenses out.

At separator conditions (s) the result in both

liquid and gas on the surface.

(01/97) A-6

Fig. A10: Phase diagram for a retrograde condensate
gas reservoir
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A (in Fig-
ure A10). Producing the well to separator
conditions B does not change the fluid pro-
duced.
The point B is still in the "gas region" and
hence dry gas is produced.
This is the final diagram for the reservoir flu-
ids. This is a dry gas which never enters the
envelope under any normal producing condi-
tions.
For an adiabatic expansion, where no heat is
added to keep the temperature constant, the
temperature of gases tends to increase for
pressure drops above maximum pressure and
decrease (normal Joule-Thompson effect) for
pressure drops below maximum pressure.
Each reservoir fluid has a unique phase dia-
gram that usually changes with time (e.g.,
production). The relationship of the reservoir
fluid system, at reservoir pressure and tem-
perature, to its critical pressure, critical tem-
perature, and phase diagram determines the
state the fluids are in and the production
mechanism that may be encountered. The
pressure-temperature path taken by the fluids
from the reservoir to the stock tank or produc-
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tion facilities will determine the percent of
gas and liquid present at a given time.
Another factor to consider with a multi-
component system has to do again with the
dual processes of phase change and solubility.
When fluids are separated at the surface either
a flash or a differential process is usually con-
sidered. A flash process is one in which the
composition of the system does not change.
In a differential process, gas is removed as it
is liberated and the composition of the system
is constantly changing. The composition of
the system at a given pressure and tempera-
ture will then determine which components
will change phase and which components will
come out of solution with a further pressure-
temperature change. Therefore, even though
the final pressure and temperature may be the
same for two different separations of the same
system, the percent of liquid and gas present
at the end will be determined by the pressure-
temperature path taken.
A.2.4 Fluid Volume Changes
As described, fluids at bottom hole conditions
produce different fluids at surface:
• Oil becomes oil plus gas.
• Gas usually stays as gas unless it is a
Condensate.
• Water stays as water with occasionally
some dissolved gas.
Fig. A11: Fluid changes from downhole to surface
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Introduction to Production Logging

The volume change has to be quantified. Sur- reservoir with porosity of 20% contains water
face volumes are measured (production rates); equivalent to 15% of its volume.
these need to be converted to downhole con-
ditions in order to compute how much has
been produced at reservoir conditions and
hence how much is left. This change in vol-
ume between downhole conditions and the
surface is described by the Formation Volume
Factor:

Volume at Downhole Conditions

FVF =
Volume at Reference Conditions

Bo = formation volume factor for oil.

Bw = formation volume factor for water.
Bg = formation volume factor for gas.

Bw is around 1, as water is nearly incom-

pressible. Bo is measured in a PVT laboratory
experiment, it is just over 1, a typical value
would be 1.2.
Bg can be measured in the laboratory or using
empirical charts. This figure depends very
much on the pressure and is always very
small, in the order of 10-3. (See appendix at
the end of this section for methods of calcu-
lating these factors).
Fig. A12: A unit volume of the reservoir rock is divided
into its matrix, and fluid parts. The total fraction of
fluids is the porosity, φ. This is further split into the
fractions of each fluid present
The graphical representation in Fugure A12
shows the simple porosity model split now
between water and hydrocarbon. The volume
of a fluid is the porosity times the saturation.

A.2.5 Saturation
The porosity of a formation has to be split be- A.3 FLUID FLOW
tween the fluids occupying the pore space.
Fluid flow in the casing and/or the tubing de-
Saturation is the name given to the fraction of
pends on the fluids flowing from the reser-
a given fluid.
voir. An oil with a high gas-oil ratio will pro-
Formation saturation is defined as the fraction
duce a lot of gas somewhere on its journey to
of its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a
the surface, a low GOR oil will produce less
given fluid.
gas. If there is water production as well, three
Volume of specific fluid phase flow will exist in the tubing as the gas
Saturation = comes out of solution and two phase (dipha-
Total pore Volume sic) flow in the casing/tubing before the gas
has come out of solution.
Definitions These flow regimes cause problems for meas-
Sw = water saturation. urements.
So = oil saturation.
Sg = gas saturation. Flow in the casing and/or tubing is broken
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation into different regimes from Bubble flow, gas
= So + Sg bubbles in oil, to mist flow, oil droplets in gas
(Figure A13). The actual flow regime encoun-
Saturations are expressed as percentages or tered in the well depends on the flow veloci-
fractions, e.g. Water saturation of 75% in a ties and gas-oil ratio.
(01/97) A-8
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

More than one type of flow will be present in

the well as the pressure change and more gas
come out of solution.
velocity = 0
at pipe wall
FLOW REGIMES
102

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Fig. A14: Flow occurs in two types, laminar flow and

LIQUID VELOCITY

10
REGION I
turbulent flow. The profile is different and hence so is
REGION II REGION III
the flow measured by the tools

N
IO
SIT
Reynolds number, Nre can be used to deter-
AN
TR
1
BUBBLE FLOW mine if flow is laminar or turbulent.

MIST FLOW
ρvd
N re =
SLUG FLOW
PLUG FLOW
10-1
µ
1 10 102 103
GAS VELOCITY

Fig. A13: Fluid phases in the wellbore

Where:

A.3.1 Single Phase Flow ρ = fluid density

Single phase fluid flow is the simplest type of v = average fluid velocity
flow; even so, it can cause problems with sen- d = pipe diameter
sor response. Single phase flow can be di- µ = fluid viscosity
vided into two basic types of flow: laminar
and turbulent. If Nre is greater than approximately 4,000, the
flow is turbulent. The relationship of Rey-
Laminar flow is a smooth flow in which fluid nolds number to flow rate is illustrated in
elements follow paths that are straight and Figure A15.
parallel to the walls containing the fluid. The
10000
velocity of the fluid varies from 0 at the con- Reynolds Number v Flow rate
for 1.0g/cm 3 fluid
tainer wall to a maximum at the center for a Turbulent flow
pipe or wellbore. The velocity profile shape transition zone

is parabolic.
1000
Turbulent flow is characterized by random,
irregular movement of the fluid elements
Reynolds number

Laminar flow

throughout the fluid except at the container

wall. The velocity again varies from 0 at the
wall to a maximum at the center, but with a
much flatter profile. Velocity profiles for 100

laminar and turbulent flows are illustrated in

Figure A14. pipe od
3
4
5
6
8
10
10 100 1000
Flow rate in barrels/day

Fig. A15: Chart to determine the flow type depending

on the flow rate and the pipe size

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Introduction to Production Logging

Figure A16 illustrates the ratio of average ve- For a given set of conditions, spinner speed
locity to center velocity versus Nre for water is a function of fluid velocity, viscosity, den-
or air in a smooth pipe. sity, blade angle and condition, and bearing
friction.
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
x1000 Reynolds Number

3.0

2.0

1.0 Turbulent Flow

.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4

.3
Transition

.2

Laminar flow

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5
Average Velocity
Centre Velocity

Fig. A16: The flowrate at the centre is different from

the average flowrate depending on the flow type. The
chart shows how this changes with Reynolds number
and hence the flow type

The average or superficial velocity v , for

laminar flow from Poiseuilleus law, can be
calculated as follows:

4q q
v= =
πd2 A

v is what a flowmeter attempts to measure.

The velocity profile may not be symmetric

due to pipe ovality, pipe roughness, proximity
to fluid entries, or other causes.

The velocity a tool sees will depend not only
on the actual fluid velocity profile, but also on
tool size (spinner size) relative to pipe size,
tool centering, tool configuration (cages and
centralizers), and whether annular flow is a
factor (in-line spinners and tracer tools). (Fig-
ure A17).
Diverter flowmeters do not eliminate all of
the above problems because of leakage
around and through the diverter elements or
petals, but diverter flowmeters can minimize
some of the problems.
(01/97) A-10
Fig. A17: Flowmeters measure different flowrate de-
pending on the flow type and also their position in the
borehole
A.3.2 Multiphase flow
Multiphase flow is a much more complex
phenomena than single phase flow. Unless
the fluids are a homogeneous mixture, the
phases will move at different velocities. The
light phase will move faster than the heavy
phase because of the density difference be-
 Schlumberger
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tween the two phases. This difference in ve-

locities is called the slip velocity.

Qh = Yh Qt - Yh (1 - Yh) Vs A

Qh = heavy phase flow rate

Yh = heavy phase hold up
Qt = total flow rate
Vs = slippage velocity
A = flow area

Slip velocity is the reason water holdup is not

equal to water cut. This will be covered in
more detail in the section on multiphase flow
interpretation.

In a deviated well the situation is further

Fig. A19: Flowmeters may read two different types of
complicated as the fluids will gravity segre- flow in deviated wells
gate unless the flow velocity is high enough to
ensure complete mixing.
A flowmeter in segregated flow may exhibit a
Slippage
Velocity
response resembling downflow (Figure A19).
vs ft/min
140
The light phase moving up the high side of
the pipe will drag heavy phase with it. Some
120 of this heavy phase will fall out and flow
100
down the low side of the pipe. This can occur
where the heavy phase is water, even if no
80
water is being produced at the surface. A
60 spinner, as in the diagram, may see this down
40
flow. What other sensors see will depend on
40Þ whether they get a representative fluid sample
30Þ
20 20Þ
10Þ
in their measuring section.
0Þ
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Vw
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
The temperature of a moving fluid at any
point in a well is a function of many parame-
Fig. A18: The chart shows the changes in slippage
ters. Occasionally, simplifying assumptions
velocity with hole deviation (Vw is the water or heavy
phase) velocity can be made and a temperature log may be
used quantitatively for flow rates. It is usually
Figure A18 is the result of flow loop work much better as a qualitative indicator of fluid
relating slip velocity to hole angle for kero- quantities and types.
sene and water flow in a five inch pipe with
the water flow not over approximately 400 When fluids undergo a sufficient pressure
B/D. A few degrees of deviation can make drop, some energy is expended in the form of
large changes in flow regime. sound. These sounds can be related at times
to fluid types and quantities. The energy ex-
pended per unit time is proportional to the
pressure drop times the flow rate.

(01/97) A-11
Introduction to Production Logging
Multiphase flow discussion has been limited
to two phase flow for two reasons. First,
models or correlations describing three phase
flow of oil, gas, and water are limited. Sec-
ond, sensors do not exist to properly measure
three components. Under the proper condi-
tions, tool combinations using both density
and capacitance measuring devices can be
used for quantitative interpretation in a three
phase environment.
A.4 PERFORATION
Perforation is the most popular method of res-
ervoir completion. The objective is to create a
path for flow from the formation to the well
through the casing and cement. The require-
ment is thus for a hole to be made in the cas-
ing, cement and into the formation for a short
distance. Standard perforations have an en-
trance hole of about 0.4” and a penetration of
around 20”.
It is made using a perforation gun system.
Gun systems use three components:
• Detonator - primary high explosive
ignited by heat or shock
• Primacord - secondary high explosive
ignited by the detonator, burns at 8400
m/sec
• Shaped charges - create the perforations,
detonated by the primacord.
The detonator starts the reaction, the prima-
cord propagates it and the shaped charge
makes the holes.
Shaped Charges are the most important part
of the system. They were developed shortly
after World War II from the military bazooka
weapon.
There are three basic elements of a shaped
charge (Figure A20):
• case (Steel or Aluminium).
• cylinder of high explosive & a primer.
(01/97) A-12
• conical metallic liner.
Case
Primacord
Primer
Charge
Explosive
Charge
Liner
Fig. A20: Shaped charge design
It was found that the conical shape produced a
depression/hole in a metal target. The addition
of the liner increased the efficiency of the sys-
tem. Modern liners are made of powdered
metal and leave a powder residue at the end of
the perforation. A typical charge has only
about 20 grams of explosive material.
Slug Jet
500 m/s
p=100GPa
Tip
7000 m/s
Fig. A21: Jet Formation
The explosion forces the liner to flow inwards
and out. It forms into a characteristic shape,
the jet (Figure A21), which is moving rapidly
and has extremely high pressures at the tip.
The pressure causes the material in the path of
the jet of metal to move out of the way creat-
ing the perforation tunnel into the formation.
The dimensions of the perforation, length of
the tunnel, and the diameter of the entrance
hole are linked and depend on the geometry of
the shaped charge.
If the liner opening is widened the entrance
hole size increases but the penetration de-
creases. These type of charges are used for
applications such as gravel pack.

There are a number of decisions to be made in
the planning of a perforation job.
The first is which perforation method to use:
• overbalanced or
• underbalanced.
Overbalanced perforation is made with the
wellbore pressure higher than the reservoir
pressure and so there is invasion once perfo-
rated. Underbalanced perforation means that
the reservoir produces once the perforation is
made.
In the first case the well is controlled using
the normal rig blow out prevention system. In
the latter special pressure control equipment
may be required.
The next question is the type of gun system;
• casing guns
• through tubing guns or
• tubing conveyed guns.
These three systems are summarised as fol-
lows;
Casing Gun
• Well Pressure > Formation Pressure
• Overbalanced perforating
• Large diameter carrier gun
• Carried on an electric line.
The advantage of a casing gun completion is
that all perforation material is carried inside
the carrier hence it is protected from the well
fluids. The resulting debris is also brought out
of the well in the same carrier. The carrier can
be either re-usable or not depending on the
type of operation being performed. The more
complex gun types are all “throw-away” type
carriers. The disadvantage of overbalanced
perforation is that the mud in the well bore
will enter the well as it is at a higher pressure.
Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing
Through Tubing
• Well Pressure < Formation Pressure.
• Completion and final surface production
equipment, or a temporary completion
and testing facilities are in place
• Underbalanced perforating, with pres-
sure control equipment
• Through tubing gun (small guns)
• Gauges can be run with the string
• Carried on an electric line.
Through tubing perforation eliminates the
invasion problem and gives the formation the
chance to flow immediately. The disadvan-
tage is that smaller guns have to be used,
which means either smaller charges in a small
carrier, or larger charges exposed to well flu-
ids and debris left in the well. The choice de-
pends on the type of well being perforated.
Tubing Conveyed Perforating
• Perforation gun is carried on either the
drill pipe or on tubing.
• Well Pressure < or > Formation
Pres-sure
• Large interval of perforation in one run-
in-hole
• High explosive content, perforation
spacing
• Gauges can be run at the same time.
Tubing conveyed perforation (TCP) connects
a carrier gun to the end of the drill pipe or
tubing. The gun can be fired by a number dif-
ferent types of detonators such as drop bar,
pressure firing heads or inductive coupling.
The choice depends on the conditions and
type of well.
The advantages of this method are mainly the
long interval(s) possible and the possibility of
a simultaneous well test using downhole
gauges.
The final decisions on the perforation are the
shot density, the number of shots per foot, spf,
(the current maximum is 21 spf.) and the
(01/97) A-13
Introduction to Production Logging
Phasing - the directions of the perforations
(Figure A22). This ranges from 0_ to
30_/60_.
The number of shots per foot depends on the
application and the reservoir parameters. The
objective is to obtain the best flow efficiency
most economically. Computer programs exist
which allow the reservoir engineer to select
the best combination of shots per foot and
phasing. Gravel pack completions normally
have very high shot densities.
Shaped charges
shots
per
foot
90° phasing
Fig. A22: Perforation characteristics are the number
of shots per foot of gun (spf) and the phasing of these
shots
(01/97) A-14
A.5 APPENDIX
Fluid parameters
Various fluid physical properties affecting
production logging are changed by pressure
and temperature and these changes need to
calculated.
There are several reasons for wanting to cal-
culate these changes. One is to be able to cal-
culate downhole fluid densities for use in
holdup calculations. Another is to be able to
convert downhole flow rates to surface rates
and vice-versa. Another is to be able to cor-
rect sensor response for fluid effects. Also, it
is helpful to know how many fluid types will
be present downhole when logging.
The physical properties of usual interest are
solubility, formation volume factor, bubble
point pressure, compressibility, natural gas
deviation factor, density, and viscosity.
A number of charts, nomographs, and equa-
tions are available to estimate the properties.
However, they are empirical and may not ac-
curately describe a particular hydrocarbon
system and should be used only if a more ac-
curate model for the fluids in question is not
available.
Perforation
Directions
The publication “Fluid Conversions in Pro-
duction Log Interpretation” contains all the
relevant charts together with examples on
their use.
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

B. PRODUCTION PROBLEMS

B.1 SATURATION Measuring water movements helps to detect

and survey the rise of the water/oil contact,
Saturation, as well as having a “radial” com-
locate water fingers which could give un-
ponent in the form of invasion has a time
wanted water production.
component. As the reservoir is produced the
water moves in to vacate the space left by the
producing oil. This process continues until the
oil saturation equals the residual value.

Invaded
Virgin Zone
Zone

oil
oil

water
water

OIL
Matrix

Fig. B1: Saturation in a reservoir is broken down into

the virgin and invaded zones during the drilling and WATER
open hole phase. During production the saturation
changes reflect the movements of the reservoir fluids.
High Permeability
Layer
Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or
all of their peripheries by aquifers. The aqui-
fers may also be so large compared with the
OIL
reservoirs they adjoin as to appear infinite for
all practical purposes, and range down to
those so small as to be negligible in their ef-
fect on reservoir performance. When pressure
decreases due to oil production, the aquifer
reacts to offset or retard pressure decline pro-
viding a source of water influx or encroache- Fig. B2: This, multiple zone reservoir, is now pro-
ment. ducting water from one layer. Water fingering in this
higher permeability zone has created the problem.
Water may be injected to supply external en-
ergy to improve the recovery of hydrocarbons. A reservoir consisting of multiple layers and
The injected water may advance evenly or completed in several together can eventually
may channel through the streaks of better give rise to a situation as pictured in Figure
permeability leaving hydrocarbons behind the B2. The high permeability layer is producing
water front. water.
(01/97) B-1
Introduction to Production Logging
B.1.1 Crossflow
Thief zones can be defined as those zones that
are considered open to the wellbore either by
perforations or openhole completion which
due to zone pressure differences remove flu-
ids from the wellbore. The pressure differ-
ences are caused by zones depleting faster due
to higher permeability. Hence, in the illustra-
tion above, the middle zone may become a
thief zone as it produces.
P1
High Permeability
P3>>P2
Layer
P2
P3
Fig. B3: Crossflow from a lower zone to a higher one.
This phenomena happens in any direction.
In the case of a production well the thief
zones are generally most noticeable when the
well is in a shut-in surface condition. In this
condition the higher pressure zones will tend
to feed fluid into the lower pressure zones.
(01/97) B-2
In some cases this could be a hydrocarbon, in
other cases water, but in all cases it generally
makes the surface production rates unusable
in predicting individual zone balance of mate-
rial equations. It also reduces the potential
production of the well and reservoir.
In the case of injection wells the thief zones
on an injection profile may appear as higher
injectivity zones, depending on their relative
permeability to the other injection zones. In
most cases these thief zones will continue to
take fluid from other zones, even when the
surface injection rate is zero. This can largely
distort any balance of material calculations if
only the surface rates are applied to all the
downhole zones.
In either the producing or the injecting profile
it is important to know the dowhole profile of
the well for both the active and passive sur-
face conditions. In a producing well a thief
zone could be decreasing the overall surface
production of hydrocarbons, or downhole it
could be dump flooding a potential hydrocar-
bon zone with water. In most situations the
most serious effects of a thief zone on overall
well productivity will be in those areas where
the wells are on quota and may, therefore, be
shut in for a large percentage of the time. In
injection wells specific zone pressure may not
be as well supported as believed if only injec-
tion profiles are monitored and no attention is
paid to the shut-in state.
B.2 CEMENTING
Cementing of the casing in place is one of the
most vital operations in the drilling phase. It
is necessary to have a perfect seal between
zones to avoid unwanted fluid production or
reservoir contamination. Cement slurry is
pumped behind the casing to the required
height. It is left to set for some time before
any other operations.
The cement quality has to be evaluated before
the completion and any repairs made at that

time. It is also essential to properly evaluate
any measurement in cased hole.
One of the major difficulties in cementing is
the presence of gas zones. These will cause
problems if precautions are not taken during
the cement job.
B.2.1 Channeling
Channeling is generally defined as the ability
of fluids to move in the region of the produc-
tion casing annulus because of a lack of hy-
draulic isolation between the casing and the
cement or the cement and the formation.
Unwanted fluid
flow
Bad Cement
Fig. B4: A cement channel from the lower zone to the
upper results in the production of unwanted fluids.
In injection wells channeling can permit the
injected fluid to enter undesirable zones, thus
reducing the overall effectiveness of either
secondary or tertiary recovery systems. Pres-
sure maintenance and flushing will not neces-
sarily prolong the productive life of a well;
instead, it may actually shorten the productive
Schlumberger
life by providing a breakthrough into the
wrong zones.
Channeling in producers can lead to the pro-
duction of unwanted fluids; i.e., water from
wet zones or gas from the gas cap or gas zone.
In some cases this unwanted production can
render a well totally nonproductive.
Channeling may occur in three conditions.
These conditions are:
• Oil or gas well with water channeling up
from a lower zone
• Oil or gas well with water channeling
down from a higher zone
• Oil well with gas channeling down from a
higher zone
B.3 CORROSION
Corrosion encountered in the Oil Industry
involves several mechanisms, generally clas-
sified into three main categories:
• Electrochemical Corrosion
• Chemical Corrosion
• Mechanical Corrosion
B.3.1 Electrochemical corrosion
This type of corrosion is caused by phenom-
ena that involve passage of current between
one or several metals and an electrolyte, with
transfer of ions and electron (Figure B5).
Electrochemical corrosion accounts for the
majority of observed downhole casing corro-
sion, and is mainly detected on the outer cas-
ing walls. Metal is attacked in four different
ways:
a) Generalized Galvanic Corrosion
b) Crevice Corrosion
c) Pitting Corrosion
d) Intergranular Corrosion.
(01/97) B-3
Introduction to Production Logging

Conductor
_
e

Anode Cathode

Tubing
Leak
Packer
Metal ions (M+) Electrolyte Leak

Fig. B5: General mechanism for electrochemical

corrosion

B.3.2 Chemical corrosion

This type of corrosion involves chemical reac-
Fig. B6: Leaks in the tubing and packer cause
tion which may not produce appreciable volt- production problems.
ages. Five different mechanisms are known to
contribute to chemical corrosion: The casing string(s) could leak allowing fluid
a) Direct chemical attack to escape into another layer. This not only
causes a loss in production but could con-
b) H2S attack (Sour corrosion)
taminate water zones (Figure B7).
c) CO2 attack (Sweet Corrosion)
d) Hydrogen attack
e) Bacterial attack

B.3.3 Mechanical Corrosion

There are two basic mechanisms for mechani-
cal corrosion:
a) Stress Corrosion Casing
Leak
b) Erosion Corrosion

B.3.4 Production Problems and

Corrosion
There are many potential problems caused by
the numerous corrosion mechanisms. Any of
the components of the completion string can
leak – packers, tubings, etc., (see Figure B6).
This will cause mixed production which could
lead to further problems such as crossflow.

Fig. B7: Corroded casing allows fluids to escape back

into a reservoir zone.

(01/97) B-4
 Schlumberger

B.4 APPENDIX: CONDITIONS PROMOTING CORROSION

The conditions of the well tubulars, together with the presence of oxygen-rich, saline and corrosive
fluids play a major role in the corrosion initiation and propagation. Figure B8 shows the conditions
that promote the various corrosion mechanisms and Figure B9 locates them with respect to a sche-
matic completion string.

Saline/
DOWNHOLE Poor Single Collars
Cement Joint oxyg. Form. Solid
TYPE Condt. Move.
OF Metal Casing Casing Fluid B.H.
CORROSION Prop. Anom. Stress Corrosive
Fluids
Galvanic
Electro- Crevice
Pitting
chemical
Intergranular

Chemical
H2 S
Chemical C O2
Bacteria
Hydrogen

Stress
Mech.
Erosion

Fig. B8: Conditions promoting corrosion

(01/97) B-5
Introduction to Production Logging
B.4.1 Conditions
• Poor quality cementation: In a poor ce-
ment job, casing is exposed to saline forma-
tion water, acting as an electrolyte. Some
shallow formation waters contain dissolved
oxygen which accelerates corrosion rates.
Non-sulfate resistant cement (construction
cement) breaks down rapidly and exposes the
casing to corrosive aquifer water.
• Metal properties: Most casings show varia-
tion in metallic properties, from joint to joint,
across the same joint, and from joint to collar.
This produces galvanic cells, and is seen on
electromagnetic logs as a variation in joint
conductivity and magnetic permeability.
• Casing anomalies: localized casing anoma-
lies can promote galvanic and pitting corro-
sion.
• Corrosion at collars: collars are normally
stressed and distorted, and present gaps. They
often are starting points for galvanic, pitting,
and crevice corrosion.
• Casing stress: Stressed sections of casing
can accelerate corrosion because of their dis-
torted lattice structure. Hydrogen cracking
occurs when hydrogen ions diffuse into the
stressed metal.
• Saline formation fluids: they act as an elec-
trolyte and promote electrochemical and
chemical corrosion. Notice that overall corro-
sivity of saline solutions increases with salin-
ity to about 5% NaCl, and then decreases be-
cause of reduced oxygen solubility. Above
15% NaCl, the saline solution is less corro-
sive than fresh water.
• Oxygenated fluids: either meteoric forma-
tion waters or injection water not treated can
cause electrochemical and chemical attack.
Notice that, for carbon steel, oxygen dissolved
in water is about 80 times more corrosive than
(01/97) B-6
CO2 and about 400 times more corrosive than
H2S.
• Borehole corrosive fluids: Spent acids,
brines, or H2S and CO2 in the production
stream can promote chemical corrosion.
• Fluid and solid flow: Erosion corrosion is
caused by high velocity fluids, turbulence,
sand production.
• Bacterial growth: Anaerobic Sulfate Re-
ducing Bacteria synthesize H2S and promote
chemical and pitting corrosion.
B.4.2 Measures to prevent or remedy
corrosion
Several measures are available to prevent or
remedy corrosion in completion strings. They
are listed here for information and not dis-
cussed in any details as each one is the do-
main of specialists:
• Engineering design
• Selection of materials and alloys
• Coatings
• Good cementing
• Choice of completion fluids
• Inhibitors and biocides
• Cathodic protection
• Run tubing and casing patches
• Workover to replace tubulars
• Tie-back liners
• Changes in completion
Useful elements to design prevention and re-
medial programs can be obtained from corro-
sion evaluation and monitoring using wireline
logging tools.
 Schlumberger

STRESS
ACID

OXYGENATED/
SALINE FLUIDS POOR
CEMENT

CORROSIVE
ANNULUS FLUID

BIMETALLISM
H2S CORROSIVE
CO2
FORMATION
+ FLUID
STAGNANT H2O
FLUIDS

Fig. B9: Location of Corrosion in Wells

(01/97) B-7
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

C. MONITORING
tional problem of crossflow may occur if
C.1 INTRODUCTION these zones have lower pressures than the
others.
Monitoring is a term applied to the continual
checking of a parameter. In the reservoir con-
Monitoring would see this problem early in
text applied to production logging this has
the reservoir’s life allowing it to be dealt with
three different types;
in time.
• saturation monitoring WATER AND
SOME OIL OIL

• cement monotoring
• corrosion monitoring.

Saturation monitoring follows the changes in

fluid content of the reservoir. This is impor-
tant in production logging when investigating
water (or gas) flows.

Cement quality is important when investigat-

ing unexplained fluid flows. Corrosion checks Fig. C1: Saturation changes through the reservoir lay-
the status of the casing and tubing giving prior ers cause problems if some beds have a higher
warning of potential problem areas such as permeability.
leaks.

C.2 SATURATION MONITORING

To achieve optimum hydrocarbon recovery,
the monitoring of water saturation at regular
intervals is essential. This is achieved by
measuring the water saturation in different
portions of the field and then drawing contour
maps of iso-saturation curves.

Measuring water movements helps to detect

and survey the rise of the water/oil contact,
locate water fingers or bypassed hydrocar-
bons, estimate the residual oil saturation and
evaluate the efficiency of water-flooding pro-
jects. Proper monitoring allows to take the
necessary steps to maximise the final recov-
ery.

In the left hand well in Figure C1 there is a

breakthrough in some of the layers, they have
depleted faster. They have higher permeabili-
ties and will now produce water. An addi-
(01/97) C-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Porosity %
50 0
original water
in place
P
e
r
f
Lithology?
o Cement quality?
Remaining
r Fluids ?
hydrocarbon
a
t
i Hole size
o
n Fig. C3: Factors affecting cased hole monitoring tools
s
displaced hydrocarbon
A number of unknowns affect both tools;

• PNC - fluid salinity, lithology

• C/O - lithology
• Both - hole size, cement quality,
borehole salinity/fluid

When the formation water is not sufficiently

Fig. C2: This figure shows the change over time of the
amount of hydrocarbon in the layers. Zones with po-
tential problems will show greater depeletion than the
rest.
A reservoir consisting of multiple layers and
completed on several together can eventually
give rise to a situation as pictured in Figure
C2.
Reservoir evaluation and saturation monitor-
ing through casing are generally performed in
two ways. One measures the decay of thermal
neutron populations (TDT-P*, pulsed neutron
capture) and the other determines the relative
amounts of carbon and oxygen in the forma-
tion of inelastic gamma ray spectroscopy, as
used in the GST* or RST* (induced gamma
ray spectroscopy). Because chlorine has a
large neutron capture cross section, the PNC
technique provides good results in areas with
highly saline formation waters.
saline or when its salinity is unknown, the
carbon-oxygen method provides a more reli-
able answer, and the PNC data may not be
interpretable.
C/O measurements are best in carbonates be-
cause it also contains carbon, giving a better
statistical measurement.
In large holes both tools have problems. Poor
cement will add to the problems as the fluid
behind the casing may be unknown. In the
C/O case the borehole fluid is not a problem
for the large tool, however it must be known
for the smaller device. The borehole capture
cross section is measured with the PNC tools
but in some cases it may cause problems.
C.2.1 PNC Interpretation
The log reading is a linear mixture of the ma-
trix and the fluid:
Σ log = Σ f φ + (1 − φ )Σ ma

Both use an electronic source and pairs of de- The fluid term can be expanded to:
tectors measuring gamma rays.

(01/97) C-2
 Schlumberger

Σ f = Σ w S w + (1 − S w )Σ h
Σ w
Hence if Σw, Σma, Σh and the porosity, φ are
known the saturation Sw can be obtained.
Σ log

The equation linking the log reading and the

formation is linear. The unknowns are the
capture cross sections for the water, hydrocar-
Sw = 100%
bon and matrix plus the porosity. The latter .

can be measured with the tool but it is prefer-

able to use open hole data.

The capture cross-section for the matrix is Σ ma

Σ H

easily found if the lithology is known. S w = 0%

Lithology Capture Cross Section

Limestone 7cu
Sandstone 4.2cu
Dolomite 4.7cu
Salt 754cu
POROSITY
Anhydrite 12.5cu
Clay (pure) 14-24cu Fig. C4: Crossplot of Porosity versus capture cross-
section used to find the parameters and compute the
Table C1: Matrix capture cross sections water saturation

The matrix capture cross sections come from An alternative to using charts to find the pa-
the lithology of the formation. One problem is rameters is to use a crossplot of capture cross
the presence of clay. Both the quantity and section, Σ against porosity, φ (Figure C4).
type are important as some clay minerals have
a high capture cross section compared to From equations 1 and 2
sandstone. If φ = 0, the intercept is at Σma.
If φ = 1, and Sw = 0, the intercept is Σh.
The capture cross-section of the hydrocarbon If φ = 1, and Sw = 1, the intercept is Σw
depends on its type, oil or gas, temperature
and pressure and GOR. Charts in the standard
Chart Book can be used to determine the cor-
rect values.

The capture cross-section of the water de-

pends on the salinity. There is also a minor
temperature and pressure dependence.

The values can be obtained from the Chart

Book if the formation water salinity is known.
The values for the fluids are easier to find as
they depend on known phenomena.

(01/97) C-3
Introduction to Production Logging

Once the parameters have been found the

equation can be solved for Sw.

The problems with using this type of log is

that there has to be a good contrast between
the hydrocarbon point and the water point for
this technique to work. This requirement lim-
its the technique to high salinity formation
waters. The matrix point can be difficult to
find in a shaly formation if there are no 100%
shale zones.

The value of Sw can be seriously affected if

there are any elements with a high capture
cross-section in the water. An example of this
is gadolinium with a capture cross-section of
30000. A small amount will increase the Sw
significantly. Using the graphical method
should eliminate this problem.

Gas and oil have very different capture cross-

sections. The correct one has to be used.

Time lapse is a standard technique of moni-

toring wells. A base log is run shortly after
production. The log is interpreted and can be
matched to the open hole evaluation, thus
checking the chosen parameters. Some time
later, a monitoring log is run. The change in
saturation is then given by: Fig. C5: Time lapse saturation monitoring example

∆Σ
∆Sw = Figure C5 shows an example of time-lapse
φ (Σ w − Σ h ) monitoring. The open hole computed log is
displayed with three computed TDT logs that
The matrix term has dropped out.The result- were run over several years. The rise in the
ing saturation is more accurate than a stand- oil/water contact between logs runs is obvi-
alone value. ous. Water fingering has also developed in an
upper high-permeability zone.
The base log has to be run late enough for the
filtrate to have dissipated but early enough so
that depletion is not significant. The match
with the open hole evaluation fixes such prob-
lems as uncertainty with the shale content or
the porosity. The only match is saturation.

The difference between the monitoring log

and the base log is the depletion.

(01/97) C-4
 Schlumberger

This type of survey is normally performed in

several wells of the same reservoir. This al-
lows one to map the water saturation and
monitor the water front advances.

Time-lapse maps of saturation values over an

entire reservoir area provide a powerful aid in
predicting future performance of the field.
The three time lapse maps shown in Figure
C6 were made over a number of years and
show the progression of a waterfront in a sin-
gle zone in this carbonate formation.

Fig. C7: Errors in the computed saturation for an er-

ror in the capture cross section

This a similar chart to the previous example,

this time with the porosity as the changing
quantity. In this case a 6p.u. error in porosity
again gives a 40% error in the saturation.

Fig. C6: Time lapse map

The main areas of water encroachement can

be clearly seen. The maps were constructed
using open hole and TDT log data from 40
wells. Similar maps can be made for each
layer or sublayer to monitor water movement.
Fig. C8: Errors in saturation computation with errors
Figure C7 shows the relative errors in the in porosity
computation of the saturation with changes in
the capture cross section accuracy. Using the
chart, for a 1 cu error in Σ, at 20% hydrocar-
bon volume the error in saturation is around
40%.

(01/97) C-5
Introduction to Production Logging
If the pulsed neutron is used alone (no open
hole data) the combination of these errors
could result in a large discrepancy. Using the
open hole measurement for the porosity is a
fisrt step in improving the accuracy of the
technique. The addition of an early monitor-
ing run to compare with the original open hole
values and subsequent monitoring passes
gives the best possible answers.
C.2.3 Carbon Oxygen Logging
Fig. C9: Spectra of some of the elements by induced
gamma ray spectroscopy
The first stage of the measurement computes
the individual elements from the spectra (Fig-
ure C9). This is very statistical. The next step
takes large windows over the expected carbon
and oxygen peaks to give a statistically good
measurement. The combination of these two
gives an accurate carbon- oxygen ratio which
can then be transformed into saturation.
The plot in Figure C10 is of the Far C/O ratio
against the Near C/O. The combination gives
both the formation water percentage Sw and
the borehole percentage Yo. This plot is for
the RST-B* tool, which has the ability to
compute both the formation and borehole per-
(01/97) C-6
centages. The shape of the plot depends on
the lithology.
Sw=0, Yo=100
Far C/O ratio
Sw=0, Yo=0 Sw=100, Yo=100
Sw=100, Yo=0
Near C/O Ratio
Fig. C10: Crossplot of the Far C/O versus the Near
C/O. The plot end points give the relative amounts of
each element in the borehople and the formation
The smaller tools have a plot which has less
spread and the near and far detectors “see”
almost the same thing, hence it can only dis-
tinguish the formation percentage. The bore-
hole fluid must be known in this case.
C.2.4 Example
Fig. C11: Initial field map showing the original oil
water contact
Figure C11 shows the original oil water con-
tact (OOWC) at X370 ft . The field has 12 oil
wells which have produced a total of 7 mil-
lion barrels and have estimated remaining re-
serves of another 9 million barrels. Initial
production from these wells oscillated from
650 to 1360 BOPD and most had early water
 Schlumberger

production due to the active water drive in the

reservoir.
The drastic increase in water production
forced the closure of all producers with the
exception of well A-1, which was still pro-
ducing aroung 800 BOPD with no water. The
water production per well is shown in the
structural map (Figure 12). The large propor-
tion of unrecovered reserves from these 12
wells and the belief that water production was
caused by localized coning tempted the op-
erator to consider re-entry horizontal wells to
tap the remaining reserves.
Fig. C12: New map after high water cut in the
production

The lack of accurate production data and sur-

veys of any type in the watered-out wells
prompted the use of the RST tool for surveys
designed to locate the oil water contact
(OWC). Well A was selected for the survey
since it is located downdip fromm the wells
abandoned due to excessive water production.
The nearby well A-3 was producing 75% wa-
ter until it was shut in June 1993.

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Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. C13: Monitoring log run in the field shows oil remaining at the top of the well

(01/97) C-8
 Schlumberger

This new level of the oil-water contact con- Porosity %

firmed additional recoverable reserves which 50 0
easily justify a horizontal well re-entry pro- original water
gram. Two wells have now been selected, A-2 in place
P
and A-3, to tap part of these additional re- e
r
serves.
f
o
Remaining
r
hydrocarbon
a
t
i
o
n
s
apparent displaced
hydrocarbon

Fig. C14: Final map with the correct new oil-water-

contact

Fig. C15: Depletion seen on the monitoring log could

This shows the new OWC after the surveys
and the trajectory of the two wells planned to
tap the reserves.
C.2.5 Problems in saturation
monitoring
A major problem in carbonates is the compo-
sition. In the cased hole this becomes more
difficult as it affects the interpretation directly
in the figure of the matrix capture cross sec-
tion. If the composition is known from the
open hole logs the value is easily obtained. If
there is no open hole data available the best
method is a graphical solution. In the lower
porosities this may be difficult to handle.
be simply an acid effect
Hydrochloric acid is used in the stimulation of
carbonate formations. The residual products
of the reaction contain chlorine. The pulsed
neutron capture measurement reacts to this
element. In the normal case this is contained
only in the water, hence the tool “sees’ the
difference between oil and water. The moni-
toring log is run soon after the original open
hole set. The depletion seen on this diagram is
false as it corresponds to acidised zones seen
by the tool as water, i.e. depletion. This effect
does not dissipate until the zone actually pro-
duces water.

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Introduction to Production Logging

Difference Σ2 - Σ1 = Acid Effect Gamma Ray Open Hole

Capture Cross section Σ Gamma Ray Cased Hole
60 0
0 200

x100 original GR
x50

Scale effect
x100
x200

x150

x300

Fig. C16: Base log compared to first monitoring log
distinguishes the acid effect
The solution to the acid effect is to run a log
soon after completion. This log is compared
with the open hole saturation (Figure C16).
Any difference seen at this stage is due to the
acid effect. This figure is then used in future
jobs to eliminate the erroneous indication of
water influx.
Fig. C17: Gamma ray peaks on the log are due to ra-
dioactive scale build-up
Carbonate reservoirs often exhibit high and
random gamma ray regions in cased hole.
Compared to an open hole log these are com-
pletely anomalous (Figure C17). The problem
is caused by the build up of radioactive scale
on the insides of the casing. This scale is
formed from barium and strontium salts pre-
cipated out of produced formation waters. The
amount of these substances is small and will
not cause a problem for any other evaluation.

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 Schlumberger

C.3 CEMENT MONITORING

The cement quality has to be evaluated before
the completion and any repairs made at that
time. It is also essential to properly evaluate
any measurement in cased hole.

There are two varieties of tool in current

use:

• Cement Bond Log (CBL) - Variable Den-

sity Log (VDL)
CBL measures the amplitude of signal
reflected from the casing wall. The
higher the amplitude the lower the
amount of cement.

VDL image of the recorded wavetrain. The

only log to see beyond the first casing
into the formation.

• Pulse Echo type tool

measures the acoustic impedance of
the casing-cement interface using
ultrasonics.

The latter tool is either segmented using indi-

vidual transducers or rotating covering the
entire casing

The cement bond log-variable density tool
uses a standard sonic tool to make the meas-
urement. (Refer to Figure 18.) This is the tra-
ditional tool and serves well to identify the
quality of the cement job. The amplitude of
the first arrival reflects how much energy has
been absorbed by the casing. If the casing if
free, no cement, most of the signal is re-
flected. If the casing is well cemented, little
signal returns.
It has an added advantage in seeing the bond
from cement to formation, which the other
tools cannot, using the Variable Density Log
(VDL).
Fig. C18: Typical CBL-VDL log. The first track has the
gamma ray curve for correlation, plus a casing colar
locator. The second track has the cement bond log. In
this presentation good cement is shown by the shading.
The final track contains the VDL.
The VDL looks at the complete wavetrain
hence sees further into the casing formation
interface. The Variable Density trace is a
valuable part of cement bond logging. As it
looks at the entire wave-train it contains in-
formation not seen by any other measurement.

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Introduction to Production Logging

first arrivals
from casing cement later arrivals from
interface casing formation
interface

Fig. C19: The VDL is a method of displaying the full

wave.

The log is simply made by looking at half of

the wavetrain with black (or a colour) for the
peaks and white (or a colour) for the troughs
(Figure 19). The colour or even grey images
show a much clearer picture of how the wave
is being affected by the casing(s), cement and
formation. It is possible to identify, free pipe,
fast formations and the formation-cement
bond using this curve.

The pulse-echo tools use either an array of

ultrasonic transducers or a single rotating
transducer. Both methods produce a “map” of
cement quality around the borehole (Figure
20). Combining both types of tools provides Fig. C20: This is part of the display of an ultrasonic
the best possible picture of the cement quality. cement evaluation tool. It shows the entire casing in
tracks one and three, with brown indicating cement
and blue water or no cement. The red colour is gas.
The display shows a typical log with the en-
tire casing shown in tracks one and three.
Brown indicates cement and blue water or no C.4 CORROSION MONITORING
cement. The red colour is gas. The second
track shows a composite picture of the cement A range of different wireline logging tools is
quality giving a percentage bond at a given available for monitoring the conditions of cas-
depth. Here yellow is cement and blue water. ings.

The main tools described in the previous sec-

tions can be categorized into three main
groups: (1) Ultrasonic Tools, (2) Electrical
and Electromagnetic Tools, (3) Mechanical
Tools. These tools use different physical prin-
ciples, and have different ranges of applica-
tion and different environmental limitations.
Their azimuthal and vertical sampling rates,
and their resolution are also different. In most
circumstances, no single tool can give quanti-
tative information about the corrosion situa-
tion. In multiple strings, outer string condi-
tions must also be monitored.

(01/97) C-12
 Schlumberger

also be necessary to refine the interpretation

It is therefore advisable to acquire data from and detect the advance of corrosion. Location
more than one corrosion tool, and combine of corrosion and tool combinations more
the information to accurately describe the cas- likely to detect and quantify it are schemati-
ing conditions. Time lapse measurements may cally shown in Figure C21.

CORROSION MONITORING TOOLS

Inner Outer
casing casing
Fig 9-1
inner casing outer casing
external corrosion pits & holes
METT + PAT
time lapse UCI
PAT

inner casing outer casing

internal corrosion metal loss
METT METT + PAT
PAT time lapse
TGS-MFC

tubing
internal PAT
corrosion inner casing TGS-MFC
pits & holes (internal)
TGS/MFC UCI
METT
single casing PAT
external corrosion CET
UCI

CORROSION single casing METT

PREDICTION PAT
internal corrosion
---- CPET ---- CET
TGS-MFC
UCI

Fig. C21: Corrosion occurrence and tool selection

Tool Definitions

METT* - Multi Frequency Electromagnetic Thickness Tool

PAT* - Pipe Analysis Tool
TGS* - Tubing Analysis Sonde
MFC - Multi Fingered Caliper
UCI* - Ultra-Sonic casing Inpection
CET* - Cement Evaluation Tool
CPET* - Cathodic Protection Evaluation Tool

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Introduction to Production Logging

TGS /
METT MPAT PAT
CPET CET UCI
MFC
INTERNAL CORROSION
EXTERNAL CORROSION
SINGLE
PITS ON OUTER WALL
PITS ON INNER WALL
CORROSION RATE TL TL TL
CASING
CATHODIC PROTECTION EVL.

TOTAL CORROSION TL
DUAL CORROSION RATE TL
Inner
CORROSION LOCATION: Casing
INNER OR OUTER STRING ? TL
CASING
AIR OR GAS
FILLED BOREHOLE
COND- CIRCUMFERENTIAL up to 7''
MFC
TGS
ITIONS COVERAGE
9 5/8 ''
GOOD FAIR TL = Time-Lapse
Fig. C22: Corrosion tool applications

Corrosion cannot be avoided. Proper evalua- • obtain as much information as possible

tion of corrosion is an aid in managing it, and
in reducing the cost associated with preven-
tion and repairs of corrosion damage.
For a successful evaluation of corrosion it is
recommended to:
• understand the geological environment, the
formation type, the fluids present around
the casing.
about the well completion.
• plan base logs early in the life of a well to
obtain an undisturbed time-zero picture.
• select the proper combination of corrosion
measurement tools, adapted to the well en-
vironment.
• use results from one well to refine the ac-
quisition program and the interpretation of
other wells in a field.

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 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

D. DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION
LOGGING
D.1 DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION
LOGGING
Production logging is the measurement of
fluid parameters on a zone-by-zone basis to
yield information about the type and move-
ment of fluids within and near the wellbore.
Production logging is intended primarily for
measuring the performance of producing
wells. It provides diagnostic information, pin-
points where fluids such as water, oil and gas
are entering a well and gives an indication
about the efficiency of the perforations.
Traditional production logging involves four
measurements - flow, density, temperature
and pressure. However, only the flow and
density readings are used in traditional quanti-
tative production logging analysis. Tempera-
ture and pressure data have normally been
used in a qualitative way to compute in-situ
flow properties and locate zones of entry of
fluid into a well.
By the late 1950s and early 1960s the basic
sensor types had been developed as individual
tools. The surveys required a seperate pass to
obtain flowmeter, gradiomanometer, tempera-
ture and so on. 1970 saw the sensors pack-
aged together in one tool, meaning a more ef-
ficient single run in the hole. The individual
measurements still had to be run one at a
time. By the end of the decade advances in
electronics allowed everything to be recorded
in a single pass across the zone of interest.
This had many advantages not least the sav-
ings in time.
Improvements continued through the 1980s to
the present day with better sensors, especially
pressure gauges, and deployment methods.
The latest tool uses completely new technol-
ogy to measure a flow profile for the individ-
ual fluid phases all around the borehole.

D.2 HISTORY OF PRODUCTION

LOGGING
Modern Production Logging is far from the
early beginnings of the technique, with highly
accurate sensors all on a single tool with si-
multaneous acquisition. However a lot of sen-
sors go back some considerable time. Tem-
perature surveys were first used in the mid
1930s. One use was the estimation of the top
of the cement behind the casing. The setting
process of the cement is an exothermic reac-
tion, it gives off heat. Hence the temperature
sensor “sees” where there is cement in the
well. (Note; this method is still used, in order
to work well the log has to be run less than 12
hours after the cement has been pumped.)

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Introduction to Production Logging

D.3 USES OF PRODUCTION - Completion Efficiency

LOGGING
Production Logging is put to many uses de- 3. Diagnose well problems
pending on the reservoir type, well conditions - Water entry
- Gas entry
and the perceived problem. (See Figure D1).
Some of the major ones are: - Leaks and mechanical
problems
1. Evaluate completion performance - Flow behind casing
- New wells
- Injection wells 4. Other
- Guidance for workover
- Re-completions
- Information for enhanced oil
2. Monitor reservoir performance & varia- recovery projects
tions - Identify boundaries for field
- Flow profile development
- Well test

(01/97) D-2
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

Casing
Leak

Tubing
Leak
Packer
Leak

P1 o il

P2>>P1

Bad Cement

Unwanted
P2 fluid flow

Fig. D1: Common problems encountered in the producing wells.

Some are due to mechanical problems others to the reservoirs

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Introduction to Production Logging

D.4 PRODUCTION LOGGING

MEASUREMENTS

D.4.1 Tools
Production logging tools consist of a number
of sensors which make the measurements in-
side the well (Figure D2). The main types are:

1. Flowrate (fluid velocity) measurement

- Spinner rotation

2. Fluid density measurement

- Differential pressure
- Gamma ray attentuation

3. Well bore temperature

- Variance in resistance

4. Well bore pressure

- Strain gauges
- Crystal gauges

A number of auxiliary measurements are used

to augment or assist in the analysis of the ma-
jor logs. They are: Flowmeter

- GR /CCL for correlation

- Caliper (mechanical)
- Fluid sampling
- Noise Logs
- Tracer surveys
- Water Flow Log

Fig. D2: A typical production logging tool string con-

tains a number of sensors

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Wireline & Testing

D.4.2 Applications of specific

Up
measurements Gradio Run
Each sensor has some specific uses, most are Down
utilised in combination, however, to give a Temperature Run
total answer for the well/reservoir. 600

1. Flowmeter
- Determine producing zones

Perforations
- Stimulation evaluation
- Secondary recovery
- Flow potential evaluation (SIP, Spinners
AOF)
700
2. Temperature
- Location of production or injection
zones
- Monitor frac performance
- Gas entry
- Fluid movement behind pipe
- Fluid conversions

3. Fluid Density
800
- Determine volumetric flow in two
phase flow Fig. D3: A typical production log.
- Show entry points in three phase
flow

4. Pressure
- Well test analysis (kh, skin)
- Reservoir extent, boundaries
- Fluid conversions
- AOF, SIP determination

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Introduction to Production Logging
D.5 PRODUCTION LOGGING
ENVIRONMENT
The production logging environment is very
different from that of open hole logging.
Firstly in place there is normally a comple-
tion, which can take many forms. The reser-
voir zone may be open hole, perforated casing
or gravel pack. There may be single or multi-
ple zones and single or multiple tubings.
The log is normally run in dynamic condi-
tions, the well is flowing mixtures of liquids
and gases.
- Oil, water, polymers.
- Methane +, N2, CO2, H2S, He.
(Quite often there are solids present - forma-
tion, frac propant, paraffin, scale, diverter
balls, etc.)
Hence care and attention has to be taken in
the logging program so that the maximum in-
formation is obtained to answer the problem.
D.6 LOGGING AND
INTERPRETATION
PROCEDURES
The procedure to ensure a successful produc-
tion log is simple and can be broken down
into three steps,
- programming the job,
- running the job and
- interpreting the data.
D.6.1 Programming the job
The first step starts with defining the problem:
e.g. Oil production is falling, water cut
is increasing.
Then list and quantify symptoms and well
conditions, for example:
• Water Cut has increased from 2% to
15% in six months
• Total production has fallen from 800 to
500 B/D
• GOR - 350 cu ft/bbl
(01/97) D-6
• Tubing head pressure - 1200 psia
• Oil gravity - 30 oAPI
• Gas gravity - 0.7
Then define sensors needed and technique
necessary to gather required data. (Mechanical
configuration of the well must be considered.)
This may include:
• Fluid velocity, density, pressure, and
temperature need to be measured
• Data is to be taken vs depth and vs time
with the well flowing and static
• 5 1/2-in. casing set to 9550 ft. 0˚ devia-
tion
• 2 7/8-in. tubing set to 9350 ft.
• Perforations - 9400-9450 / 9460-9475
• Fill (TD ?)
Then determine if there is a reasonable possi-
bility of solving the problem with available
sensors. For instance:
• The well is producing above the bubble
point (down hole) and downhole water
production is greater than 10% of the to-
tal downhole flow.
D.6.2 Running the job
The second step starts with gathering all the
required data.
• Calibrate the tools
• Maintain depth control
• Record data optically and magnetically
D.6.3 Interpreting the data
Choose a Single or Biphasic interpretation
model. Select Computer interpretation or
manual. In both cases the general equations
are the same.
Qh = Yh Qt - Yh (1 - Yh) Vs A
Ql = Qt - Qh
Qt - Total flowrate
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

Qh - Heavy phase flowrate Vs - Velocity of the light phase relative to

the heavy phase
Ql - Light phase flowrate
A - Cross-sectional area
Yh - Heavy phase holdup (decimal percent
by volume) Finally produce the answer (see Figure D4).

Fig. D4: The result of a production log interpretation

D.7 PRODUCTION LOGGING Communication between the operating com-

OPERATIONS pany and the service company is very impor-
Production logging sensors are available in tant for successful production logging. In any
many configurations depending on their in- form of well servicing, good communications
are wise; but, in production logging, good dia-
tended use.
logue is critical to solving production prob-
lems. It is also essential for acquiring good
(01/97) D-7
Introduction to Production Logging

base data to more accurately monitor well per-

Casing Collar
formance and to solve future production prob- Locator

lems.
Gamma Ray

Although there are many types of sensors, this

does not necessarily imply that several trips
into the well will be needed to solve a particu-
lar problem. Acquisition of the various forms
of data can often be accomplished with one
trip into the well by multiplexing the signals
from the combined tool string. In addition to
rig time savings and convenience, the reduced
number of trips into the hole can produce less
disturbance of the production profile as a re-
sult of fewer pressure releases with the sur-
face pressure control equipment; this helps
assure that all the sensors are logging the flow
conditions with simultaneous measurements.

D.7.1 Depth Control

Flowmeter
Casing Collar Locator Section
Figure D5 shows a combination tool. The
tool has several production logging sensors
and a casing collar locator section. As with
most tools run in casing, it is very important
that casing collars be recorded. Collars are
the only positive depth control link between
the production logging sensors and the forma- Fig. D5: Standard tool string showing the casing col-
tion strata. lar locator and gamma ray

Gamma Ray Log This procedure is necessary for the depth

The other half of depth control is a gamma ray
log run in casing simultaneously with a casing
collar log. The gamma ray in casing is depth
matched to the openhole logs; therefore, the
casing collars that were recorded simultane-
ously will be on depth, or correctly depth
matched, relative to the openhole logs. Any
subsequent services run in casing with a cas-
ing collar locator that is depth-matched to the
Gamma ray plus collar log will be on depth
with the openhole logs.
measurement accuracy required for perforat-
ing, plugs, packers, etc. If cement evaluation
is run, a gamma ray and collar locator are
usually combined with the cement evaluation
tool, typically a sonic device, to acquire depth
control data simultaneously with cement in-
formation. These logs are not absolutely es-
sential if the production logging tool string
contains a gamma ray section; however, the
gamma ray - collar log is usually run for per-
forating accuracy far in advance of the deci-
sion to run production logging tools that may
contain a gamma ray.

(01/97) D-8
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Wireline & Testing

E. FLOW VELOCITY: SPINNER TOOLS

E.1 INTRODUCTION tions per second (rps). Knowledge of a par-

ticular spinner performance allows the con-
E.1.1 Basic Flowmeter Uses
version of the rps into fluid flow velocity.
• Determine producing zones
E.2.1 General Tool description
• Stimulation evaluation The flowmeter is used for flowrate evaluation
• Secondary recovery and recording production or injection profiles.
• Flow potential evaluation (SIP, It uses a spinner, centrally located in the cas-
AOF) ing.

E.1.2 Flow Measurement Electrical

Downhole flow velocity surveys are usually Connection
made with spinner devices. However there are
a number of other methods of measuring the
flowrate:

• Tracer surveys Magnet

• Noise Logs
Pickup Coil
• Water Flow Log
Spinner

These methods will be dealt with in the Sec-

tion on Other Sensors. Under certain condi-
tions flow metering can also be accomplished
using data from fluid density and temperature
devices. These surveys are much less com-
mon.

E.2 SPINNER TOOLS

Spinner devices utilize a spinner or impeller,
which is essentially a fan blade turned by the
flowing fluid. This is the same principle that
causes an unplugged window fan to turn in a
breeze and allows a car engine to move a car V T
with an automatic transmission although there
is no direct coupling between the engine and
the wheels. t

In the flowmeter application, the spinner

Fig. E1: The general principle of a spinner tool. Fluid
revolutions generate electrical currents or
moves past the spinner causing it to rotate.
pulses that are measured by the surface
equipment and converted into spinner revolu-
(01/97) E-1
Introduction to Production Logging

The rate of rotation of the spinner, rps, is a

function of the velocity, vf, of the incident
fluid.
rps = f(vf)

A permanent magnet is attached to the shaft

of the spinner which is mounted between hy-
draulic bearings (refer to Figure E1). The ro-
tation of the spinner induces an a.c. signal in a
pickup coil.

The output sinusoidal voltage, V, and fre-

quency, ω, are proportional to the rate at
which the spinner rotates.

V α rps, ω α rps

Electronics detect and count the zero cross-

ings of the sinusoid.

E.2.2 Types of Spinner Devices

Spinner devices are of the following three ba-
sic types:

• High Flowrate Tools

• Low to Intermediate Flowrate Tools
• Low Flowrate Tools

E.2.3 Continuous Flowmeter

High Flowrate Tools or Continuous Flow-
meters (Figure E2) descend through tubing Fig. E2: Continuous Flowmeter Tool*.
and perform their function below tubing
without changing their shape for the meas-
urements.

This configuration can result in less accuracy

due to the small diameter; however, their
simpler operation can produce better reliabil-
ity.

The small diameter may allow eccentering in

casing; this can cause erroneous flow sam-
pling in deviated holes where gravity segrega-
tion of fluids occurs.

(01/97) E-2
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000

Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
Makeup Length (in.) 24.0

Type (CFS*) H/N J/P K/Q

Tool OD (in.) 1 11/16" 2 1/8" 2 7/8"

Weight (lbs) 7.0 7.5 8.0
Spinner OD (mm) 31 42 61
Spinner Pitch(mm)
2 blades 41.2 41.2 41.2
4 blades 123.6 123.6 123.6
Slope (rps/100ft/min)
2 blades 11.1 11.9 11.2
4 blades 4.0 4.5 4.6
Threshold (ft/min)
2 blades 10.3 10.9 2.7
4 blades 4.7 3.5 1.0
Resolution (rps) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Range (rps) <200 <200 <200
Accuracy (%) 10 10 10
Table E1: Continuous Flowmeter Tool Types.

E.2.4 Low to Intermediate Flowrate

Tools
Low to Intermediate Flowrate Tools or Full-
bore Flowmeters (Figure E3) descend through
tubing, then they expand their spinner diame-
ter by unfolding their blades to occupy most
of the inner casing diameter.
Fig. E3: Fullbore Flowmeter Tool*.
Strong centralizers protect the spinner blades
from striking the casing wall. These fullbore
Maximum Pressure (psi) 20000
flowmeters are more complex mechanically Maximum Temperature (°F) 392
than the other continuous devices, but they Weight (lbs) 11
offer less probability of erroneous flow sam- Makeup Length (in.) 35.1
pling from eccentering. They give far better
results in low flowrates than the other types of
continuous tools.

They also cause less pressure drop across the

tool than the petal or basket type devices,
which facilitates less alteration of the natural
fluid flow path in the well while logging. Be-
ing a continuous device, these tools supply
more complete readings in less logging time
than the station-type instruments.

(01/97) E-3
Introduction to Production Logging

FBS–C* does not exist due to poor cement or vertical

The high resolution kit increases the number
of magnets from the standard 2 to 6. This ef-
fectively multiples the response by a factor of
3.
FBDS-A*
- Full bore spinner giving sense of rotation
- Active sensor and electronics upper sec-
tion.
- Can be adapted from existing FullBore
Spinner.
Uses same cage and blades as FBS.
- Output signal independent of rotation
speed: sensitive at very low rotation
speeds.
- Better resolution than existing FBS-C
- 20,000 psi / 175 degC / 1-11/16" diameter.
fracturing.
These devices usually have an umbrella con-
figuration that diverts the fluid into the ori-
fice; this generally results in a non-continuous
or station-type of data collection. This re-
quires more logging time and also creates the
risk of omitting valuable data from the inter-
vals that are not logged or sampled. Diverter
flowmeters were preceded by the packer
flowmeters that used wellbore fluids to inflate
a bag around the tool; though quite complex
and no longer generally available, the packer
flowmeter was an excellent step toward low
volume logging.

Casing Size (in.) 1 5 6 5

4 / 6 / 9 /
2 8 8
Cage OD (in.) 4 5 6 8
Spinner OD (in.) 2.75 3.5 5.0 7.0
Spinner Pitch 120 73 35
(mm)
Slope 5.2 4.3 7.2 5.7
(rps/100ft/min)
Threshold 2.5 0.8 3.24 9.0
(ft/min)
Range (RPS) <100
<100
Table E2: Fullbore Flowmeter Tool Types.

E.2.5 Low Flowrate Tools or

Diverter Flowmeters
Low Flowrate Tools or Diverter Flowmeters
descend through tubing, they then expand
their effective diameter below tubing to divert
the flow through an orifice containing a small Fig. E4: Petal Basket Flowmeter Tool
diameter spinner (Figure E4).

These devices have good fluid sampling char- • Petal Basket Flowmeter Sonde (PBFS–
acteristics because the majority of the fluids A/B/C*)
moving in the casing must go through the
spinner section; however, they may also cre- – Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
ate pressure drops or changes that can cause – Maximum Temperature (°F) 300
fluid flow outside the casing if zone isolation
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 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

– The tool must be stationary before opening

the basket to take a reading.

se
n
po
– The basket may be opened and closed un-

es
Mode 4

kR
der surface control.

a
Le
ro
Ze
Types A B C
Weight (lbs) 30 30 30

3
e
od
Makeup Length 86 74 74

M
(in.)
OD (in.) 1.69 2.13 2.13
Minimum Flow 50 60 70
(bbl/d)

e2
Maximum Flow 1500 2770 4500

od
M
(bbl/d)
1
de
Table E3: Petal Basket Flowmeter Types. Mo

• Petal Basket Flowmeter Response

Mode 1 Fig. E5: Petal Basket flowmeter response.

At low rates, the heavy phase segregates in
the tool/casing annulus. Pressure unbalance
causes leaking through the petals. • Inflatable Diverter Tool (IDT–A*)
Mode 2
At intermediate rates the petals start to leak Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
Maximum Temperature (°F) 300
upwards, the magnitude depending on the to-
Weight (lbs) 30
tal rate. Makeup Length (in.) 86.0
Mode 3 Minimum Flow (bbl/d) 50
At high rates, the upwards leakage stabilizes Maximum Flow (bbl/d) 1500
at a constant value, independent of the total
flow rate. The spinner rotation becomes a lin- • Standard CFS spinner
ear function of the total flow rate.
Mode 4
Above a certain rate, the petals become de-
formed and the response becomes non-linear.

(01/97) E-5
Introduction to Production Logging

Basket Size Small Large

Min Casing (ins) 1 7
4 /
2
Max Casing (ins) 7 5
9 /
8
Max Flow (bbl/d) 1800 1000

E.2.6 Horizontal Flowmeters

Horizontal Flow (across the wellbore) is
measured by a fourth spinner flowmeter type.
These devices, though not common, can help
determine the presence or absence of produc-
tion from individual perforations, when perfo-
ration spacing is sufficient. These tools do
not generally offer flow profiling over long
intervals due to the plane of the spinner opera-
tion.

It is designed to operate when struck by a

horizontal force coming out of a perforation,
and it will not operate in a vertical flow con-
dition or in an openhole condition.

E.3 CALIBRATION AND

INTERPRETATION OF SINGLE-
PHASE FLOW USING SPINNER
DATA
Fig. E6: Inflatable Diverter Flowmeter tool. This de-
vice uses the standard continuous flowmeter spinner.
E.3.1 Percentage Contribution of Each
Zone
– The basket is controlled from surface.
Spinner revolution rate varies with fluid
– The inflatable ring, controlled from sur- flowrate. This relationship is generally linear
face, minimizes the leaking past the petals. for continuous flowmeters, including fullbore
flowmeters, and it is generally non-linear for
• Packer Fluid Analyser Tool (SPFT–A*) petal-basket flowmeters; therefore, in single-
phase flow (oil only, gas only, or water only),
Max Pressure (psi) 15000 the flow profiling interpretation technique is
Max Temp (°F) 350 essentially the plotting of spinner data, in
Max Flow (bbl/d) revolutions per second, such that the percent-
Basket Open 2000
age flow contribution of each zone can be
Basket Closed 10000
Max Deviation (°) 60
read directly from the plot (assuming fluid
Single phase (bbl/d) > 100 viscosity and density are consistent through-
Q in two phases (bbl/d) > 30 out the interval).
o
Q in two phases (bbl/d) > 400
w
Accuracy (%) 10
(01/97) E-6
 Schlumberger
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For continuous flowmeters, where revolu-
tions per second (rps) are linear with flow
rate, the technique consists of plotting rps on
the log. For petal-basket flowmeters, where
revolutions per second (rps) are not linear
with flow rate, the technique consists of plot-
ting flowrate from an appropriate chart on the
log.
common to find the majority of fluids being
contributed by a small percentage of the per-
forations, possibly one or two holes in a zone
with dozens of perforations.)
E.3.3 Downhole Calibrations
The ideal response of the spinner is a flowing
well would give a straight line plot through
the origin (Figure E8).

Spinner
rps

Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity

DOWN UP

Fig. E8: The ideal response of the spinner with fluid

velocity.

Fig. E7: Petal Basket chart converting spinner output All fluids in the well are viscous to some de-
to flowrate.
gree. The effect of this is to “shift” the curves
away from the ideal line (Figure E9). The
E.3.2 Absolute Flow Rates slope of the line remains the same as this is
Spinner rate is a function of fluid viscosity only dependent on the spinner geometry.
and density, in addition to velocity; therefore,
additional care must be taken if absolute Spinner
flowrates, rather than percentage contribu- rps
tions, are desired from the flowmeter data, or
if percentage contributions are desired in an
increasing
interval with varying viscosity or density. viscosity
This is true even in single-phase flow. Under
these conditions, the technique used for de- Fluid Velocity
Fluid Velocity
termining absolute flowrates is the use of DOWN UP
downhole calibrations.
increasing
(Note: When interpreting station-type data, viscosity

and during the data acquisition, it is wise to

never assume that flow contribution is linearly
spread across a perforated interval; it is quite
(01/97) E-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. E9: The effect of viscosity is to change the spinner
response away from the ideal line.
An additional effect of friction on the spinner
start up alters the curve at the beginning. This
is the “Threshold” of the tool (figure E10).
Spinner
rps
flow. These plots (Figures E10, and E11) are
for a stationary fluid and a moving tool, hence
represent zero flow. In a flowing well the line
will be shifted to the left on the plot as the
velocity seen by the tool is now a combination
of the tool velocity plus the fluid velocity, Vf.
(Figure E12).

Spinner
rps
increasing
mechanical viscosity
effects Vf
Midpoint
w
Flo
Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity Tool Velocity ro
UP Ze
DOWN UP

Vf Tool Velocity
increasing DOWN
viscosity Vf
ow
Fl
ro
Ze

Fig. E10: Mechanical effects are seen at very low

flowrates. It is effectively the flow needed to start the
spinner. Fig. E12: Flowing fluids add their velocity to that of
As the spinner is reading the fluid moving the tool changing the flow away from the zero calibra-
tion line.
past it, the fluid velocity can be replaced by
the tool velocity in the opposite direction to Fluid moving in pipe flows faster in the center
give the final calibration plot. of the pipe than it does near the casing wall.
Centralized flowmeters measure the flow in
Spinner
the center of the pipe. As a result, the spinner
rps reading will be higher than the average fluid
velocity in the casing. A correction factor has
to be introduced to take this effect into ac-
increasing
mechanical
viscosity
count.
effects
Vaverage = C * Vf
Tool Velocity Tool Velocity
UP DOWN The constant C, has been computed by ex-
periments in flow loops. A typical value is
increasing 0.83. (See Appendix 1 for more details).
viscosity
Once the fluid velocity is found the flowrate,
q, (downhole) can be computed.

Fig. E11: This is the final plot with tool velocity substi-
tuted for fluid velocity.
The down passes in producing wells are posi-
tive revolutions per second (rps). The up
passes are negative, if logged faster than fluid
flow, and positive, if logged slower than fluid
(01/97) E-8
q = C ∗ Vf ∗ A
where,
C = velocity profile correction factor,
commonly 0.83.Better, use chart.
A = Area of flow. Use chart1 to convert
1
Charts are available for all common casing sizes.

ft/min to flowrate for given casing.
Vf = Fluid velocity from zone calibration line.
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E.3.4 Practical Downhole Calibrations
In practice when performing downhole cali-
brations for absolute flowrates, a plot is con-
structed using several logging passes. The
passes should be both up and down at various
cable speeds. The cable speed in feet per mi-
nute is plotted on the x-axis for the various
passes.
If a sump (region of no flow below all perfo-
rations) exists which can be logged, the cali-
bration data will establish the threshold value.
(The assumption here is that the sump must
have the same fluid viscosity /density for the
calibration to be valid.)
If the calibration passes are logged such that
the down passes yield positive spinner veloci-
ties, and the up passes yield negative spinner
velocities (the preferred technique), then the
spinner threshold value is established by
translating the up/down graphs to position the
plot origin halfway between the x-axes inter-
sections of the down calibration line and the
up calibration line.
Fig. E13: Spinner example.
(01/97) E-9
Introduction to Production Logging
Typically, a plot is constructed from data just
above a set of perforations, where the flow
will be stable. In the data shown in Figure
E13, these would be the points labelled A, B,
C and D. A straightline function will exist
with a vertical offset from the origin propor-
tional to the flowrate at the point where the
data were taken.
Fig. E14: Crossplot from the spinners above.
The plot then becomes a calibration chart. The
fluid velocity can be read off the x-axis as the
difference between the threshold and the read-
ing.
In this example (Figure E14) the threshold is
0, hence the fluid velocity can be directly read
off the charts.
Taking the reading at point C as an example,
the difference between the line for this point
and the zero flow line (D) is 80 ft/min. This
is easily found by starting where line C
crosses the y-axis and going across until line
D is reached and then reading down to the x-
axis.
In a similar manner the values for B and A are
found to be 215 ft/min and 320 ft/min respec-
tively.
(01/97) E-10
To translate this fluid velocity into the
flowrate the relationship between fluid flow
volumes and fluid velocity for a specific cas-
ing inside diameter has to be determined. This
is found by consulting the appropriate chart
(see chart at end of this section).
In this example the casing was 7", 29 lbs/ft
and the velocity for 1000 bbl/day is 18.7
ft/min, hence the flowrates are:
QA = 320x(1000/18.7)x0.83 =14203 bbl/day
QB =215x(1000/18.7)x0.83 = 9543 bbl/day
QC = 80X(1000/18.7)x0.83 = 3551 bbl/day
Note: In the data set above there were some
“spin reversals”. This occurs when the veloc-
ity of the tool is slower than the velocity of
the fluid.
Spinner, rps
tool moving
slower than
the fluid
(+ rps)
Spinner
Reversed
tool moving
faster than
the fluid
(- rps)
Fig. E15: Spinner reversals.

E.3.5 Two-Pass Technique
For percentage contribution calculations in
varying viscosity conditions, whether from
multiphase flow or single-phase flow with
multiple viscosities, a special technique called
the two-pass technique can be applied (Figure
E16). This technique consists of running a
continuous flowmeter pass against the flow
direction and a flowmeter pass with the flow
direction, but faster than the maximum fluid
flowrate. The two passes are then normalized
and shifted to overlay at the bottom of the
well, where no fluid flow occurs.
The amount of separation between the two
passes, after shifting, measured in log divi-
sions is linearly proportional to fluid velocity.
One hundred percent flow is at the point of
maximum deflection, which is usually above
all perforations on producing and injection
wells. Thief zones complicate the interpreta-
tion somewhat, but the principle remains the
same.
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Fig. E16: Two passes of spinner, up and down are
overlain to eliminate the effects of changing viscosity.
A distinct advantage of this technique is that
it cancels the effect of viscosity changes.
These changes are essentially shifts in rps
readings of the same amount and direction on
both passes. Thus, the separation remains in-
dependent of viscosity effects.
If the "centerline" is defined as a line halfway
between the two curves, a centerline shift to
the right is a viscosity decrease; a centerline
shift to the left is a viscosity increase. If abso-
lute fluid velocity is desired from the two-
pass technique, and if multiple calibration
passes have been run, it can be computed
from the following equation:
 ∆rps 
Vf = 0.83 
 Bu + Bd 
Where:
Bu is the up calibration line slope in rps per
foot per minute.
Bd is the down calibration line slope in rps
per foot per minute.
Bu and Bd can, and often will, be slightly dif-
ferent numerically.
Although the foregoing comments focus on
fluid viscosity changes, the effects / assump-
tions regarding fluid density changes are simi-
lar.
E.4 SLIP VELOCITY
The rise rate of fluids of different densities
makes interpreting data acquired in multi-
phase flow more complex. This difference in
rise rate is called slip velocity. Slip velocity
causes a need for additional data to profile
each phase.
(01/97) E-11
Introduction to Production Logging

This is accomplished by adding fluid density • Well History

information from a fluid density survey and • Coherent Explanation
by using additional charts for the velocity of • Experience
each phase based on the composite fluid den-
sity, composite fluid velocity, and slip veloc- Typical Downhole Fluid Properties:
ity. Multiphase interpretation techniques will
be discussed in the section on Fluid Density Density/gm/cc Viscosity/cp
Tools.
OIL 0.6 - 1.0 0.2 - 10
WATER ~1.0 0.2 - 1
E.5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
GAS 0.05 - 0.2 0.01 - 0.07
When working with flowmeter data, particu-
larly data being used for the downhole cali-
E.7 EXAMPLES
bration chart or the two-pass technique, great
care must be exercised to compensate the in- Example 1
terpretation when there is: Using the following flowmeter log determine
the percentaqge flow rate for each producing
• Fill-up to the lowest perforation, which level. Assume constant speed and single
prevents normalization in the sump phase flow.

• Flow below the lowest perforation, i.e., a

leaking plug, etc.

• Perforations above the bottom of the tub-

ing tail pipe

• Spinner reversal on the up passes being

used in the calibration chart for a produc-
ing well or down passes for an injection
well. (This is a problem only if an inter-
pretation is attempted in an interval where
a spinner reversal has occurred - and is not
included in the calibration chart data.)

• Production of fluids of varying viscosity

and/or density.

E.6 REQUIREMENTS
It is impossible to analyze or calibrate flow-
meter spinner data unless information on the
well, fluids and conditions is complete. Hence
the requirements are:
Example E1: Spinner log.
• All Relevant Data
• Cement Bond Logs
• Surface Rates
• PVT

(01/97) E-12
 Schlumberger
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Example 2
Construct a flowmeter calibration curve from pass zone A, rps zone B, rps cable speed
the following data in zones A and B of the 1 +32 +5 50(down)
3 +35 +11 100(down)
diagram.
5 +39 +13 120(down)
7 +41 +15 140(down)
2 +19 - 50 (up)
4 +16 - 80 (up)
6 +15 - 100 (up)

Determine the flowrate in bpd if the spinner is

recording 15rps. Tool speed is 67 ft/min. As-
sume a fluid velocity of 34.4 ft/min for
1000bpd.

Example 3
1) Construct the flowmeter calibration plot
from the following data. Note as there is no
zero flow line this will have to be created.
A pass rps cable speed
1 +8 50 (down)
3 +10 100 (down)
5 +12 150 (down)
2 +2 50 (up)
4 -2 180 (up)
6 -4 220 (up)
7 -6 250 (up)

2) Determine the flowrate above all the perfo-

rations if a fluid velocity of 29.9 ft/min is
equivalent to 1000 bpd.

3) If a single pass was logged down at 60

B fr/min between the perforations and produced

a spinner reading of +6rps, what is the
flowrate at that point.

4) At another point in the well three spinner

passes gave the following:

Example E2: Well Diagram. pass rps cable speed

1 +4 40 (down)
3 +7 100 (down)
5 +9 140 (down)

Determine the production at this point.

(01/97) E-13
 Schlumberger
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(01/97) E-1
 Schlumberger
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Example 4
This well is producting gas and liquid at surface.

Given the spinners recorded in the well determine the thief zones and the production zones in this
well.

Example E4a: Flowing Spinners.

(01/97) E-13
Introduction to Production Logging

Example E4b: Shut-in Spinners.

(01/97) E-14
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

Appendix 1: Flow Regimes Appendix 2: Maxis* Calibration

Classification Theory

Threshold Intercept Ratio [TIRA]

TIRA =NTHR/(NTHR – PTHR)

:normally > 0.5

Total Fluid Velocity [VT]

VT = – VPCF•((1 – TIRA)•(NINT – NTHR)

+ TIRA•(PINT – PTHR))
Fig. E17: Calibration factor versus Reynolds number.

A curve-fit for this plot yields the following:

Define:
m = log10(NRe)

0.000 < m < 3.200 C = 0.5

3.200 < m < 3.348 C=1.0135m– 2.7432
3.348 < m < 3.554 C=0.4440m– 0.8360
3.554 < m < 3.850 C=0.1405m+0.2390
3.850 < m < ∞ C=0.0400m+0.6260

In most cases C = 0.83 will give satisfactory

results (± 5%) NTHR - Negative threshold
PTHR - Positive threshold
Example NINT - Negative intercept
ρ = 0.7 g/cm3 PINT - Positive intercept
m = 0.5 cp VPCF - Velocity correction factor
D = 6.184 in. (7", 29 lbs/ft Liner)

q(bbl/day) v (ft/s) N C
Re

100 0.031 2088 0.6214

200 0.062 4177 0.7477
500 0.156 10441 0.7868
1000 0.312 20883 0.7988
1500 0.467 31324 0.8058
2000 0.623 41766 0.8108
5000 1.558 104414 0.8268
10000 3.116 208828 0.8388
15000 4.673 313241 0.8458
20000 6.231 417655 0.8508

(01/97) E-15
Introduction to Production Logging

E.8 ANSWERS fluid below the perforations. In this case the

Example 1
1) compute the spinner deflection for the
maximum flow (top of the log) compared to
the zero flow zone at the bottom.
This gives 14 rps.
2) Find the additional spinner deflection in
each of the other intervals, A, B, C.
These are:
A = 3.6RPS
B = 2.1RPS
C = 8.3rps
3) Determine the percentage contribution of
each zone.
A = 3.6/14 = 25.7%
B = 2.1/14 = 15.0%
C = 8.3/14 = 59.3%
Example 2
The zero flow line should cross the x axis at a
threshold value of 6 ft/min.
The intersection of 15 rps with the response
curve gives a flow velocity of 140 ft/min.
Therefore the peak fluid velocity
= 140 - 67 ft/min = 73 ft/min
Correcting for the shape of the flow to obtain
the average velocity
line has to be created using the data from the
full flow and the threshold of the device. It is
drawn parallel to the full flow and goes
through the threshold.
Example 3
1) The response curve is drawn both for the
positive and negative quadrants, parallel to
line through the data points. It should go
through a threshold. The threshold is com-
puted by taking the mid point between the
positive and negative lines and moving this to
the origin.
2) The calibration line crosses the y-axis at
5rps, this corresponds to 120 ft/min on the
response curve.
The flowrate is thus
= (120/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 3331 bpd.
3) 6 ft/min corresponds to 140 ft/min using
the response curve. At a tool speed of 60
ft/min this gives the average fluid velocity
= (140-60)*0.83 = 66.4 ft/min
The flow rate is then
= (66.4/29.9)*1000= 2221bpd
4) the calibration line for this pass crosses the
y-axis at 2 rps. This corresponds to 60 ft/min
using the response line. Hence the flowrate is
= (60/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 1666 bpd.

Average velocity = 73 * 0.83 ft/min

Example 4
= 60.6 ft/min
The spinners are overlaying below 10408 in-
dicating zero flow here.
The flowrate in bpd = (60.6/34.4)*1000
= 1762 bpd.
The down spinners decrease around 10350’
before increasing again.
Note: There are times when the zero flow
curve cannot be logged due to debris in the
The conclusion is that the top of the second
well, not enough sump or a different viscosity
set of perforations or the bottom of the third
(01/97) E-16
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

set is taking fluid produced from the lower The shut-in pass below shows the picture
interval. The increase at the top of the latter clearly. Production from the lower perforation
zone is due to production here. is flowing into the second set of perforations.

Fig. E18: Average Fluid Velocity vs. casing Size.

(01/97) E-17

F. FLUID DENSITY MEASUREMENTS
F.1 FLUID DENSITY
MEASUREMENTS
The main purposes for making a density
measurement are;
• Determine volumetric flow in two phase
flow
• Show entry points in three phase flow.
There are two major types of fluid density
tools:
• Gradiomanometer* fluid density tool
• Nuclear fluid density tool (gamma ray ab-
sorption).
A third tool type works on a principle other
than fluid density, it is the capacitance or wa-
tercut tool.
F.2 THE GRADIOMANOMETER
FLUID DENSITY TOOL
F.2.1 Basic Theory
The gradiomanometer tool uses the pressure
differential between two pressure sensors
spaced a known distance apart; e.g., two feet;
to infer the density of the fluid between the
sensors.
There are several types of pressure sensors
that can be used in the gradiomanometer ap-
plication; these are discussed in some detail in
the Pressure Tool section.
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Wireline & Testing
electronic cartridge
transducer
upper sensing bellows
spacing slotted housing
2 feet
floating connecting tube
lower sensing bellows
expansion bellows
Fig. F1: Typical gradiomanometer device.
The example tool shown in Figure F1 uses a
bellows system. The bellows will compress
with pressure. The lower set of bellows will
be slightly more compressed than the upper
set. The mechanical linkage between the bel-
lows is constructed such that a rod moves in
proportion to the difference in compression
between the two sets of bellows.
A magnetic plunger on the end of the rod gen-
erates a signal in the transducer coil propor-
tional to the rod movement. This allows the
coil output to be calibrated in terms of fluid
density.
(01/97) F-1
Introduction to Production Logging

F.2.2 Theory of measurement where,

P1, P2, PA and PB are described in Figure F2

and
g = acceleration of gravity
ρso = density of silicone oil at bottom hole
conditions

The calibration is only valid in undeviated

holes as the pressure differential between the
bellows is proportional to the vertical separa-
tion.

F.2.3 Deviated Wells

When a well is deviated, the density from the
Gradiomanometer should be corrected as fol-
lows (Figures F3 & F4).

Fig. F2: Gradiomanometer scematic.

Assuming no deviation:

P2 = PB = PA + (PB – PA)
PB – PA = ρgh
P2 = PA + ρgh
P1 = PA + (P1 – PA)
P1 – PA = ρsogh
P1 = PA + ρso gh
Fig. F3: Gradiomanometer in a deviated well.
thus,
P2 = PA + ρgh•cosθ
P2 – P1 = PA + ρgh – [PA + ρsogh]
P1 = PA + ρsogh•cosθ
P2 − P1
and, = ρcosθ − ρso cosθ
gh
P − P1 P −P
ρ= 2 + ρ so ρ = 2 1 + ρso
gh ghcosθ

(01/97) F-2
 Schlumberger
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fM = Moody friction factor1

ρ = Fluid Density (g/cm3)
v = Fluid Velocity (ft/s)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter (in.)

This correction is not made during data acqui-

sition but may be estimated from charts (Fig-
ure F5) or using PL quicklook.

The chart contains the estimated friction cor-

Fig. F4: Correction chart for the gradiomanometer in
deviated holes.
F.3 OTHER EFFECTS
To make optimum use of the Gradiomanome-
ter measurements, corrections to the recorded
data are sometimes necessary. The gradioma-
rections for most ranges requiring corrections.
To use the chart, enter the downhole flowrate
at the depth where the gradio reading was
taken on the y-axis and intersect the proper
casing line drawn diagonally across the chart.
10 5
9
5/8
"

nometer reading is not exclusively a function 5/8

"
"
of fluid density (ρf). The true relationship is: 8
6
5/
8

"
Downhole flow rate

5/8
7

ρgradio = ρf (1 + K + F),
7"

Where
K is a kinetic term and "
5"
"
2
1/ 1/2
F is a friction term. 10 4
5 4

In cases where the flow is less than 2,000 B/D

in casing, the friction term is negligible; there-
fore, ρgradio closely approximates ρf.

F.3.1 Friction Term

Besides deviation effects, friction due to tool
movement in a moving fluid has an effect on
the pressure readings across the two ports for
the ∆p transducer. This friction term is asso- 10 3
1.01 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.50 2.0

ciated with very high fluid velocities, which ρgradio / ρ

occur with high flowrates and small casing or Fig. F5: Gradiomanometer friction effect correction
tubing sizes. chart.

This effect is defined with the following equa-

tion: 1
The dimensionless Moody friction factor, fM, may be pre-
dicted satisfactorily from the iterative Colebrook equation:
(dP/dL)Friction=0.8085 fMρv2/D
1/√fM = 2log(D/e) + 1.14 – 2log(1 + 9.34(D/e)/(NRe√fM))

where,
dP = Pressure Drop (psi) e = Absolute Roughness (distance between
dL = Length (ft) peaks and valleys)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
e/D = Relative Roughness (dimensionless)
NRe = Reynolds Number
= 7.742x103Dvr/m
e/D may be obtained from charts.
(01/97) F-3
Introduction to Production Logging
The ρgradio/ρ ratio can be read from the x-axis
at the point of intersection.
Then, divide the ρgradio:ρ ratio value into the
ρgradio reading to obtain the corrected ρ value.
F.3.2 Acceleration (kinetic term)
The kinetic term is observable when the ve-
locity of the fluid across the upper part of the
gradio is significantly different from the ve-
locity across the lower part. This is com-
monly observed when logging into the tubing,
where the fluid velocity greatly exceeds the
velocity in the casing. Acceleration of the
fluid around the tool produces additional
pressure drops when the point of acceleration
is between the two ports. In this case the ki-
netic term causes a sharp increase or kick in
the gradio reading. Other kinetic kicks may
be observed at points of fluid entry, such as
single perforations, or any turbulent area in
the casing.
(dP)Acceleration = ρvL(dv/dL)
(dP/dL)Acceleration = 0.013474ρv(dv/dL)
dP = Pressure Drop (psi)
dL = Length (ft)
v = Fluid Velocity (ft/s)
ρ = Fluid Density (g/cm3)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter (ins)
m = Fluid Viscosity (cp)
F.3.3 Acceleration (yo-yo)
Acceleration of the silicon oil column from
tool yo-yo causes a pertubation to the meas-
urement due to additional localised forces
across the delta-p sensor.
F.3.4 Jetting effect
Pressure from jet entries impinging on the
pressure ports result in localised anomalies on
the fluid density.
An advantage of the pressure differential sys-
tem is that it has a very smooth readout com-
pared to the nuclear systems that exhibit sta-
tistical variations.
(01/97) F-4
A disadvantage of the pressure differential
system is the fluid flow around the tool can
cause friction effects that alter the apparent
pressure differential, which produces errone-
ous fluid density readings.
F.4 CURRENT GRADIOMANOMETER
TOOL
A strain gauge diffused on a silicone dia-
phram will distort if any pressure difference is
applied across it. This pressure difference is
related to the density of the fluid in the well-
bore.
The Gradio sensor is a bridge circuit strain
gauge differential pressure transducer. The
sensor is voltage excited and its output signal
is input to a VCO.
The two pressure ports are spaced 21" apart.
The tubes are filled with silicone oil (DC-200)
of density 0.97 gm/cc at atmospheric condi-
tions. Traps eliminate water or gas contami-
nation of the silicon column The output is
corrected for deviation, if a deviation value is
entered in the software. A built-in temperature
sensor allows corrections due to temperature
variations to be applied automatically. The
characterisation of the sensor is done at the
time of manufacture.The gradiomanometer
section is a detachable module and may easily
be removed from the sonde for maintenance.
The measurement range of the sensor is 0 to 2
gm/cc.
F.4.1 Yo-Yo correction
This is done using a built in accelerometer.
The monoaxis servo-accelerometer provides
a measurement of the acceleration Az along
the tool axis:
Az = g * cos θ + At
where:
g = 9.80665 m/sec2
θ = angle between tool axis and vertical
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

At= tool motion term positioned with respect to a detector of

The output from the gauge is converted to an
acceleration using:
• manufacturer's coefficients
• temperature from built-in RTD
gamma rays so that the wellbore fluid acts as
an absorber. A high count rate indicates a
fluid of low density, and a low count rate in-
dicates a fluid of high density.
⊇

To calculate θ, the measurement is averaged

over 7.5 ft, with an assumption that the tool
motion is eliminated. This gives output AZ.
The deviation angle,θ, is calculated as fol-
lows:

cosθ = AZ / g

The output AZC2 is the accleration averaged

over 1 ft.
It is used to correct the gradiomanometer for
yo-yo.

F.4.2 Pressure sensor Calibration

A Master Calibration is performed with an
oven and dead weight tester every 6 months.
For proper tool operation, the coefficients ob-
tained from the master cal, along with the
PCOR table, must be entered correctly at the
time of logging.

Gradiomanometer specifications:

Silicon diaphram with a diffused strain gauge

(Endevco or PSOI)
2 Range Resolution Accuracy
Sensor

Density 0–2 0.004 0.04

3 Fig. F6: Nuclear Fluid Density tool.
(g/cm )

The advantage of the nuclear fluid density

F.5 THE NUCLEAR FLUID
DENSITY TOOL*
The nuclear fluid density tool (Figure F6) op-
erates on a similar principle to the formation
density tools; i.e., a source of gamma rays is
2
Endevco delta-P sensor is calibrated to 125 degC
The PSOI gauge is calibrated to 175 degC
tool over the gradiomanometer is that its
measurement is not affected by wellbore de-
viation or by friction effects. However, since
the tool relies on radioactive decay, the read-
ings are subject to statistical variations. It
should also be noted that the measured quan-
tity is the average density of the flowing mix-
ture; thus, it is subject to the same holdup ef-
fects as the gradiomanometer.
(01/97) F-5
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) F-6
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Wireline & Testing

F.5.1 Specifications Nuclear Fluid Den-

simeter (NFD–B*)

3 0.2 – 1.2
Range (g/cm )
3 0.01
Accuracy (g/cm )
3 1.25
Resolution (g/cm /decade)
Minimum Casing (ins) 5.0
Maximum Casing (ins) 12.0
⊇
137
High energy g-rays from a Cesium (Cs )
chemical source reach the detector through
Compton scattering. The count rate measured
at the detector will depend on the electron
density of the fluid around the tool.

Source collimators are available for fluid den-

sity measurement and gravel pack monitoring.

F.6 THE CAPACITANCE

(DIELECTRIC OR WATERCUT)
TOOL
The third group of widely used tools for dis-
tinguishing water from hydrocarbons depend
for their operation on the difference between Fig. F7: Capacitance tool schematic.
the dielectric constant of water (≅ 80) and that
of oil or gas (≅6). A simple way to find the
fHUM = 1/R1(C1 + CHUM)
dielectric constant of a fluid is to use the fluid
as the dielectric between the plates of a ca- fHUM(air) ≈ 13000 Hz
pacitor. The capacitance may be found by fHUM(water) ≈ 6000 Hz
classical methods such as including it in an fHUM(oil) ≈ 11000 Hz
RC network and finding the resonant fre-
quency. CHUM = CmCt/(Cm +Ct)

A conventional design is shown in the Figure Ct = 2pεtεrL/ln(r1/r0)

F7. Two cylindrical metal tubes are arranged
so that wellbore fluids flow through the annu- Cm = 2pεmεrL/ln(r2/r1)
lar space between them. The raw readings of Ct = Capacitance of the teflon
such a device are in terms of a frequency. CHUM = Capacitance of the HUM
Each tool will have a calibration graph to Cm = Capacitance of the mixture
convert a measured frequency to a watercut εt = Dielectric constant of the teflon
value. These tools behave well, provided that εm = Dielectric constant of the mixture
the continuous phase is oil. In practice, the εr = Dielectric constant of free space
r0 = 0.66 cm
measurement may become unreliable if the
r1 = 0.73 cm
watercut in the flowing mixture exceeds 30%.
r2 = 1.25 cm
L = 0.50 m

(01/97) F-7
Introduction to Production Logging

F.6.1 Specifications Hold-Up Meter

(HUM–D*) Vo
Vw
Maximum Pressure (psi) 20000
Maximum Temp. (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 25
Makeup Length (ins) 72.0
Yw Range (±%)
Yw Accuracy (±%)

F.7 FLOWRATE CALCULATIONS

USING FLUID DENSITY AND A
SLIP MODEL
To calculate the flowrate using fluid density,
the relationship between the heavy and light
phases must be examined. This is called the
Bubble Flow Model (Figure F8).

The bubble flow model assumes that the light

phase (oil) will rise at a velocity greater than
the heavier phase (water) due to the difference
Vo=Vw+Vs
in density. This velocity difference is called
the slippage velocity, vs. Vw

vs = vo – vw

The volume of casing occupied by water at y wA (1-y w A)

any given depth is defined as the water
holdup, Yw.

Yw + Yo = 1
Water Oil
The water hold up must not be confused with
the watercut which is the rate of water pro-
duction compared to the total production ex-
pressed as a percentage.

The total flowrate (Qt) is composed of both

the light phase flowrate (Qo) and the heavy
phase flowrate (Qw). This can be written:

Qt = Qo + Qw Fig. F8: Bubble Flow Model.

(Note: Qo can be replaced by Qgas, where

applicable.)

(01/97) F-8
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Wireline & Testing

The flowrate of the heavy phase (Qw) is equal If Qo is substituted for Qt in the above equa-
to the percentage of the heavy (Yw) multiplied tion the following expression is derived:
by the casing area (A) multiplied by the veloc-
ity of the heavy phase (vw). That is: 0 = YwQo-Yw(1-Yw)vsA

Qw = Yw.A.vw rearranging, this becomes:

The velocity of the heavy phase (vw) contains Qo = (1-Yw)vsA

only one component.
This equation may be expressed as:
The light phase flowrate (Qo) is equal to the
product of the percent of light phase (1-Yw)
multiplied by the area of the casing (A) multi- QL = (1-Yw)vsA
plied by the velocity of the light phase (vo).
The equation is: where QL is the light phase flow rate hence
the equation is applicable to both oil and gas
Qo = (1-Yw).A.vo relationships.

The calculation of the cross sectional area as-

The velocity of the light phase (vo) is com- sociated with the holdup must take into ac-
posed of the heavy phase velocity (vw) and the count the presence of the device that is mak-
slip velocity (vs). ing the measurement.
Rearranging the expression becomes:
If,
Qo = (1-Yw)A(vw + vs)
A* = (π/4)(D2 – dt2)1/144
= Avw - A vw Yw + (1-Yw) vsA
QL = (1-Yw)vsA*(BPD)
Adding Qo and Qw, Qt becomes:

A* = Effective Area for holdup measurement

Qt = A vw + (1-Yw) vsA
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
dt = Gradiomanometer Diameter
Rearranging, vs = Slippage Velocity
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
Qt − (1− Yw )vsA
vw = Yw =Water Holdup
A
The water holdup, Yw, may be obtained from
Therefore, the Gradiomanometer response as follows:
Qw = yw Qt - Yw (1-Yw) vsA
ρgradio = Ywρw + Yoρo
Since Qt = Qo + Qw, = Ywρw + (1 –Yw)ρo

If Qw equals zero, then Qt = Qo Yw = (ρgradio – ρo)/(ρw – ρo)

(01/97) F-9
Introduction to Production Logging

The remaining unknown, the slippage veloc-

ity, vs, may be obtained from experimental
correlations. (Use Figure F9 for liquids. In
gas wells use 60 ft/min, if no other informa-
tion is available.)

Fig. F10: Slippage velocity charts for deviated wells.

In deviated wells these charts can be used
(Figure F10).

F.8 SUMMARY
Fig. F9: Standard chart for slippage velocity.
ρgradio is influenced by following effects:

∆Pelevation : desired effect, gives ρf

-requires deviation correction since

∆P ~ρfghcosθ

Log outputs from current tools are available

deviation corrected or not.
ρf is progressively less accurate as deviation
approaches 90˚

∆Pfriction : fluid friction on tool/casing

– negligible for Q < 2000 b/d

see chart to estimate effect on 111/16"
tool;
– assumes θ=0, monophasic and
roughness 0.0006"

Current logging software does not remove

friction to present on log but PL quick look
programs interpretation can estimate it.

(01/97) F-10
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

∆Pkinetic : fluid acceleration between

measuring ports due to fluid
entries or diameter changes.
ρgradio gives a kick

ρgradio = ρ f. <va>. Dva / gh

kinetic

(01/97) F-11
Introduction to Production Logging

There are also local effects from perforation + ∆P from elevation

jets, turbulence, and non-axial flow.
+ ∆P from friction
Tool Yoyo : acceleration of silicon oil column
is corrected in by the latest tool using as ac- + ∆P from tool yo-yo
celerometer output.
+ ∆P from kinetic effect
Hence:
+ ∆P from 'jetting' qualitative only
∆P measured by tool =

(01/97) F-12
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Wireline & Testing

F.9 EXAMPLES
Example F1
Using the following recorded gradiomanometer data compute the heavy phase hold up above perfo-
rations A and B.

Example F1: Gradiomanometer log.

(01/97) F-13
Introduction to Production Logging

Example F2
Gradiomanometer reading is 0.63 g/cc
Deviation = 30˚
Flowrate = 20000 bpd
Casing = 7”, 26#

10 5

"
5 /8
9
"
5/8 "
8
5/8
6
"
Downhole flow rate

5/8
7

7"

5"
" "
1 /2 1 /2
5 4
10 4

10 3
1.01 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.50 2.0
ρgradio / ρ
Example F2: Gradiomanometer Flow Correction Chart.

Questions
Correct the gradio reading for the deviation and flow rate.

(01/97) F-14
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

ANSWERS that depth and the fluid warms the borehole as

it flows up to 2415 feet.
Example F1

The spinner indicates the extent of the cross- Example F2

flow to be from 2470.5 to 2414.6 feet. As the
Deviation
down flowmeter has a higher value than the
up pass the fluid must be moving upwards.
ρcor = ρgradio/cosθ
By logging shut in and/or flowing passes at
three different flowrates (minimum) the spin- θ = 30˚
ner can be calibrated. cosθ = 0.87

The average velocity can be estimated as ρcor = 0.63/0.87 = 0.72

= (difference between the up and down spin- density = 0.72 g/cc

ners)/ (Bu+Bd)
Flowrate
= (0.42)/(0.053+0.058)*.83 = 3.14 ft/min.
From the chart,
2) According to the shut in temperature passes ρcor /ρ = 1.027
theis zone is taking some of the fluid from
2469.5 - 2470.5 feet.
ρ = 0.72/1.027 = 0.70 g/cc
3) The fluid flowing back from 2469.5-2470.5
is at or near the geothermal temperature for

(01/97) F-15
Introduction to Production Logging

Appendix HUM Models

Segregated Model

CHUM = AYw + B

Parallel Model

CHUM = A/[B•ln(CYw + D) + E]

Yw = (r32 – r22)/(r32 – r12)

Dispersed Model

CHUM = A/[(B/ εm) + C]

Mixing Laws

εm = εwYw + εo(1 – Yw)

εm = εwYw2 + εo(1 – Yw) 2
εw ≈ 80.5
εo ≈ 4.0
εg ≈ 2.0
εfw = 94.88 – 0.2317T + 0.000217T2
εw = εfw – 0.1556 – 0.413S + 0.00158S2
T = Temperature (°F)
S = Salinity (kppm)
Fig. F11: Hold up meter models.

(01/97) F-16

G. OTHER SENSORS
G.1 PRESSURE
G.1.1 Uses of Pressure
• Well test analysis (kh, skin)
• Reservoir extent, boundaries
• Fluid conversions
• AOF, SIP determination
G.1.2 Pressure Measurement
Techniques
There are many different ways of measuring
pressure. All pressure transducers operate on
the principle of converting pressure to me-
chanical displacement. This mechanical dis-
placement is then converted to an electrical
signal that can be used by measuring systems.
The mechanical displacement is accomplished
by the use of a force-summing device, a
mechanism by which the force of pressure is
balanced by an opposing force. This balanc-
ing force can be generated by displacement in
the force summing device, or it can be exter-
nally generated.
Force-summing devices take many forms.
The diaphragm, the bellows, and the bourdon
tube, are all of which are typical summing de-
vices. Regardless of the type of force-
summing device, the displacement or gener-
ated force is coupled to a transduction device.
The transduction device converts the dis-
placement or generated force into an electrical
signal or signal-generating form. That is, the
force can be converted directly into a voltage
or current signal, or it can take on an interme-
diate form, such as a change in resistance or a
change in flux path length. A few transducers
combine the force-summing element and the
transduction element into one unit.
Transducers combining the two elements are
classified as direct-exposure transducers.
Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing
This class is best typified by the Hewlett-
Packard gauge in which a vibrating quartz
crystal is directly exposed to the pressure so
that the mechanical deformation occurs di-
rectly in the transduction device.
All other types of transducers are classified as
indirect-exposure devices.
Indirect exposure devices are typified by the
thin film strain gauge. In this gauge, the
force-summing device is a diaphragm and the
transduction device is a thin film strain gauge
bridge mounted on the back side of the dia-
phragm. The bridge configuration converts
pressure-induced resistance change into an
output voltage signal.
A more detailed discussion on transducer
types is given in the Appendix.
G.1.3 Strain Gauge Transducers
The transduction element in the strain gauge
transducer is a resistor that is mounted in to
the force-summing device so as to cause the
resistor to be sensitive to strain. When the
force-summing device undergoes a displace-
ment, the strain-sensitive resistor changes its
physical length, thereby causing change in
resistance. This may be expressed as:
∆R
GF = ∆L R
L
where
GF = Gauge Factor
∆R = Change in frequency
R = Unstrained resistance
∆L = Change in length
L = Unstrainged length
(01/97) G-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Various types of strain gauge transducers have counted for by the surface acquisition system,
different gauge factors. using the PCOR table.

There are four basic types of strain gauge This unbonded resistive four arm strain gauge
transducers. These four types with their cor- has a built in Resistance Temperature Device
responding gauge factors are shown in Table (RTD).
G1. A rule that applies to these transducers
is: the larger the gauge factor, the higher the
output of the device.

Type Gauge Factor

Unbonded Wire 4
Bonded Foil 2
Thin Film 2
Semiconductor 80-150
Table G1: Types of strain gauge transducers.

The gauge used in the standard tool is an un-

bonded wire transducer made of a tube sens-
ing member with a strain wrapped around it.

Two sets of strain wire are wrapped around

the upper part of a tube exposed to pressure,
and two other sets wrapped around the lower
part of the same tube, not exposed to pressure.
The active and reference windings on the out-
side of the cylinder are kept in nitrogen at at-
mospheric pressure.

The pressure applied causes the active part

of the cylinder to distort which changes the
resistance of the active winding.

A Wheatstone bridge is formed, the output of

which is a voltage function of the pressure
seen by the transducer. The pressure trans-
ducer output (voltage) will vary with tempera-
ture for any constant pressure.

Pressure correction for temperature is deter-

Fig. G1: Strain Gauge Transducer.
mined during Master Calibration, and ac-

(01/97) G-2

A third order polynomial equation is used to
model its response:
P(V) = MG + MHV +MIV2 +MJV3
P: Absolute pressure (psi)
V: Ratio between output and exitation
voltage
Mi: Sensor coefficients
The sensor coefficients are a function of tem-
perature and are modelled as folows:
Mi(Rt) = Mi3 Rt3 + Mi2 Rt2 + Mi1 Rt + Mi0
Rt : Resistance value of RTD in ohms.
The sensor characterisation is done at the time
of manufacture and a Master Calibration is
done using a dead-weight tester. Corrections
are automatically applied by the software.
Advantages of this transducer are its excellent
accuracy, insensitivity to temperature and
good long-term stability and good dynamic
response, but with reduced measurement ac-
curacy and resolution. Disadvantages of this
transducer are sensitivity to shock and vibra-
tion, hysteresis, and limited frequency re-
sponse.
Three gauges are available: 5 Kpsi, 10 Kpsi
and 20 Kpsi.
G.1.4 Current developments
"Alpha" gauge replacement for the strain
gauge.
The "Alpha" gauge is a thin film transducer,
consisting of a resistor pattern making up an
active bridge.
The thin film strain gauge transducer, consist-
ing of a resistor pattern that is vapor or sputter
deposited onto the force-summing element.
Some units have the resistors mounted on a
Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing
diaphragm, and others have them mounted on
a beam that is linked to a diaphragm by a push
rod.
Advantages of this transducer are excellent
long-term stability, excellent accuracy, low
hysteresis, and high temperature range.
Disadvantages are low output level and high
costs.
Specifications of the "Alpha" gauge:
pressure rating 17,000 psi
pressure accuracy +/- 17 psi
pressure resolution 0.1 psi
temperature rating 175 degC
Table G2: Alpha gauge specifications.
G.1.5 Vibrating Crystal Transducer
In vibrating crystal transducers, a crystal is
forced by external electronic circuits to oscil-
late at its resonate frequency. When external
stress is applied to the crystal via mechanical
linkage to the force-summing element, the
resonate frequency of the crystal shifts in pro-
portion to the stress. In at least one transducer
of this type the force-summing element is the
crystal itself.
This is a direct-conversion type transducer in
which the transduction element is also the
force-summing element. The vibrating crystal
is usually manufactured out of quartz because
of its excellent elastic properties, long-term
stability characteristics, and ease of vibra-
tional excitement.
The way the quartz crystal is cut (the orienta-
tion of the crystal faces) determines its reso-
nant frequency and its sensitivity to pressure
and temperature.
(01/97) G-3
Introduction to Production Logging

used to compensate for temperature effects.

Its oscillator runs at 4.992 Mhz.

A mixer derives the difference frequency of

the two crystals, which is 8 kHz to 25 kHz.

The relationship between pressure and fre-

quency, as a function of temperature, for the
crystal pair, is defined by 16 unique coeffi-
cients.These coefficients are calculated yearly,
during the tool's master calibration, performed
in a dedicated oil bath calibration cell. The
pressure range during calibration is from 200
to 11000 psi.

This device has the following specifications:

Maximum Pressure (psi) 12000

Maximum Temperature (°F)
2813B 300
2813C 350
2813E 350
Weight (lbs) 22.0
Makeup Length (ins) 57.6
Resolution/1sec (psi) 0.01
Repeatability (psi) 0.4
Range (psi) 200 – 11000
Table G3: HP gauge specifications.

psi Reading(%) Temp (°F)

Fig. G2: Crystal Gauge schematic. 0.5 0.025 1.8
1 0.1 18
5 0.25 36
Advantages of the vibrating crystal transducer Table G4: HP Accuracy at thermal equilibrium.
are its excellent accuracy, resolution, and
long-term stability.
The most recent HP gauge has an improved
Disadvantages are its sensitivity to tempera- dynamic response to a step change in tem-
ture and high cost. perature.

The Hewlett Packard Gauge is used. Borehole G.2 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

pressure distorts a quartz crystal, which is TECHNIQUES
controlling an oscillator. The measure crystal G.2.1 Uses of Temperature Data
resonates from 5.000 MHz to 5.017 MHz, • Location of production or injection
which corresponds to a pressure range of 0 psi zones
to 12000 psi.
• Monitor frac performance
The quartz measure crystal is also sensitive to • Gas entry
temperature. A reference crystal isolated from • Fluid movement behind pipe
well pressure but not borehole temperatiure is • Fluid conversions.
(01/97) G-4
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Wireline & Testing

G.2.2 Temperature Measurement This quadratic in T may be solved in real

Most temperature tools work on a similar
principle, utilizing the varying electrical con-
ductivity of a thin wire that accompanies
changes in ambient temperature.
In the standard the variations in resistance of a
platinum resistor are measured using a
Wheatstone bridge.
time.
In practice the sensor measurement range is -
13˚F to 347˚F. This corresponds to a sensor
resistance of 408 to 759 Ohms. The nominal
resistance is 453 Ω at room temperature of 32
degF. the temperature resolution is 0.0014˚ F
if the log is recorded at 1800 fph.

G.2.3 Temperature Log Interpretation

Temperature
sensitive
resistor
Fig. G3: Temperature tool.
The changing resistance is modelled as fol-
lows for temperatures in excess of 0 °C,
Rt = R0(1 + AT + BT2)
Temperature Log interpretation is often quali-
tative. For example the qualitative evaluation
of fluid flow as indicated by departures from
the geothermal gradient. The geothermal gra-
dient is the natural, fairly linear, increase in
temperature with formation depth. Given the
opportunity to stabilize under static condi-
tions, a borehole will exhibit the geothermal
gradient; therefore, actual temperature read-
ings that depart from the geothermal gradient
accompany flow conditions, which can be in-
ferred from these readings.
The temperature survey can see behind pipe(
as do the tracer, noise logging and Water
Flow Log). Usually, the distinction cannot be
made regarding flow in casing versus flow
behind casing. A flow survey inside the cas-
ing has to be used in conjunction to fully
evaluate the situation.
Another important use of the measurement is
to supply the temperature (T) portion of PVT
type equations and charts. Temperature in-
formation is critical to the determination of
gas expansion/compression, GOR, and oil
shrinkage from downhole to surface condi-
tions and vice versa.

A = a(1 + 0.01d) B = – ad•10-4 The following illustrations and cases demon-

strate some of the many uses of the tempera-
T = Temperature (°C) ture log.
Rt = Resistance in Ohms at temperature, T
R0 = Resistance in Ohms at 0°C (453W)

a = 3.91x10-3
d = 1.49
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Introduction to Production Logging

G.2.4 Case 1 Flowing wells In this case the well is producing gas through
the perforations. Once again the spinner reacts
Liquid to the flow. The temperature exhibits an ini-
tial decrease before increasing as in the liquid
Spinner Temperature case. The perforations are producing liquid
giving a change in the spinner. The tempera-
ture increases above the geothermal gradient
towards an asymtote.

geothermal
This is due to the adiabatic expansion of the
gradient
gas as it entres the borehole.

G.2.5 Case 2 Channeling

Liquid
Spinner Temperature
Water
Flow

geothermal
gradient

Fig. G4: Well producing liquid.

Gas
Spinner Temperature

Water Flow
behind
casing
geothermal
gradient

Fig. G6: Liquid Channeling.

gas
In the case of a liquid channeling behind the
flow casing the temperature will show an increase
before the spinner reacts to the flow. The lat-
ter device only measures inside the casing
while the temperature sees both inside and
outside.

Fig. G5: Well producing Gas.

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Wireline & Testing

Gas
Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient

Fig. G8: A leak zone above the perforations. The fluid

Flow
behind the
leak produces an anomalous drop in temperature.
casing

Fig. G7: Gas Channeling.

Once again, in the case of gas there is an ini-

tial decrease in the temperature. The log sees
a small decrease as the gas enters the space
behind the casing as the expansion here is
small. There is a larger effect as it enters the
borehole, seen as well by the spinner.

G.2.6 Temperature Profile Examples

The following examples show some of the
uses to which temperature profiles can be put.
The catalogue is not exhaustive but serves as
templates on which to base interpretations. Fig. G9: Time lapse temperature profiles are used to
detect which reservoir layer is gaining or losing fluid
due to crossflow. In this example layer A is probably
communicating with layer B.

(01/97) G-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. G10: This shows the standard profile expected Fig. G12: This is the opposite to the previous example
under normal producing conditions. as this time the crossflow is from the lower zone up-
wards.

G.3 CALIPER TOOLS

G.3.1 Caliper measurement
Caliper tools are manufactured in many con-
figurations; but, the basic operation is similar
throughout the industry. Most caliper tools
use a system of two or more arms or fingers
that are mechanically coupled to a variable
resistor with a voltage output proportional to
the arm/finger position. The position is pro-
portional to hole diameter.

Fig. G11: Crossflow from an upper to lower zone pro-

duces this temperature profile.

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Wireline & Testing

orifice or passageway, which negates the need

for caliper information.)

Caliper

Casing/ hole size

change

Fig. G13: Caliper tool.

A typical caliper tool is illustrated in Figure

G13. Calipers, of course, are very important
in openhole or new well logging because so Spinner RPS
many interpretation parameters require hole
diameter information. Fig. G14: Caliper and Spinner logs in changing cas-
ing size.

A recent advance in sonic technology has cre-

ated devices called acoustic calipers. These
tools use ultrasonic sound waves that echo off
the inside casing wall and return to the tool.
The time for this round trip, along with fluid
travel time information, generates excellent,
accurate caliper data, usually in several direc-
tions across the pipe. These systems are gen-
erally better than mechanical calipers for
identifying corrosion problems and other de-
fects resulting in minor dimension changes.
G.3.2 Caliper log example
In production logging in cased hole and open-
hole (barefoot) completions, the caliper in-
formation is essential to the interpretation of
spinner and tracer data for flowrate calcula-
tions. (An exception to this is when using
petal/basket and packer flowmeter devices as
these tools force the fluid through a known
At first consideration, one might assume that
flowmeters in cased wells would not require a
caliper log; however, partially collapsed cas-
ing can cause flowmeter anomalies that are
very mysterious without hole diameter data.
Also, seriously corroded casing can create
other questions that are difficult to answer.
Caliper logs provide clues that help.
The example in Figure G14 shows a typical
case where the casing size changes, changing
the fluid velocity and hence the spinner re-
sponse. Without the caliper information this
could be misinterpreted as a flow increase.
Max Pressure (psi) 15000
Max Temp (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 25
Makeup Length (ins) 76.5
Range (ins) 2 – 18
Resolution (ins) 0.06

(01/97) G-9
Introduction to Production Logging

Accuracy (ins) 0.1 • Identification of water flowing in the tub-

Table G5: caliper Tool Specifications. ing annulus
G.4 ALTERNATIVE FLOW • Low water flowrate measurement
MEASURING DEVICES
The Water Flow Log (Figure G15) is an ex-
The spinner flowmeter is the most common tension of the Saturation Monitoring tools
device for measuring the flowrate in wells. measurement. It employs a pulsed neutron
However, there are some cases where other generator to activate a small volume of the
techniques are better, for example the detec- oxygen in the water in and around the bore-
tion of flow behind casing. hole. The activated isotope is N16 which has a
half life of around 7 seconds. As it decays it
Three principle methods are: emits a high energy gamma ray.
• Water Flow Log* If the water is stationary the decay of the ex-
• Noise Logging cited nuclei is predictable and exponential. On
• Tracer Surveys the other hand, if it is flowing, the motion of
the excited volume is monitored by each of
G.4.1 Water Flow Log the tools three detectors (Near, far and
Uses of the water flow log include: Gamma Ray). Even very low flow creates a
discernable trace over the background.
• Detection and quantification of water flow-
ing in cement channels.

Fig. G15: Theory of Water flow logging.

(01/97) G-10
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

The tools software analyses the recorded

gama ray profile and computes the flow ve-
locity in ft/min. A volumetric flow is also
estimated.

The red curve on these examples is the nor-

mal decay expected. The dark blue curve is
the actual decay measured, normal decay plus
flowing water signal.

The blue area under the curves shows the

flowing signal. The program has estimated
flows in these two cases, one inside and one
outside the casing.

Flow can be detected from very low to very

high velocities and flowing in either up or
down directions (Figure G17).

Fig. G16: Examples of flow detected by the Water

Flow Log.

Fig. G17: Tool configurations for upflow and downflow.

(01/97) G-11
Introduction to Production Logging
The advantages of this method of flow meas-
urement is that no radioactive material is in-
troduced into the well. The disadvantage is
that it only measures the flow of water.
G.4.2 Noise Logging
Uses of Noise Logging include:
• Channels behind casing
• Producing perforations
• Tubing or casing leaks
• Zones of lost circulation while drilling
Noise in a well that causes tool response is a
function of the acceleration, or turbulence, of
a fluid moving across a pressure differential.
Noise = f (∆P,Q)
where;
∆P - pressure differential
Q - flowrate
By varying the pressure differential, flow rate,
or both, various types of noise can be gener-
ated. The noises can be characterized and
categorized into different groups by examin-
ing the frequency spectrum of the total signal.
G.4.2.1 Noise Logging Tool
A typical noise logging tool (Figure G18)
consists of a transducer that converts sound to
an electrical signal. The transducer is de-
signed to respond to sound originating in any
direction around the borehole; therefore, it has
no directional properties. An amplifier, con-
tained in the tool, transmits the signal up the
cable.
The proper tool response depends upon a
metal to metal contact; therefore, the tool is
run without centralization. Sound transmis-
sion to the transducer is not efficient without
the casing-tool contact. The tool does not
emit any sound energy. It only responds to
sound originating in or around the wellbore.
(01/97) G-12
Fig. G18: Noise Logging Tool.
A typical logging operation consists of posi-
tioning the tool at selected depths and allow-
ing the signal generated by the transducer to
be processed by the surface instrumentation.
The time required at each station is about one
to two minutes. This allows the tool to re-
spond to wellbore noise without being af-
fected by extraneous noises caused by cable
and tool movement.
During these stationary readings, the surface
instrumentation analyzes the signal being sent
up the cable. A frequency separation network
provides the means to separate the cable sig-
nal into the following frequency cuts: 200
Hz; 600 Hz; 1,000 Hz; and 2,000 Hz. The
200 Hz cut passes all frequencies above 200
Hz; the 600 Hz cut passes all frequencies
above 600 Hz, and so on.
At each station, a peak mV reading is re-
corded for each frequency cut. These values
are plotted as a set of points on a logarithmic
grid. The selection of the spacing between
readings will vary from one set of well condi-
tions to another. Station spacings of 20 feet
to 50 feet, while noise values are low, is
common. In zones of interest, spacings of 10
feet or less between stations is necessary for
detailed analysis.
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

G.4.2.2 Interpretation Figure G20 illustrates a noise peak associated

The sound detected by the noise tool in a well with a point fluid entry (producing perfora-
is generated by the turbulent flow of the flu- tions) or fluid exit (casing or tubing leak).
ids, either in the casing or in the casing-
formation annulus. Outside the casing, a
pressure differential caused by restrictions in
the casing-formation annular space creates the
necessary turbulence to generate sound that
can be detected by the noise tool.

Fig. G20: Expected noise levels at a perforation.

A pressured drop at the point or hole causes
turbulent flow to occur and creates a peak in
the noise level at the hole.

Fig. G19: Expected noise levels in a channel.

Several situations can exist in a well that can
produce high noise levels. Figure G19 illus-
trates typical noise levels possible in an inter-
val with fluid flow in a casing-formation
channel.

A pressure differential allows fluid to flow

into the channel from the higher pressured
sand, A, to the lower pressured sand, B. At
the face of sand A, a pressure drop occurs as
fluid flows out of the sand and into the chan-
nel. Notice the increase in noise level at sand
A as a result of this turbulent flow. As flow
continues upward, a restriction in the channel
creates another pressure drop, and another
high level of noise is observed. As flow en-
Fig. G21: Expected noise levels for gas production.
ters the lower pressured sand B, another in-
crease in noise is observed due to the pressure
drop across sand B. Figure G21 depicts a gas entry from the perfo-
rations 8,320 feet to 8,350 feet. Above 8,300
feet, the discontinuous phase in the wellbore
(01/97) G-13
Introduction to Production Logging
is gas, and the sound attenuates quite rapidly.
A standing column of water begins about
8,350 feet, and it will be noticed, that below
the liquid level, the sound attenuates much
slower.
Fig. G22: Expected noise levels for flow behind casing.
In Figure G22, the noise tool identifies
movement behind the casing. A grouping of
sands beginning from approximately 10,700
feet to 9,900 feet appears to be supplying the
energy to cause communication to occur be-
tween those sands and a zone at approxi-
mately 8,700 feet. Above the 8,700 foot zone
(01/97) G-14
the noise attenuation dies out, indicating no
further movement up the hole.
G.4.2.3 Channel Flowrate Calculations
From The Noise Tool
Several factors inject inaccuracies into any
calculations involving noise logs; such as, dis-
tance from the noise source, perforation size
and condition, sonde-to-casing contact, a liq-
uid or gas environment, etc. The following
procedures for calculating flowrates were de-
rived by Exxon Production Research Com-
pany (EPRCo).
The test facility used for noise tool standardi-
zation is located at the EPRCo. facility. It
consists of a 6" O.D. casing, approximately 4
ft. in length. Standing vertical, the standard
Exxon noise tool is positioned inside 2-inch
tubing placed inside the casing. The inside of
the tubing contains kerosene, and it is pres-
sured to 1,000 psi prior to injecting air or liq-
uid into one of three intake valves affixed to
the casing.
Inside the casing, cement is poured between
two plates. A one-inch gap created by the
plates provides the channel through which air
or liquid is injected into the casing; this cre-
ates a number of specific noise responses.
The data gathered is presented in the next sec-
tions.
G.4.2.4 Single-Phase Flowrate
Calculations
A correlation in the lab between the noise
level above 100 Hz (N1000) and the ∆p x q has
been developed and is well documented. The
equation, derived as a result of this correla-
tion, for a single-phase leak is:
∆p x q = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)
where
∆p is in psi
q is in K cu ft/day and
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

N*1000 is the corrected peak-to-peak ampli-
tude of the 1,000 Hz curve.
The single phase can be gas or water. Since
this relation gives only ∆p x q,an independent
∆p must be used to calculate q.
A leak-rate correlation was established for a
single-phase flow in the casing annulus. Al-
though there is considerable scattering of data
points, a best-fit line gives the equation for
the straightline segment for ∆p x q:
∆pq = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)

Where,

∆p = Pressure drop between two points,

psi
q = Flowrate

N*1000 = Noise level measured above 1,000

Hz and expressed in peak-to-peak
millivolts

Note: the graph represents both water and

gas, indicating this calculation is valid for
both as long as only one phase is flowing in
the channel.
Fig. G23: Frequency response for single phase flow.
Figure G23 illustrates why the 1,000 Hz fre- To illustrate the use of the single-phase equa-
quency cut was used in the first equation. The tion, the following is given:
noise frequency spectrum peaks between the
1,000 Hz and 2,000 Hz frequency cuts in a Gas Phase in Channel
dramatic manner. A typical log response is
presented in Figure G24, and it illustrates how ∆p = 90 psi
the frequency cut curves from 1,000 Hz and N*1000= 12 peak-to-peak millivolts
below tend to have the same value. The 2,000
Hz curve has a distinctly lower value. If
∆pq = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)
= 5 x (12 - 6)

= 30 psi x k cu ft / D
Then
q = 30/∆p = (30 psi x k cu ft/D)/90psi

q = 0.33 k cu ft / D

Note: This flowrate is at downhole condi-

tions. If water had been flowing in the chan-
nel instead of gas, the conversion of k cu ft /
D to B/D is as follows:

Fig. G24: Sound Intensity for single phase flow.

q = 0.33 k cu ft/D x 1000/5.61 = 59 B/D

(01/97) G-15
Introduction to Production Logging
G.4.2.5 Two-Phase Flowrate
Calculations
For a two-phase leak into a channel, we can
proceed without a knowledge of ∆p. In the
two-phase noise spectrum, a large component
resides in the 200 Hz to 600 Hz range, see
Figure G25.
Fig. G25: Frequency response for two phase flow.
This lower frequency component is a result of
the slugging about of a liquid in a channel as
the gas pushes it back to enter. This slugging
action is proportional to the flowrate of the
gas and is not as dependent as a single-phase
entry on the geometry of the channel. The
straightline equation of a two-phase, gas-
liquid leak into a channel is:
q=
(N*200 − N *600 )− 10
20
The frequency curves in Figure G26 illustrate
how the larger component of 200 Hz sepa-
rates itself from the other frequency cut
curves.
(01/97) G-16
The N* value referred to in the equations are
log values of mV that have been normalized
(corrected) for wellbore geometry, electric
line attenuation, and other appropriate correc-
tions that must be made for valid quantitative
caculations.
Fig. G26: Noise levels for two phase flow.
The noise level, N, taken from a log must be
normalised to fit the reference conditions, see
Appendix for the method.
G.4.2.6 Production Profile Calculations
from the Noise Tool
Single-Phase Flow Past Sonde
The flow of a fluid past the noise sonde cre-
ates turbulence and will radiate noise. This is
referred to as a free-flow situation, since a
leak expansion is not the source of the noise.
The noise created by flow past the tool can be
proportionately written:
N600 ≅ ∆pq
Where;
q = The Volumetric Flowrate
∆p = The Pressure Drop across the Tool
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

From fluid dynamics;

3
ρq
=
∆p = 12 CD ρV2  πD 2 
2
p
 
 4 
Where;  
ρ = Fluid Density (lb / cu ft)
V = Fluid Velocity ρq 3
CD = 4 x 10-6; for turbulent flow Noise = 4
Dp
Where;
Since, V = q/As
We have: Dp = Perforation Diameter
2
q
N 600 = C Dρ 2 ∗ q
As Because the noise tool encounters a viscous
Where; fluid, the relationship ρq/µ should be used;
CD = An audible drag coefficient therefore,
CD for turbulent flow is 4 x 10-6 3
π  ρq p 
ρ 4 q3p
( )(
As = id pipe + od pipe ∗ id pipe − od pipe
4
) N*600 = 3 4 =  1.3  = χ 3
µ D p  µD p 

2
As = Cross-section for flow past the tool, ft χ can be referred to as the jet or perforation
The flowrate calculation for this equation is: parameter.
1
The following technique will allow for the
 A 2N*600  3
q =  s −6  determination of the percent flow from the
 4.10 ρ  perforations.

G.4.2.7 Calculation Of Flow From Perfo- 1. Determine N*600 from station reading
rations through the perforated interval.

Single-Phase Flow 2. Next, determine χ from the above stated

Since the porous surface area of a deep, clean
perforation is greater than the cross-sectional
area of the hole in the casing, the last accel-
eration of the fluid occurs at the casing wall.
The perforation acts like an orifice.
In the noise relationship,
Noise ≈ ∆p x q
relationship.
3. Sum the χ values for each set of perfora-
tions.
4. Using the total of all χ values throughout
the perforations, determine the percent contri-
bution from each set.

Substituting the orifice equation for ∆p

2
ρq
Noise = ∗q
Ap2
(01/97) G-17
Introduction to Production Logging

G.4.2.8 Noise Propagation • Liquid or gaseous environment - Sound

A factor in the interpretation of the noise log attenuates faster in a gaseous environment
is noise propagation away from a noise source as opposed to a liquid environment. The
before noise levels subside. This condition is liquid level is usually recognizable on a
dependent on several factors: log;

• Frequency of the noise - Higher frequen- • Contact with the casing - Contact between
cies have a higher rate of attenuation; the sonde and the casing wall acts to in-
crease the distance required for noise from
a source to subside.

(01/97) G-18
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

APPENDIX A
Where;
Conversion Of Log Noise Levels To Stan-
N = Log value
dard Values
Fm,t = The combined Meter and Tool Gain
The noise level, N, taken from a log must be
multiplied by four normalizing factors to ad- factors, see Table G1
just it to the conditions of the EPRCo stan- FL = Line Factor, corrects for 5/16 in. ca-
dard. bles and larger and for 7/32 in. cables
or smaller
If N* denotes the normalized value, then: FG = Wellbore Geometry Factor, see Table
G2.
N* = N x Fm,t x FL x FG

Sonde Manufacturer Unit Measured by Combined Factor to Convert Unit to

Sonde and Surface Panel* EPRCo. Standard Millivolts
McCullough Wireline Services Standard Millivolts 1
Pengo Industries Standard Millivolts 1
Dresser Wireline Services Standard Millivolts 1
SIE Industries Standard Millivolts 1
Gearhart Industries One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts
Squire-Whitehouse Corp. One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts
Exxon Production Research Co. One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts

*Listed companies maintain uniformity within ± 3 decibels, that is, within a factor equal to:

(10)±3/20 = 0.707 - 1.414

Standard measurement sensitivity is 1.0 x 106 std. millivolts/psi (RMS), referred to as normal gain. Most companies
can reduce the gain by a factor of 10.

Table G6: Meter and Tool gain Factors.

Number Of Pipes Shielding Sonde Fluid Content Of Pipes Multiplying Factor, Fg

One Liquid 1.0

Gas 2.0
Two (tubing plus casing) Liquid in Both 2.0
Liquid in one, gas in the other 4
Gas in both 8
None (leak into string containing Single-phase flow 0.20
sonde)
Gas-liquid flow 0.06

Table G7: Well Geometry factor.

(01/97) G-19
Introduction to Production Logging

G.4.3 Tracer Tools
G.4.3.1 Tool Theory
Some applications of radioactive tracer log-
ging are:
• To check for packer, casing, or tubing
leaks;
• To identify channeling;
• To establish injection profiles on injector
wells;
• To imply production profiles from injec-
tion profiles on production wells during
injection testing; and
• To establish flow profiles in low flow ar-
eas of producing wells. (Tracer logging in
producing wells requires special consid-
erations. This will be addressed later in
this section.)
Most of these applications require logging
techniques and interpretation methods unique
to the problem.
difference in the two runs will identify where
radioactive materials are present.
If radioactive material is present at any point
other than the perforated intervals, channeling
or vertical fracturing is likely. The detection
of channels with ejector tools and nonejector
tools will be discussed in detail later in this
course. Flow profiling with these tools will
be discussed in this section.
Tools in the second category generally consist
of two basic downhole components. The first
component is a chamber that will hold a small
amount of radioactive material and will eject
a controlled amount of this material into the
borehole. The second component is a multi-
ple detector system that can monitor the
movement and location of the tracer fluid that
has been released. The types of ejectors and
detector systems vary with tool application
and sophistication.
⊇

Tracer tools can be placed into two basic

categories. These are:

1) Gamma ray tools that do not have down-

hole ejectors for releasing radioactive mate-
rial, and

2) Gamma ray tools that have downhole ejec-

tors in combination with multiple gamma ray
detector.

The first category is comprised of tools that

are essentially the same as those used for
openhole logging. These are usually smaller
diameter tools for through- tubing applica-
tion. The more common sizes are 13/8-inch
and 111/16-inch.

In addition to flow profiling with the con-

trolled time technique and traditional open-
hole logging, these tools are often used for
channel detection by comparing logging runs
made before and after injecting fluids contain-
ing radioactive material into the well. The

(01/97) G-20
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

Fig. G27: Tracer Ejector tool configuration.

(01/97) G-21
Introduction to Production Logging
The tool configuration depends on the fluid
flow direction. If logging an injection well,
the configuration will normally be one detec-
tor above the ejector and two spaced detectors
below. In a producing situation, two detectors
are placed above the ejector and one detector
is placed below. The purpose of the single
detector on the opposite side of the ejector
from the flow direction is for detecting unex-
pected flow reversals produced by thief zones
and for identifying channels behind casing,
where fluid is flowing opposite the direction
of the wellbore fluids. The purpose of the
two adjacent detectors is for flow profiling as
a function of flow time between the two de-
tectors.
The principle of ejector tracer logging is the
releasing of a radioactive isotope that dis-
solves in the wellbore and becomes part of the
wellbore fluid. The tracer material moves at
the same velocity as the wellbore fluid. A
measurement of the elapsed detection time
between the two detectors, along with knowl-
edge of the tool configuration, is enough in-
formation for computing fluid flowrate.
This assumes, of course, that the tool is not
moving. Unlike the controlled time survey,
the tool diameter must be considered in the
flowrate computation because it subtracts
from the casing internal cross-sectional area.
This will be discussed further in the interpre-
tation section.
The sensitivity of the detectors to gamma rays
allows the system to monitor radiation
changes inside the casing wall and outside the
casing near the casing wall. The actual depth
of investigation of the gamma ray detector
depends on the type of detector, scintillation
or Geiger-Mueller, and the magnitude of the
radiation. In most cases, it can be estimated
at one foot.
Water-, oil-, or gas-soluble tracer materials
can be used. Water soluble material is the
most common.
(01/97) G-22
Dual Tracer Ejector Tool (TEE–EA*)
Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 38
Makeup Length (in.) 97.4
Table G8: Tracer Ejector Tool Specifications.
3 γ-Ray Detectors
TEE–EA Built-in
SGC–R Above or Below
ATE–CB Built-in
gamma-Ray Spacers AH–99 (36 ins)
Well-site radioactivity generator
99
Technetium 99 (Tc )
Half-life, t = 6.0 hrs
γ-Ray energy 0.740 MeV
Tracer fluid kept 20 – 40 psi above well-bore
pressure. Ejection time variable between
20ms and 5.1s.
G.4.3.2 Tracer Log Interpretation Using
Data From Nonejector Tools
(Controlled Time Survey)
In terms of flow metering, the primary appli-
cation of gamma ray tools without ejectors is
the controlled time survey. This technique
consists of placing radioactive material in the
injection fluid stream at the surface with the
tool stationary downhole waiting for the ra-
dioactive material to pass the detector. When
increased radiation is observed, the time of
day and depth are noted and the tool is moved
farther downhole. When the radiation is ob-
served again, the time of day and depth are
noted once more.
The elapsed time is the travel time required
for the fluid to move the distance between the
two depth intervals. This distance over time
can be computed as velocity in feet per min-
ute. The flow volume can be determined
from the appropriate chart for the specific cas-

ing size and weight. This technique is primar-
ily used for injection profiling. An actual log
may or may not be recorded.
Tracers, in general, are less common under
production conditions because the presence of
radioactive material at the surface could cause
safety and legal issues. As mentioned earlier,
radioactive materials can be logged in produc-
ing wells with special considerations. These
are discussed at the end of this section.
G.4.3.3 Tracer Log Interpretation Using
Data From Ejector Tools
Profiling with the tracer ejector tools involves
two basic types of logging techniques; these
techniques are:
• Velocity Shots and
• Controlled Interval Shots
Velocity Shot Interpretation
The recording of a velocity shot consists of
ejecting a small slug of radioactive material
into the flowstream and measuring the time
lapse between detections of this slug by two
separate detectors spaced a known distance
apart. The two detectors eliminate the neces-
sity of establishing the exact entry time of the
slug into the flowstream. The number and
spacing of the velocity shots depend on the
vertical resolution required in the definition of
the injection profile. Typically, the velocity
shots are recorded on time drive with the tool
stationary in the well. The flowrate computa-
tion from a velocity shot can be obtained by
reading the amount of time (t) required for the
radioactive slug to travel the spacing distance
(d) between the two gamma ray detectors.
The flowrate is then:
q = d x A/t.
The flowrate in barrels per day can be ex-
pressed in terms of the casing and tool size.
Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing
These dimension variables are sometimes
combined into a chart (available from the
service company) for a specific tool.
Flowrates calculated from the preceding equa-
tion can be somewhat high. If the percentage
flow profiling is the objective, the foregoing
equation is sufficient. If a high degree of ab-
solute flow accuracy is desired, a correction
chart should be requested from the service
company. In the absence of a chart for a spe-
cific tool, the 0.83 factor (similar to the full-
bore flowmeter) is a reasonable approxima-
tion to use.
It is important to remember that the flowrate
calculated with the preceding equation will be
an average of the flowrates existing at each
detector. The flowrates at the detectors may
not be identical; they, in fact, won't be if a
flowrate change occurs within the detector
spacing interval. If a finer vertical resolution
is needed, a technique of using more velocity
shots within the perforated interval can
greatly enhance the vertical resolution. The
increase in time, t, as the tool is positioned at
lower points in the perforated interval allows
the construction of a flow profile with im-
proved vertical resolution.
Example: If detector spacing is 6 feet, but a
2-foot vertical resolution is desired, the pro-
cedure would be to:
Take a velocity shot in the full-flow regime
above the perforations. This will yield the
full-flow velocity, v1.
Take a velocity shot with the lowest detector
2 feet into the top of the perforations. Any
increase in the time between detectors, t, can
be fully assigned to the change in flowrate
across the top 2 feet of perforations.
This process will continue in a similar manner
for all other zones and will give good vertical
resolution over a long interval. The ratio of
velocities in the perforated interval to v1 will
give the factor by which the total flow must
(01/97) G-23
Introduction to Production Logging

be multiplied to give a flow profile in • The maximum rate limitations.

flowrate units. This technique assumes that
the flow distribution is linear over the interval
of tool movement.
If any error enters the computation within a
zone, it will be carried throughout the zone. It
will not be corrected until the next zone,
where velocity is constant between detectors.

Controlled Interval Shots (Tracer Loss

Method), Injection Wells Only
The controlled interval technique or tracer
loss method in an injection well requires the
ejection of a large slug of iodine (I131) above
the perforations and the ability to rapidly
lower the tool to other points downhole while
repeatedly recording the arrival of the slug.

The number of times a slug can be detected

depends primarily on casing size and injection
rate.

In high flowrate injection wells the technique

may be very difficult to implement.

The flowrate at each point (Qi) can be accom-

plished by comparing the area (Ai) under each
of the detection peaks with the area (A100) of
the first detection peak recorded above the
perforations. The flowrate, Qi, will be a frac-
tion of the total flowrate above all perfora-
tions (Q100). Note that this is done with one
detector; therefore, flowrate calculations are
not a function of time.

This method works well with these assump-

tions:

• The gamma ray intensity is proportional to

the tracer concentration in the wellbore,
• The tracer material loss is proportional to
the flow into a zone compared to total
flowrate.
• The tracer material is uniformly mixed in
the wellbore fluids, and
• No part of the slug is at a zone of fluid
exit when the measurement is taken.

The major drawbacks of this technique are:

• The lack of vertical resolution and

(01/97) G-24

G.4.3.4 Tracer Logging In Producing
Wells (Special Considerations)
Safety in radioactive material handling is a
major consideration when running tracer logs
on a producing well.
Establishing flow profiles in producing wells
using tracer logging is not highly recom-
mended unless certain conditions are met.
The well should be producing into a closed
gathering system, such as a pipeline or hold-
ing tank, where the radioactive iodine will be
diluted to the extent that authorities would
consider it safe before any person could come
into contact with the fluids. If a holding tank
is used, it should be sealed. The fluids should
be left in storage for at least 60 days, or the
time necessary to allow the iodine to reach a
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level considered not harmful to humans or the
surrounding environment.
Another interpretation consideration is that
most producing wells are diphasic; therefore,
it is advantageous to have iodine that is solu-
ble in each phase. If two types of iodine are
run, and a fluid density tool is also run, the
tracer can be used to make accurate predic-
tions on the volume and type of fluid produc-
tion from various zones in a producing well.
For higher flowrates a flowmeter is more ac-
curate than a tracer.
For low rates, below approximately 100 B/D,
the tracer is more accurate. These guidelines
are also true for injection logging.
(01/97) G-25
Introduction to Production Logging

G.5 FLUID SAMPLING

Production Fluid Sampler Tool* (PST-C*)

Fig. G28: Operation of the fluid sampler tool, PST.

(01/97) G-26
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

G.5.1 Tool Theory Fig. G29: Production Sampling Tool schematic.

The solenoid valve is closed before sampling,
keeping the hydraulic fluid in the chamber. At
the sample depth it is opened. Well pressure
Maximum Pressure (psi) 10000
forces the floating piston up, the hydraulic Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
fluid goes through a choke into the upper Weight (lbs) 44.1
chamber. When the floating piston reaches the Makeup Length (in.) 110.4
stop on the shaft it moves the entire shaft up, Sample Size (cm )
3 656
pulling the seal piston into position at the bot-
tom of the sample chamber. Table G9: Tool specifications.

The shaft is locked with a mechanical lock.

Maximum Pressure (psi) 10000
The hydraulic choke regulator is designed in Test Pressure (psi) 15000
such a way that the sampling time is constant Minimum Temperature (°F) – 65
Maximum Temperature (°F)
for any well-bore pressure and is approx. two
Transport/Storage 185
minutes. PVT Transfer 350
Weight (lbs) 26.9
Production Fluid Sampler Tool (PST-C) Length (in.) 34.1
Outside Diameter (in.) 3.0
3 730
Capacity (cm )
Table G10: Sample receptacle specifications.

(01/97) G-27
Introduction to Production Logging

APPENDIX B
Disadvantages are the AC excitation required,
Other Types Of Pressure Transducers
low frequency response, and sensitivity to
shock and vibration.
The various types of transducers are described
in the following paragraphs.
Variable Inductance Transducer
Capacitive Transducer
In the variable reluctance/inductance trans-
ducer a flux linkage bar is mechanically
Pressure displacing the force-summing ele-
linked to the force-summing device. This
ment in this transducer causes a change in ca-
could be a diaphragm, a bellows, or a bourdon
pacitance. If a diaphragm is used, it may be
tube. The flux linkage bar is in the magnetic
one plate of the capacitor, or if a bourdon tube
path of an E-core transformer. When pressure
is used a movable plate may be mechanically
is applied, the displacement causes a change
coupled to the end. Regardless of the method
in the E-core magnetic flux density, resulting
used, the measurement force is reflected by a
in a transformer output proportional to the
change in capacitance. The basic output of
pressure applied.
the capacitive transducer is a frequency sig-
nal, which digitial circuits can use directly.
Advantages of this transducer are its medium
Additional electronic circuits can convert the
level output and rugged construction.
frequency signal into a voltage or current sig-
nal.
Disadvantages are the requirement for AC
excitation, poor linearity, and susceptibility to
The advantages of the capacitive transducer
stray magnetic fields.
are excellent frequency response, low hystere-
sis, good linearity, and excellent stability and
Force Balance (Servo) Transducer
repeatability.
The force balance transducer is a closed loop
The disadvantages of the transducer are high
servo system that uses a displacment sensor to
sensitivity to temperature variations and vi-
monitor a force-summing element, such as a
bration, and requirements of additional elec-
diaphragm or bourdon tube. The displace-
tronic circuits to produce a voltage or current
ment sensor, which can be any of the trans-
output.
duction elements used in other types of trans-
ducers, produces a displacement signal
Differential Transformer
proportional to the applied force. The dis-
placement signal causes an actuator to gener-
In the differential transformer type transducer
ate a force opposing the applied pressure force
a transformer core is mechanically linked to
to restore the force-summing element to the
the force-summing element. Displacement of
null position.
the force-summing element produces unbal-
ance within the secondary windings of the
Advantages of this transducer are its high ac-
transformer, yielding two out-of-phase AC
curacy, excellent resolution, high output lev-
signals of amplitude difference proportional
els, and good stability.
to the displacement. Additional electronic
circuitry is required to convert these signals
Disadvantages are its large size, sensitivity to
into usable electrical signals.
shock and vibration, low frequency response,
and requirement for complex electronic cir-
Advantages of this transducer are high output
cuits.
levels, low hysteresis, and infinite resolution.

(01/97) G-28

Piezoelectric Transducer
When strain is applied to an asymmetrical
crystalline material, such as barium, titanite,
quartz, or rochell salt, an electrical charge is
generated. When a piezoelectric crystal is
coupled to a force-summing element, the gen-
erated charge can be made proportional to the
applied pressure. An electronic charge ampli-
fier is used to convert the transduction signal
(charge) into a voltage signal.
Advantages of this transducer are very high
frequency response (250 Hz), small size, rug-
ged construction, and ability to accept large
over-pressures without damage.
Disadvantages are temperature sensitivity,
inability to make static measurements, and
special electronics required.
Potentiometric Transducer
A simple transducer can be constructed by
coupling the wiper of a multiturn potentiome-
ter to an amplifying mechanical linkage at-
tached to the force-summing element.
Advantages of this transducer are low cost,
high-level output, and simple electronic cir-
cuits.
Disadvantages are limited life, poor resolu-
tion, large hysteresis, and low frequency re-
sponse.
Other Strain Gauge types
Bonded Foil Transducer
The bonded foil strain gauge transducer, con-
sists of a printed circuit resistor pattern on an
insulator that is bonded to the force-summing
element. Deformation of the force-summing
element results in a change in the resistance of
the bonded foil. Generally, these foil patterns
are used in a full, four-arm active bridge con-
figuration.
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Advantages of this gauge are good accuracy,
rugged construction, small temperature ef-
fects, and resistance to shock and vibration.
Disadvantages of this gauge are low level
output, medium frequency response, limited
temperature range, and poor long-term stabil-
ity.
Semiconductor Transducer
The semiconductor strain gauge transducer,
consists of a piezoresistive element diffused
directly into bulk silicon material. This ele-
ment is then mechanically coupled to a force
summing element, such as a diaphragm or
bellows.
The principal advantages of this gauge are
low cost (due to automation of the transducer
manufacturing process) and high output level.
These transducers can be constructed with
integral amplifiers that give them high output
level (10 volts) and low output impedance.
Disadvantages of semiconductor gauges are
medium accuracy, hysteresis, and poor long-
term stability. Semiconductor technology
could become a significant factor in future
transducer performance.
Vibrating Wire Transducer
In this transducer, a thin wire is connected in
tension to a force-summing element and is
caused to vibrate under the influence of a
magnetic field. The frequency of vibration of
the wire is directly related to the tension in the
wire. The wire can be coupled to the force-
summing element so as to cause either an in-
crease or decrease in the tension. Additional
electronics are required to maintain oscillation
of the wire and, thus, to provide an electrical
output. The output can be a frequency signal
converted for direct use by digital circuits.
Advantages of the vibrating wire transducer
are its very high accuracy, low hysteresis, and
excellent long-term stability.
(01/97) G-29
Introduction to Production Logging
Disadvantages of the vibrating wire trans-
ducer are its sensitivity to shock and vibra-
tion, temperature sensitivity, and the require-
ments for additional electronics.
SUMMARY
The foregoing discussion described devices
used for wireline logging applications and for
(01/97) G-30
long term placement in the well with later re-
trieval. Those that are placed in the well and
retrieved later (or run in and out of the well on
a slick line with no electrical conductors)
must have memory devices or charts for later
reference. Those used on a wireline usually
readout in real time and are presented a log-
ging film, scaled in psi, in a manner similar to
other logging data.
 Schlumberger
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EXAMPLES
Example G1
This well was completed as an oil well but not long after starting production the GOR increased
sharply.

The question is:

Is there gas breakthrough in the completed zone or

Is gas channeling from above?

A full set of logs was run with both shut in and flowing passes. The flowing gradio showed a drop
in density in the top 0.5m of the perforations, with the flowmeter showing an increase in flow at this
point. The logs shown are the temperature both shut-in and flowing.

Example G1: Temperature data.

(01/97) G-31
Introduction to Production Logging

ANSWERS

Example G1
The flowing temperature shows the gas entry at the top of the perforations. The shut in passes sug-
gest that this is coming from above. The slope changes on the curves indicate 3931 and another
change around 3924m.

(01/97) G-32

H. SURVEY PLANNING
H.1 INTRODUCTION
Planning is the most important facet of a suc-
cessful production logging job. It should in-
clude extensive communication with the ser-
vice company providing the services.
Planning should start with defining the objec-
tives of the proposed survey.
H.2 OBJECTIVES
• Monitoring Well Performance
• Evaluation Of Completion P erformance
• Well Problem Diagnosis.
The specific objective will guide the selection
of the sensors to be employed and the logging
program to be used.
The next step is to analyze the downhole ex-
pected injection or production rates. This
would include the number of phases or fluid
types encountered by the logging tool and also
the well status. This analysis will reveal if the
tool resolution is adequate to define the prob-
lem and also to select the type of survey to be
run.
To illustrate, if it were desired to detect a one
B/D water entry in a two-thousand B/D oil
producer, the tool must have an accuracy of
+0.05%. Downhole flowrates of the various
phases must be analyzed to define if a produc-
tion logging sensor is capable of the required
accuracy.
Additionally, sensors must have adequate
temperature and pressure ratings to function
properly in the well. Pressure and amount of
corrosive gases, H2S and CO2, must also be
considered.
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After it is determined that a production log-
ging program is capable of defining a produc-
tion or injection problem, you must acquire
the needed data to plan the production logging
program and decide the type of survey.
H.3 TYPES OF SURVEY
Production logs can be acquired in a number
of different modes depending on the require-
ments of the problem and the well status.
H.3.1 Continuous Log v Depth
• Flow Profiling
• Temperature Survey.
Record of Pressure, Temperature, Flowmeter
and Fluid Density over zones of interest.
Determines a quantitative flow profile in the
case of monophasic or diphasic downhole
fluid flow by using PLQL* (Production Log-
ging QuickLook) interpretation software. For
three phase flow qualitative interpretation, for
example, fluid entry points may be possible.
Gives a temperature profile in real time which
can be used to ascertain fluid movement both
in front of and behind the casing.
Multiple passes are made: besides being nec-
essary for flowmeter calibration these act as
Repeat Sections as for 'conventional' logging.
Data from multiple passes both up and down
are generally merged into one or more coher-
ent presentations in order to highlight fea-
tures for interpretation and LQC purposes.
Temperature, Density and Pressure from the
slowest down undisturbed pass are preferred.
They can be combined with a saturation
monitoring tool survey.
(01/97) H-1
Introduction to Production Logging

(01/97) H-2
 Schlumberger
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H.3.2 Stationary Logging Well shut in at surface, stable conditions

• Transient Pressure Record downhole.
• Station Log For Flow Profile.

Record of Pressure, temperature, flowmeter

and fluid density at a fixed point in the well as
a function of time.

Primarily used to record P vs. t for transient

analysis of build ups and drawdowns to de-
termine:
• Permeability
• Skin
• Other Reservoir parameters e.g.,
areal extent, PI, AOF.

All data is recorded on magnetic tape and

would also be selectively sampled into
memory in real time.

Data in memory can be analysed in real time

with WTQL* (Well Test QuickLook) using a
wide variety of industry standard plots accord-
ing to the client's requirement.

Data presentation is generally in the form of

listings and plots and not a conventional
'log'.

A separate application is recording stationary

measurements during flow profiling. These
can be used to aid interpretation and can be
incorporated into the PLQL software.

H.3.3 Survey by Well Status

Flowing Survey
Made with well flowing (or injecting) with
stable conditions downhole.

Depth and station logging yields :

• fluid entry or injection points

• nature and volumetric flowrate of each
phase over different zones in the well (mo-
nophasic or diphasic flow).

Well Shut In
(01/97) H-3
Introduction to Production Logging
Depth logging plus station logging by zone
gives:
• check on flowmeter calibration prior to
open well
• evidence of crossflow or leaks
• borehole fluid interfaces
• temperature profile.
Transient Survey
Made as surface flowrates are changed ie:
• Build Up as Production is decreased or
stopped.
• Drawdown as Production is started or in-
creased.
• Injection as Injection is started or in-
creased.
• Fall Off as Injection is decreased or
stopped.
Log vs. time yields Kh, Skin, P*, geometry
Survey continues until stable trends are ob-
served.
H.4 DATA GATHERING
The accompanying form can be utilized to
organize this data gathering process. It is ex-
tremely important to provide a detailed well
sketch that indicates the dimension of all as-
sociated well hardware. This is necessary for
log interpretation information as well as for
running the logging equipment.
Christmas tree information is needed for rig-
ging up.
Other information can be included in the re-
marks section of the production logging ques-
tionnaire. Information that could be of sig-
nificance to the logging operation includes:
How was the well completed? For instance,
can casing damage be expected if expendable
guns were used?
Does the well have paraffin or scale deposits?
(01/97) H-4
Does the well produce sand or formation
fines?
Were frac balls used in the well?
Can casing deformation be anticipated based
on the field history?
All this information can be used in equipment
selection to minimize plugging or stoppage or
for sensor operation.
All openhole and cased hole logs should be
reviewed prior to the logging operation. This
review will often provide invaluable informa-
tion that can be used in planning and running
the sensors, and the logs should be available
during the logging operation.
Quite often these logs can be used to estimate
expected flow profiles from a computer
analysis, such as Nodal design programs. Use
of this information can be used in some cases
to compare to recorded flow profiles. The
following illustration is an example of situa-
tion where the predicted profile matches the
actual flowmeter. The subsequent illustration
is an example of a production problem de-
fined by not matching the predicted profile.
In some wells base production logs were run
to analyze flow profiles and pressures for
evaluation of completion techniques or to
plan stimulation operations. These logs
should also be available.
Before calling out the logging company, it is
recommended that you run a dummy in the
well to verify entry into the well. Usually the
logging companies will provide a dummy for
this purpose, and the procedure can often
eliminate unnecessary expense if well condi-
tions prohibit descent into the well.
Proper sensor selection is of the utmost im-
portance. This is often related to the
flowrates and size of the casing and tubing.
The correct flow measuring device has to be
selected.

The procedure for running the logs should be
determined before the actual operation to pro-
vide an efficient job that records sufficient
data for proper interpretation. These proce-
dures are often determined by the stability of
the flowrates. Good flow profiles require sta-
ble flowrates. In some cases wells obtain sta-
ble flowrates in short times, while others re-
quire days. If shut-in information is required,
this can often be obtained before the flowing
runs, if stable flowing rates can be achieved in
a short time after shut in. If this is not the
case, the flowing profiles should be run first.
If it is determined that flowing profiles should
be run before static runs to ensure stable flow
conditions, it is imperative that a swab valve
be present so that rig-up of equipment can
done while the well is flowed through the
production line. In all cases, a recording of
surface pressures should be made during the
entire operation.
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Flowing runs should be recorded at different
cable speeds in both up and down directions.
Data should be recorded to establish a good
response line for the profiles. A minimum of
three up and three down runs is required. Af-
ter this is accomplished, station readings can
be recorded at points of interest to aid the in-
terpretation.
Valuable information can often be obtained
by recording data going in the well prior to
recording flow profiles. This is particularly
true of temperature data. In some cases, sta-
tionary data should be recorded at various
depths in the well. Data of this type can be
important for detecting fluid levels and other
functions.
Time allocation is an important consideration.
The jobs can frequently be run more safely
during daylight. In some cases this may even
dictate the time of year an operation can be
planned.
(01/97) H-5
Introduction to Production Logging

JOB PLANNING DATA SHEET

To perform a successful Production Logging job as much of the following information as available
should be given to the service company before the job.

COMPANY _______________________ DATE________

FIELD _______________________________________
WELL NAME __________________________________
CLIENT REPRESENTATIVE ______________________

DATE OF INITIAL PRODUCTION___________________

INITIAL RATE _____________ WITH CHOKE OF ______________
PRESENT RATE Qo _______ Qg________ Qw _______
WITH CHOKE OF _______________________________________
PRODUCTION METHOD _________________________

PRESSURES
CASING TUBING
FLOWING ____________@BH SURFACE FLOWING __________
SHUT-IN _____________@BH SURFACE SHUT-IN ____________
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE (PB) __________________________
PRESS. USED TO CALCULATE Bo & m* ______________________

TEMPERATURES
FLOWING ____________@BH PB TEMP ____________________
TEMP. USED TO CALCULATE Bo, m, & PB *_________________
*Needed if Bo, PB, and m (oil viscosity) are not available

RESERVOIR AND FLUID PROPERTIES

OIL
OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR ________________________
TANK GRAVITY ____________________________@ ________oF
DENSITY _________________________________________@BH
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

GAS
GRAVITY_________________ DENSITY _______________@BH
G.O.R. ___________________ 1/Bg _______________________
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

WATER
SALINITY _________________ DENSITY________________@BH
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

RESERVOIR DATA
DRAINAGE AREA _________________________________ACRES
DRAINAGE AREA SHAPE FACTOR _________________________
WELLBORE RADIUS _______ft POROSITY __________________
TOTAL COMPRESSIBILITY _______________________________
FORMATION THICKNESS ________________________________

WELL TEST DATA

TEST OBJECTIVE ______________________________________
TEST TYPE ____________________________________________

TOTAL PRODUCTION TIME ___________________hrs.

(If production history varies, use form below)

WELLHEAD SKETCH
Indicate tubing and casing diameter and grade, position and nature of valves, perforations, deviation, cementation, wellhead connec-
tions, permanent depth datum, and all pertinent data on mechanical arrangement of well.

(01/97) H-6
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

• Surface pressure
H.5 SUMMARY
• GOR
Discuss Logging Program • H2S, CO2 presence
• Temperature and expected duration of
• Why is survey being run? exposure
• Objectives of the survey? • Depth and deviation.
• Contingency or back up plans
• Any other operations e.g. workover or Note that no cables exist which can withstand
logging linked to the present job re- an acid environment more than 1-2%. Cables
sults? will disintegrate rapidly on exposure to even
• Who in the client organisation will take moderate concentrations of HCl acid.
decisions?
• When are final results to be presented?
• Expected job start date. H.6 AFTER SURVEY CHECKS ON
DATA AND DATA QUALITY
Know In Advance H.6.1 General Information
- Well sketch with:
• Wellhead pressure • Perforation Details
• Expected GOR • Deviation
• Expected flowrates, BHP and BHT • Casing Sizes and Weights
• Acid, H2S, CO2 content • Completion String, depths and sizes.
• Hydrates possibility
• Well deviation. - Tool sketch with:
• Tool Lengths
Know The Completion String • Tool Measure Points
• Tool OD's
• Minimum restrictions • Accesory description and position
• Liner size • Tool String Weights
• Distance from WEG to top perforation • Spinner type and cage size.
• Distance from bottom perforation to
Hold up Depth - Remarks with:
• Wellhead connection type. • Correlation Log identified
• Production and pressure data
• PVT data
Check The Rig Up • Log Objectives/purpose of survey
• Summary of log technique/method
• Available height • Sequence of events
• Deck space • Comments on unusual or anomalous
• Power point position responses
• Voltage and power rating of supplies • Note of any events affecting interpreta-
• Air supplies and capacity tion
• Crane size and specifications • Summary of results.
• Number of tugger's on rig floor.
H.6.2 Logs versus depth
Cables must be selected to take account of the
well conditions and nature of the fluids. Of • All passes on depth, or depth offset in-
particular interest are: dicated
(01/97) H-7
Introduction to Production Logging

• CCL/ GR present on all passes
• Logging speed, direction, and well con-
dition indicated in tails for each pass
• Perforations shown on all passes
• At least two runs at slow speed (1 up,
1 down) unless precluded by jetting
from perfs
• For the CPLT the parameter SOM
should be set to MANU for depth log-
ging.
H.6.3 Logs versus time
H.7.3
• All readings stable before a rate
change
• Depth of tool indicated on station logs.
• Before survey check film made and at-
tached
• Fluid density shows expected value in
sump; agrees with gradient from ma-
nometer.
• Water cut matches measured values
± 10%
• Up and down passes repeat within
± 0.02 gm/cc
• Depth of any fluid interfaces noted
• Stationary readings recorded.
NFD* (nuclear densimeter)
• Shop calibration attached, less than 2
months old.

H.7 SPECIFIC MEASUREMENTS H.7.4 Strain Gauge Pressure

H.7.1 Flowmeter
• Master calibration < 6 months old, data
attached on print
• Logging speeds held constant over in-
terpretation zones • VCO calibrations made downhole
• Gradient survey taken while running in
• Logging speeds evenly spaced
• Correct spinner pitch & dia. chosen for • Stationary readings taken between per-
forations
flow rate/casing
• Stationary readings made between per- • P vs. t listings during transient
surveys attached.
forations at each flowrate
• No scales wrapping, scales adjusted to
reasonable values H.7.5 Thermometer
• In situ calibration shown for shut in and
• VCO calibration performed downhole
flowing surveys
• Shut in survey recorded down at slow
• Repsonse slopes and thresholds match
speed during run in
expected values
• Stationary readings recorded between
• Multiple repeat passes made if stabilisa-
perforations.
tion a problem.
• Total flow compares to surface rate
H.7.6 Crystal Pressure Gauge
± 10%
• Tool constants should reflect the
• Listing of calibration coefficients at-
flowmeter(s) types used
tached:valid 2 years
• Flowmeter properly centralized.
• Pressure stabilised before transients in-
troduced
H.7.2 Density
• Static, stabilised readings agree with
strain gauge.
• For CPLT*: coefficient attached for all
4 sensors
H.7.7 Caliper
• For PTS *'PCOR' tables of pressure
gauge attached.
• Before survey calibration attached to
• VCO calibrations made downhole close
print.
to zone of interest
(01/97) H-8

• Survey logged up at < 2000 ft/hr
• Caliper matches expected casing i/d
• Tubing shoe noted and reported.
H.8 PRESSURE CONTROL
EQUIPMENT FOR PRODUCTION
LOGGING JOBS
Most service company wellhead equipment
are standard off-the-shelf items supplied by
companies such as Bowen. Special equip-
ment such as ultra-high pressure (20,000 psi)
or H2S service (up to 15,000 psi) require a
long lead time. There are only a few sets of
this equipment manufactured. All equipment
should be certified by shop testing, usually on
a quarterly schedule.
Various equipment configurations and capa-
bilities are listed on the following table.
A typical set of pressure equipment is illus-
trated in the Figure H1. Descriptions of the
various components follow.
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Wireline & Testing
Fig. H1: Well Head Equipment.
H.8.1 Christmas Tree Adapter
The Christmas tree adapter connects the ser-
vice company wellhead equipment to the
well. The numerous configurations of well-
head fittings require a proper adapter be avail-
able. These connections are subject to the full
wellhead pressure whenever the well is open,
and the service companies must have control
over the maintenance and reliability of the
connections.
H.8.2 Blowout Preventer (BOP)
The blowout preventer is located immediately
above the Christmas tree adapter. The device
has rubber-faced rams that close against the
cable to contain the well while the tool is in
the hole. The rams are closed either hydrauli-
cally by a cylinder operated with a hand pump
or manually by a hand wheel. BOPs that are
hydraulically closed must be hydraulically
opened, and BOPs that are manually closed
must be opened by the hand wheel.
On jobs with pressures in excess of 5,000 psi,
or when the well fluid is gas, regardless of
pressure, a special dual ram preventer with a
grease injection port should be used. A
grease-sealed BOP is the only method of ob-
taining an absolute seal against gas with a
BOP closed on a stranded line.
H.8.3 Lubricator Riser
The lubricator riser pipe, blowout preventer,
and tree flange form an extension of the well
above the master valve. The riser pipe above
the master valve must be the length of the en-
tire downhole tool string plus three feet.
Long risers contribute to the difficulty of the
job. This can be overcome by installing a hy-
draulically operated lubricator valve (e.g., a
Baker-Subsea Lubricator Valve #738-20) be-
low the rig floor; this permits the tubing to act
as a riser. The service company needs only a
(01/97) H-9
Introduction to Production Logging
short riser above their BOP for emergency
work on their cable.
H.8.4 Grease Seal Equipment
Well fluid is prevented from leaking around
the cable by running the cable through several
feet of flow tube with an inside diameter ap-
proximating the cable diameter. A viscous
grease is pumped into the close fitting annular
space between the hole and cable at a pressure
above well pressure. Grease is easier to seal
than well fluid; therefore, well fluid does not
leak past the grease on moving or stationary
cables. More grease leaks as the cable is
moving. Some grease leaks into the well and
some leaks to the outside along the cable.
The grease escaping to the outside is returned
to the surface by a flowhose.
To seal the cable in emergencies or for pro-
longed periods, a rubber pack-off gland is as-
sembled above the flow tube. A hand pump
is used to activate the packing gland, and a
rubber sleeve is compressed around the cable
by a hydraulically operated piston.
H.8.5 Optional Equipment
Ball Safety Valve
An automatic safety valve is available to shut
in the well in case the cable is pulled off the
tool and is blown out of the hole. The ball
valve is installed at the top of the rise, just
below the grease head. The valve is closed by
the flow of well fluid out the top of the riser;
once closed, it remains closed by pressure in-
side the lubricator.
Tool Catcher
A tool catcher is available for the 5,000-psi
and 10,000-psi equipment. The purpose of a
tool catcher is to save a fishing job if the tool
is pulled into the top of the lubricator and the
cable is pulled off. The tool catcher is in-
stalled just below the grease head or just be-
low a ball valve, if one is used. When actu-
ated, the tool catcher will latch onto the cable
(01/97) H-10
head fishing neck and hold the tool suspended
in the lubricator.
Tool Trap
A mechanical tool trap can be used to trap
tools inside the lubricator. This is an alterna-
tive to the tool catcher. The 5,000 psi trap is
manually opened, and the 10,000-psi models
are hydraulically opened to allow tools to pass
downhole. The pivoted trap inside the tool
deflects upward to let tools enter the lubrica-
tor; it then falls across the lubricator to pre-
vent tools from falling downhole. The cable
can move freely with the trap open or closed.
Bell Line Wiper
A Bell Rubber Company Model HR Stripmas-
ter Oil Saver, otherwise known as the Bell
Line Wiper, may be installed above the grease
head. The Bell Line Wiper provides an effec-
tive means of cleaning the line of grease, and
it is particularly recommended in pollution-
sensitive areas. Since the Bell Line Wiper has
only 3,000 psi working pressure, it must not
be used in lieu of the regular hydraulic pack-
ing gland to pack off the cable in emergency
high-pressure situations. When used with the
special kit with a 100-psi relief valve between
the wiper and the greasehead packoff, the
wiper is limited to a wiping action only.
Accessory Equipment
Accessory equipment consists of the grease
pump and hoses; test, bleedoff, and equalizer
manifolds; pressure gauge; and a wellhead
pressure recorder.
Grease Pump
There are two grease pumps available. One
pump is for operating at pressures up to 5,000
psi, and the other pump is for operating at up
to 15,000 psi.
High-Pressure Grease Hoses
The pressure ratings of high-pressure grease
hoses corresponds to the pump units with
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

which they are used. On 15,000-psi (WHE-
C) equipment, steel pipe and swivel fittings
are used instead of rubber hoses. Steel pipe is
optional for 10,000-psi (WHE-B) equipment;
the figure to the right illustrates a typical set
of pressure equipment for 10,000 psi.
• Select grease tubes to match actual
measured cable diameter over complete
length of cable
• Purge all hydraulic control lines of air
before connecting

Grease • Operationally check all items when as-

For pressures below 5,000 psi and tempera-
tures above 40oF, Texaco MARPAC II grease
may be used; however, the greases listed be-
low are preferred:
Chevron Oil Company, ALTA VIS
sembling before job
• Ensure that you have sufficient riser
available to accomodate toolstring
• Ensure that lubricator valve is run on
semi submersibles

Grade 150 for -30˚F (-35˚C) to +30˚F (-1˚C) • Use two grease injection points on high
GOR wells. Ensure adequate grease
Grade 1000 for +30˚F (-1˚C) to +70˚F supply and flowtubes, according to local
procedures.
(+21˚C)
Grade 7500 for 70oF (21oC) and above For Example:
Inhibitor must be added when H2S is encoun- 0 -5K Liquid 3 flowtubes
tered. 0 -5K Gas 4 flowtubes
5-10K Liquid 4 flowtubes
H.8.6 Wellhead Equipment Pointers 5-10K Gas 5 flowtubes

• Select WHE to match expected well-

head pressure, maximum tool diameter • Ensure you have enough weights for
and service (H2S/standard) pressures and flowrates expected.

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I. COMPUTER EVALUATION METHODS

I.1 COMPUTER EVALUATION flowrates are presented graphically in
METHODS the form of a log alongside the raw sen-
Production logging lends itself to computer- sor data for ease of interpretation.
ised evaluation methods. There are many pro- • Listing of results in client oriented for-
grams available to perform everything from a mat.
simple spinner calibration to a sophisticated I.2.1 Procedure
multiphase flow analysis. Step 1
Gathering the data.
Field acquisition systems have a choice of
two systems depending on the intended use of Overlays of spinners, temperatures, and Gra-
the survey: diomanometers.

• Production Logging Quicklook* Step 2

• Well Test Quicklook* Tabular listing of the spinner data and cable
velocity.
I.2 PRODUCTION LOGGING
QUICKLOOK HIGHLIGHTS Crossplot of spinner and cable velocities.
• Quantitative interpretation at the well-
site.
• Up/down passes memorised in real
time.
• Sensor data is averaged and tabulated by
zone. Stationary flowmeter data can be
added in.
• Produce composite films and data tapes
of selected data from these different
passes.
• Choose the best data for the interpreta-
tion and log quality control before the
tool is brought out of the well.
• Gradio data, corrected for friction is
used with spinner and well data to de- Fig. I1: Model crossplot for computer calculations.
termine individual downhole flowrates
by zone. NFD density can be used.
Step 3
• Downhole flowrates are converted to Gradiomanometer data and flowmeter data
surface rates using standard fluid con- are merged to give a two-phase flow profile.
versions and client supplied PVT/fluid
data.
• Output the zoned interpretation results
in a standard customer listing, as well as
a cumulative surface flow rate log with
an adjacent well sketch. Computed
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Introduction to Production Logging

I.2.2 Flowrate Interpretation The computer can then output a more under-
standable listing of all the data, including:
• Uses Spinner calibration
• Uses input parameters QPL Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4
GASQ 10297.5 6148.17 3019.1 31.680
• Uses Data PL entries OILQ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
For each zone calculate the following quanti- WATQ 732.952 600.648 530.77 0.0
surface
ties and store in the QPL table: rates
QTD 12569.7 7682.77 4009.1 36.370
- Spinner calibration lines: QGD 66.4584 39.7631 19.529 .20420
downhole
- Slope, intercept, correlation rates
- Friction corrected fluid density (optional): QOD 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
VT 573.013 350.233 182.76 1.6580
FDEN* tot./slip
- PVT parameters: Rs,Bo,Bg1,µ, velocity
VS 0.0 0.0 0.0 136.70
- Expected densities: GASD*, OILD*, MUHH .017892 .017899 .01791 .01794
WATD* BG1 154.947 154.620 154.59 155.13
PVT data
- Holdups: Yw,Yo,Yg (2 phases only) BO 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
- Total & Slip velocity: Vt,Vs RS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
YO 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
- Downhole Rates: QTD*,QGD*,QOD* Holdups
- Surface Rates: OILQ*,GASQ*,WATQ* YW .058310 .078181 .13239 .97270
PSLO .051632 .053272 .05294 .05321
PINT -687.37 -418.96 -217.1 2.2543
SPINNER
PCC .996942 .999419 .99887 .99996
LQC !
NSLO 0.0 0.0 0.0 .06177
NINT 0.0 0.0 0.0 -7.249
NCC 0.0 0.0 0.0 .99997
GASD .132650 .132370 .13234 .13281
PVT data
OILD 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WATD .990773 .990137 .98969 .98962
FDEN .182688 .199431 .24585 .96623
CDIA 3.9600 3.96000 3.9600 3.9600
from
DPL/user
QIOP 2.00000 2.00000 2.0000 2.0000
Table I1: Summary Listing for a four zone survey.

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Step 4
The computer will output a graphic flow pro- • Stored data are then used to produce in-
file: terpretation plots and listings to determine
the current state of the test.
• Log data
• Downhole fluid properties • A wide variety of plots can be produced as
• Interpretation results at downhole con- the test continues.
ditions
• Plots and listings are displayed on
• Interpretation results at surface condi- screen,film or printer in concise,easy to
tions. read format.

I.3 WELL TEST QUICKLOOK • Straight lines can be fitted to any part of
HIGHLIGHTS the curve.

• Real-time monitoring and analysis of • Slopes and intercepts are computed for
pressure transient tests using data re- each line, and interpretations can be per-
corded against time with tool stationary . formed using this data as appropriate.

• Selected number of data points stored in • Listings are adjustable in terms of num-
memory as acquisition to tape (permanent ber and frequency of outputs presented.
storage) proceeds.

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Introduction to Production Logging
I.4 ADVANCED COMPUTER
METHODS
The use of more powerful computers allows
the interpreter to utilise more complex models
to analyse the production logging data. The
current production log interpretation program
used in the computing centres is called
PLGLOB*, (Production Log Global).
The program applies an inverse solution ap-
proach to determine individual flow rates of
oil, gas and water. It proposes a solution and
then tests whether it fits with the production
logging measurement. Via successive itera-
tions, the program finds the flow rates that are
in the best global agreement with the meas-
ured log data, hence the name.
Interpreting conventional two phase flow has
traditionally been carried out using empirical
correlations based on field or laboratory ex-
periments. However these correlations do not
cover the full range of flow conditions en-
countered in the well.
The PLGLOB program overcomes this by in-
corporating a general liquid/gas flow model
developed by Dukler. This model relates the
superficial gas and liquid velocities to the
type of flow regime and was derived by close
examination of gas-liquid flow mechanisms.
Duklers work has also been corroborated by
field and laboratory observations.
Fig. I2: Dukler Model for multiphase flow.
(01/97) I-4
Figure I2 shows a typical Dukler flow regime
map.
In general, the flow patterns can be classified
into five categories depending on the distribu-
tion and velocity of the gas.
When the gas velocity in the borehole is low,
the bubbles tend to be small and rise faster
than the liquid phase, this is termed bubble
flow. When the liquid flow rate is high, gas is
dispersed into smaller widely separated bub-
bles, a dispersed bubble regime. When the gas
flow rate increases the bubbles tend to coa-
lesce forming large and elongated bubbles
separeted by slugs of liquid containing
smaller bubbles, this is called slug flow.
At even higher gas flow rates, the flow regime
becomes chaotic, producing a frothy mixture
containing some larger elongated bubbles,
termed froth flow.
At very high gas velocities, the gas becomes
the continuous phase and contains tiny drop-
lets of liquid which form a mist hence the
name mist flow.
The diagram below (Figure I3) explains how
the PLGLOB program works.
Step 1 - Initialization
The program first assumes flow rates for gas,
oil and water in the well which lie within
arange specified by the analyst. These can be
chosen by examining the surface flow rates.
Using these estimated flows, the superficial
velocities for oil and gas (defined as the indi-
vidual flow rate divided by the cross sectional
area) can be determined. These initial esti-
mates are then fed into a flow model. The
flow model steps are shown in the right hand
side of the diagram.
Step 2 - Flow Model
Input data such as individual phase flow rates,
well deviation, pipe and tool diameters and
the superficial velocities are used to compute
the hol-up values of each phase. This is

achieved using the simple bubble flow volu-
metric model.
Step 3 - Separating the liquid and gas
phases
The next stage employs the Dukler model to
find the flow regime, the superficial gas ve-
locity and the friction gradient. This requires
information on liquid and gas flowrates, den-
sities and viscosities, the gas/liquid interfacial
tensions, average borehole pressure for the
interval being examined, pipe roughness and
well deviation.
Step 4 - Sepearating oil from water
Using another volumetric model, developed
by Choquette and modified by Piers, the pro-
gram computes the superficial oil velocity.
This needs details about the hold up of oil and
water derived from Step 1, densities of water
and oil and deviation.
Step 5 - Iteration
The outputs from Steps 1, 2 and 3 are fed into
Step 1 and the program iterates until the com-
puted superficial oil and gas velocities stabi-
lise.
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Wireline & Testing
Step 6 - Tool response calculations
At this point the porgram takes all the outputs
from the flow model and feeds each of these
into tool response equations which compute
the theoretical response for each sensor.
The difference between the real an simulated
values for each tool is defined in terms of co-
herence.
Step 7 - Comparing responses
Once every tool response has been computed,
the program combines all the simulated re-
sponses and examines how they differ, in a
global way, from all the measured values.
This enables a global incoherence value to be
determined.
The flow rates of the individual phases are
then changed to minimise this value.
The output showing flow values for each
phase also includes information on how the
simulated values compared with those meas-
ured.
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Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. I3: PLGLOB flow chart.

The example in Figure I4 shows how the
spinner values did not agree with the rest of
the sensors. The program has computed a
“new” spinner response.

Fig. I4: Example of PLGLOB computation with the

spinner data reconstructed based on the other
measurements.
The spinner in this zone was influenced by
low flowrates and the high viscosity of the
fluid entering the well. The other sensors gave
a more coherent answer.

This is a data set logged over several passes

while the well was shut in (Figure I5). The
spinner shows cross-flow between zone 1 and
zones 3 and 4. The temperature show no
change over the interval from zone 5 to zone
1 with respect to time. This suggests an up-
ward flow in this interval.

Above zone 1 there is a tendency towards the

thermal gradient indicating no flow in this
region. This means that the only flow is in the
region of the five perforated zones.

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Fig. I5: Raw logged data suggesting crossflow.

The PLGLOB analysis of this data set (plus
the flowing passes) shows clearly that there is
a lot of crossflow into zone 1, both of water
and oil.

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Introduction to Production Logging

In the example in Figure I6, there are three

phases flowing in the well. In addition there is
a possibility of channelling to be investigated.
An additional measurement is added to the
tool string to assist in this complex picture,
the Water Flow Log.

The lowest zone in the well, below perfora-

tions 3, shows some suggestion of flow on the
temperature, it is relatively constant. The
spinner is also very constant and the gradio-
manometer shows a single phase fluid (inside
the casing). The Water Flow Log identifies
water flowing outside the casing from below
the lowest perforation.

The PLGLOB analysis shows flows of this

water from zone 3 plus oil and gas. (The well
is producing below bubble point).
Fig. I6: PLGLOB output for the raw data.

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Fig. I7: Multiphase flow example using the Water Flow Log in addition to the standard sensors.

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Introduction to Production Logging

APPENDIX FIELD COMPUTATION CONSTANTS

BS Bit Size
SGSN Strain Gauge Serial Number
PCTS Pressure Correction Temperature
Source
CDAT Calibration Date
PDES Plot Destination
PZOF Presentation Zone Offset used in
the computation of interpretation
zones
TCSH Thru Tubing Caliper Shift
Table I2: Field computation constant mnemonics.

Data Selection

PGS Pressure Gauge

Selection
PVTS PVT data Selec-
tion
CALC Uses calcu-
lated values
QPL Use current
(manual)
QPL data
entries
RHOS Density Selector
WFDE From CPLT
RHOF From NFD
GRHO From GMS
PRH From PTS
(deviation
corrected
with shift)
UPRH From PTS
(uncorrected)
UFWD From
CPLT(uncorr
ected)
SPIS Spinner Selector (e.g. SPIN or
S1F,S2F)
TMPS Temperature (e.g. WTEP
selector or PTEM)
Table I3: Data Selection Constants.

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QIOP Flow Interpretation Option

FDEN Fluid Density
FLOW Flowmeter
AUTO Largest of flows from Density or
Flowmeter
VTS Total Velocity Selector
DEPT Depth from logs up and down
TIME From stationary readings
ATIM Similar to TIME but with auto load-
ing of DPL tables
DFM Direction of Fluid Motion
UP Producing well
DOWN Injection well
VPCF Velocity Profile Correction Factor:
**use chart**
FCHD Flag for Cased Hole Diameter
CSID Casing ID constant
CALI Caliper (TCS output)
PTHR Positive Threshold – From
CP41,TIRA calculated
NTHR Negative Threshold – Automatically
during QINT
TIRA Threshold Intercept Ratio – From
PTHR, NTHR
SRS Spinner Reponse Slope – Used to cal-
culate total velocity from stationary
data present in the DPL 0SPI entries
when VTS=(A)TIM
CSID Casing ID. Should be set correctly.
SVAM Minimum acceptable spinner value.
Used to eliminate spinner values
close to zero. Default is 1.0
Table I4: Flowrate computation constants.

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Introduction to Production Logging

DEVI Deviation used for: slip velocity algorithm

correcting gradio if
RHOS=RHOF,
UPRH, UFWD
FDSH Fluid Density Shift Linear shift applied to all FDDP entries (DPL ta-
bles) in order to compute FDEN (QPL table entry)

GFCF Gradio Friction Determines whether friction corrections are to be

Correction Flag applied to FDDP when the QINT task is done / not
(YES/NO) done in the case of a water-only fluid model; other-
wise, uses heaviest hydrocarbon viscosity (MUHH)
estimates friction on tool and casing using effective
fluid velocity, Moody friction factor and iterative
loop.
Table I5: Density computation constants.

FMOD Fluid Model e.g. OW,OG,W, etc.

Selected during INTE task de-
pending on which of the following
constants are set.

GGRA Gas Gravity

OGRA Oil Gravity
WSAL Water Salinity
Table I6: Fluid parameter computation constants.

In addition, the following must be set

From the Client.

GOR Gas Oil Ratio, or Watch Units.

BPP Bubble Point Pressure and
BPT Bubble Point Temperature

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Program will calculate the following data for each level.

GDD Gas Downhole Density

ODD Oil Downhole Density
WDD Water Downhole Density
PVTS= QPL
BG1 1/Bg,formation gas volume
factor forces to use current
B0 Oil formation volume factor
QPL entries
RS Solution GOR
MUHH Viscosity heaviest hydrocarbon
Table I7: Program calculated constants.

If any of above have been manually set, then computations will no longer be performed and values
set will be used.

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J. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
J.1 FLOVIEW MEASUREMENT
J.1.1 Introduction
Interpretation of PL data and determination of
downhole flow profile under single phase
flowing conditions is usually a straightfor-
ward task. Multiphase flow is a more com-
plex phenomenon, as holdup, slippage veloc-
ity and phase segregation complicate the flow
behavior.

Holdup can be defined as the ratio of a given

pipe cross section occupied by a particular
fluid phase. Under multiphase conditions, the
light phase moves faster than the heavier one
by a magnitude known as Slippage Velocity.
The direct relationship between the density
difference of coexisting fluids, the holdup, Fig. J1: Spinner tool in deviated well with multiphase
and the slippage velocity has been presented flow.
earlier. For the interpretation of production Figure J2 below shows the holdup and veloc-
logs conducted under multiphase flow condi- ity profile of the light and heavy phases as a
tions, determination of downhole holdup is of function of deviation. The plots show that
major importance. both holdup and velocity change significantly
as a function of deviation within the cross
The primary tools used to calculate holdup are section of the pipe.
Gradiomanometer type tools which measure
the downhole fluid density. However, the
complex behavior of wells flowing under
multi phase conditions pose major difficulties
to the interpretation of flow profile using such
conventional sensors. These complications
become more severe in deviated wells, as in-
creasing deviation affects the flow regime,
phase segregation and velocity distribution.

For example, a spinner flowmeter in segre-

gated flow may exhibit a response resembling
down flow (Figure J1). This is due to the Fig. J2: Water-oil stratified flows in 5.5 in. casing -
light phase moving up the high side of the water cut is 50%.
pipe and the heavy phase falls out and flows
down the low side of the pipe. This can hap-
pen even if no water is produced at the sur-
face.

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Introduction to Production Logging
Usually, when the holdup of one phase is
small, Gradiomanometer type tools have dif-
ficulties providing a reasonable phase split.
The reason is the magnitude of the density
change due to the existence of the second
phase is small and remains within the accu-
racy of the tool (Figure J3).
Fig. J3: Standard gradio response in multiphase flow.
In addition, most Gradiomanometer tools de-
fine the fluid density by means of differential
pressure transducers, which can be severely
affected by high turbulence, known as the jet
effect
Also, high flow rates affects the density
measurements due to friction, which has to be
corrected before holdup computations. The
next section briefly describes a new sensor
designed to overcome some of the problems
associated with multiphase flow in deviated
and horizontal wells.
J.1.2 New Production Logging
Sensor – FloView
A new Production Logging tool sensor has
recently been introduced to better handle
some of the interpretation problems related to
multiphase flow in wells. The FloView tool is
mainly designed to be integrated with the
conventional production logging tools. The
(01/97) J-2
tool enhances the capability of the analyst to
determine the downhole phase split and water
holdup, and eliminate the uncertainties asso-
ciated with interpretation. The tool hardware
is schematically illustrated in Figure J4.
Relative
Bearing
Electronic
Boards
Caliper
Sensor
Probes
DEFT-A
Fig. J4: FloView Tool configuration.
Four probes are symmetrically located below
a centralizer arm, capable of providing four
independent digital holdup measurements on
a given cross sectional area of the pipe. Other
measurements of the tool include relative
bearing and 1-axis caliper. The relative bear-
ing measurement gives the position of each
probe with respect to the cross sectional area
of the pipe.
 Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

• A fluid image across the cross section of

the pipe is also generated from the
measured probe data.

Probe Bubble Count

Friction effects
1
Probe
signal
0 3rd Oil entry

Fig. J5: FloView measurement technique. Jetting, Venturi

effects

Figure J5 schematically shows the working

2nd Oil entry
principle for a single probe. A signal is con-
tinuously applied to the probe tip. If the
probe is located in a conductive media (wa- Ist Oil entry
ter), the current is returned through the earth
connection. If the probe is surrounded by a Water entry
non-conductive media (oil or gas bubble), the
returned current drops significantly. There-
fore, the high and low signals measured Stagnant water

across a threshold band by the probe allows Mud

the tool to discriminate hydrocarbon (oil Gradiomanometer

Holdup
and/or gas) and water phases. Density

Fig. J6: FloView versus standard gradio measurement.

Water holdup is calculated based on the ratio
of the time domain where the voltage is above
the affixed threshold. Bubble count is calcu- Figure J6 shows a schematic comparison be-
lated based on the number oscillations of the tween the measured bubble count, holdup,
voltage across the threshold. Therefore, com- fluid image and gradiomanometer response in
putation of water holdup and bubble count oil/water flow. The density measurement can
can be done for each probe independently, be particularly difficult to interpret in wells
and averaged over each sampling interval. with a standing water column where digital
The measurement is digital and does not re- holdup measurement removes the ambiguity.
quire a prior calibration.
In deviated and horizontal wells, availability
The advantages of this technology are: of independent holdup values for each probe
is of significant importance, where water
• The measurement (holdup) is not af- holdup in the upper and lower sections within
fected by complications due to jet ef- the pipe might be different.
fect, friction and very high/low water
cut values. This significantly improves
the vertical resolution of the tool.
• Individual fluid entry locations can be
determined quite accurately.
• The four independent probe holdup
measurements can be used quantita-
tively in the interpretation.

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Introduction to Production Logging

Figure J7 shows recent holdup images from

horizontal conduits, measured with a two tan-
dem FloView combination, where a larger
wellbore area is covered (8 probes). The im-
ages reflect the segregated nature of the flow,
where quantitative oil and water holdup val-
ues are determined for horizontal well flow
diagnostics.

Fig. J7: Flow in horizontal pipe with oil and water

segretation. The photo compares well with the FloView
image.

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J.1.3 Examples

Figure J8 presents the basic

production logging sensor
data from six different
passes. The measured bub-
ble counts (DFBM1) from
FloView are also shown in
the third track.

The Gradiomanometer indi-

cates a minor density reduc-
tion at XX58 ft and a major
drop at XX30 ft. Note that
both spinner and tempera-
ture readings also confirm
fluid entry into the wellbore
at these two points.

As the well was producing

below the bubble point, the
minor temperature drop at
XX58 ft could be due to
Joule-Thomson cooling ef-
fect associated with gas en-
try.

Classical interpretation
techniques under such cir-
cumstances assume hydro-
carbon entry into the well-
bore at these two points,
mainly due to density reduc-
tion.

However, FloView bubble

counts till XX30 ft are read-
ing zero, indicating that the
fluid entering the wellbore
at XX58 ft is actually water.
The water entering the
wellbore at this point has a
lower density compared to
Fig. J8: Example with multiple passes of both the standard sensors and the the stationary water column
FloView tool.
below. This conclusion was
also supported by the shut-
in passes.

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Introduction to Production Logging

To ascertain the performance of FloView as an input into the interpretation model, all PL sensors,
including FloView holdup data were imposed on PLGLOBAL. The summary of interpreted flow
profile is also shown in Figure J9.

Fig. J9: PLGLOB analysis showing the three phase flow in the well. The Flowview image indicates clearly the first hy-
drocarbon entry (red colour).

(01/97) J-6

The fluid images are displayed in the right-
most track, generated from the holdup meas-
urements from three probes since one probe
was damaged during the survey. All passes
and all probes clearly indicate the first hydro-
carbon entry into the wellbore at XX30 ft.
Note that the reconstructed water holdup from
PLGLOBAL, as shown in track-3, is in per-
fect agreement with the value measured by
FloView. This increases the confidence in the
interpretation and on the overall hydrocarbon
holdup (Yg + Yo). Without the new digital
holdup measurement, the minor density re-
duction at XX58 ft could have been misinter-
preted as hydrocarbon entry into the wellbore,
and the overall flow profile would have been
changed. The current design of the probes
differentiate only water and hydrocarbons.
However, the hydrocarbon phase was further
split into oil and gas, based on the oil and gas
holdup values computed from the
PLGLOBAL flow model.
Example 2
The objective of the survey was to identify the
main source of water and gas in a well which
has a deviation of 52.5 degrees. Several
passes with the PLT were conducted, but only
four passes with FloView were recorded. The
relative bearing measurement showed that the
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string was not rotating during the survey. The
well deviation, downhole density and individ-
ual probe holdup data from four passes are
presented Figure J10.
The sensors indicate a stationary column of
water below XX45 ft, with an average density
of 1.151 g/cc. A decrease in the measured
holdup, accompanied with a reduction of den-
sity above this depth, indicates the first hy-
drocarbon entry into the wellbore.
The measured holdup from FloView shown in
tracks 2 to 5, indicate a sudden drop at the top
of the upper perforation while spinner is indi-
cating an increasing trend at that section. The
reduction of density at this point could be at-
tributed to further reduction of water holdup
due to hydrocarbon entry. Since the well is
producing below the bubble point, gas is en-
tering into the wellbore, as the temperature
sensor also shows a cooling effect.
The well is not fully stable, as indicated by
the noise on the pressure and Gradiomanome-
ter data. Note that the first hydrocarbon entry
into the wellbore at XX45 ft is clearly seen by
all probes.
(01/97) J-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. J10: Raw data of FloView recorded density and well deviation.

(01/97) J-8
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Fig. J11: PLGLOB output and the FloView image showing the flow profiles for the fluids.

(01/97) J-9
Introduction to Production Logging

Figure J11 shows the interpretation results, Example 3

the measured and reconstructed sensor data,
the flow profile and FloView fluid images.
The fluid images indicate some degree of
phase segregation within the wellbore, with
probes 1 and 4 indicating more water. Probes
2 and 3 indicate only hydrocarbon flow. The
reconstructed sensor data matches the meas-
ured values quite well.
The reconstruction for the mean holdup from
FloView, shown in the fifth track, is not as
good above the top perforation, possibly due
to phase segregation. Note that the mean
holdup is the average of all passes and all
probes. This example shows a difficult case,
where the hole deviation was 52.5 degrees;
still, it was possible to detect hydrocarbon en-
tries and holdup values, especially in the two
phase region.
The third PLT + FloView survey was con-
ducted under bi-phasic conditions in a vertical
well while flowing through a 36/64" choke.
The relative bearing measurement showed
that the string was not rotating during the sur-
vey. Two of the probes were damaged while
lowering the tool into the wellbore with one
also showing occasional spikes. This exam-
ple shows the possibility of utilizing the local
frequency from only one of the probes in a
vertical well to determine the downhole flow
profile and phase split.

(01/97) J-10
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Fig. J12: A biphasic analysis made using a single FloView probe as the others were damaged.

(01/97) J-11
Introduction to Production Logging
The downhole flow profile and FloView fluid
images are shown in Figure J12. The
FloView images were generated using probes
1 and 3. Due to damage on probes 2 and 4,
the data from these two probes were not used
in this evaluation. Probe-3 was also indicating
a slightly different response than the actual
well behavior across a limited section of the
well. Therefore, the average holdup from
probe-1 for all five passes was used in the in-
terpretation model. The existence of a sta-
tionary column of water with an average den-
sity of 1.14 g/cc at the bottom of the well,
below XX16 ft is clearly confirmed by all the
PL sensors.
A gradual reduction of density readings ac-
companied with a minor temperature drop
above XX16 ft, is due to entrance of a lighter
fluid into the wellbore. Spinner readings con-
firm existence of a dynamic environment at
this region. Since no bubbles were detected
by FloView, the fluid entering the wellbore at
this depth can only be water with a lighter
(01/97) J-12
density of 1.103 g/cc. Note that the field is
currently under water flood and the water en-
try is likely to be injection water. The first
hydrocarbon entry into the well was detected
at XX90 ft, accompanied by a major density
reduction. Temperature and spinner data also
confirm this behavior. Other fluid entry zones
into the wellbore were recognized at XX30-
XX38 and XX96-XX25 ft. The water entry at
XX10 ft, which could have been mis-
interpreted as oil bubbling within the standing
water column was also avoided.
Example 4
In this example, the PLT + FloView survey
was conducted while flowing the well through
a 40/64" choke. The well was not stable at a
lower choke size. The flow is bi-phasic and
the well is vertical. The relative bearing
measurement showed that the string was not
rotating during the survey. PLT + FloView
data was available from 6 passes; one of them
did not completely cover the interval (pass 1).
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Fig. J13: Analysis of the images shows the initial entry into the wellbore is fresh water.

(01/97) J-13
Introduction to Production Logging
The final flow profile interpretation, together
with fluid images derived from pass 5, are
shown in Figure J13. A minor reduction in
density at around XX74 ft indicates lighter
fluid entry into the wellbore. However,
FloView does not show any hydrocarbon
bubbles at this section. Thus, the fluid enter-
ing the wellbore at this point is water of lower
salinity compared to the standing water at the
bottom of the well. Possibly due to downhole
segregation and/or water recirculation, the
spinner is subject to noise. This noise is more
significant below XX00 ft where the total ve-
locity is possibly below the spinner threshold
and not high enough to lift the water column
completely. Therefore, identification of the
minor water entry with the spinner was not
possible and the combined information from
the Gradiomanometer and FloView was use-
ful for the interpretation. The first hydrocar-
bon entry is seen at XX48 ft, where the
FloView starts detecting oil bubbles in the
wellbore. This is confirmed by a reduction of
density at this point. The interpretation model
is assuming a stationary column of water
across this interval with oil bubbling through
it. Although the observed water holdup is
high, the actual flowing water is much
smaller. The major fluid entry is seen at
XX90-XX06 ft, where a clear increase in the
spinner is observed. Further reduction of den-
sity at this interval could be attributed to an
increased hydrocarbon holdup.
A sudden reduction of water holdup is clearly
identifiable at XX92-XX06 ft. Below this
(01/97) J-14
depth, all probes in all passes indicate similar
behavior. Above XX00 ft, probe-3 water
holdup values from passes 1, 2 and 3 show
some fluctuation with higher readings. Even
with this discrepancy, the holdup values from
this probe were also used in the interpretation,
because it might be responding to water slugs
within the fluid column. The mean FloView
water holdup values from passes 2,3,4,5 and 6
were used in the interpretation model. Due to
noise in the spinner data, a minor incoherency
exists between the spinner derived velocity
and the values calculated by the model. Note
that all other sensors reconstruct the model
outputs quite well. From this survey, oil entry
points were clearly detected and water entry
with lighter density at the bottom of the well
was identified. The FloView data was invalu-
able in defining the fluid entry points below
XX00 since the spinner was below its thresh-
old.
Example 5
The production logging survey of this well
was carried on while flowing through a
32/64" choke. Out of a total of 9 runs with
PLT tool, FloView data were collected only
on two passes. The well has 13 degrees de-
viation and produces only oil and water. The
tool string was not rotating during the survey.
The well was not stable during logging; the
pressure and downhole density values change
with each successive pass. Similarly, the
FloView holdup values differ from pass 1 to
pass 2.
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Fig. J14: This example shows that the lower perforation is not flowing.

(01/97) J-15
Introduction to Production Logging
Figure J14 shows the interpretation of the
survey. The mean FloView water holdup
from pass 2 was used in the interpretation
since it seemed to be the more stable pass.
All sensors indicate that the lower perforation
interval does not contribute to flow. Spinner
readings indicate a minor increase at about
XX23 ft, accompanied with a minor tempera-
ture change. As no bubble count is observed
at this depth, this behavior is attributed to wa-
ter entry into the wellbore. The first hydro-
carbon entry is recognized at XX08 ft with an
increase in bubble counts and reduction of
density. Though the flow was unstable during
the survey, the first hydrocarbon entry into the
well is similar in both FloView passes.
Note that the model water holdup reconstructs
the FloView measured holdup only fairly
above the upper perforation. The fluid images
show increasing oil holdup above this perfora-
tion, which can be due to well instability. The
Gradiomanometer curve, which is the average
of all passes, shows a better reconstruction in
this plot. However, the Gradiomanometer
corresponding to the last pass, also indicates
increasing downhole densities above the per-
foration confirming FloView readings.
Though only one FloView pass out of two
was used for the interpretation due to flow
instability in the well, hydrocarbon and water
entries were clearly identified.
J.1.4 Summary
(01/97) J-16
The new measurement technique provides
digital holdup at four different spatial posi-
tions in the wellbore with no prior calibration
requirements. The measured data can be used
quantitatively in PL interpretation and an im-
age of the flow is also generated.
The field examples show that the principle of
local frequency measurement is capable to
enhance the domain of production logging
interpretation and give a better picture in
complex flow regimes. Water and oil entry
points were clearly determined in difficult
cases and fluid segregation in deviated wells
was identified. The quantitative holdup
measurement was used directly in the inter-
pretation without jetting/venturi or friction
effects. The technique of measurement is also
applicable for horizontal wells to determine
water holdup in segregated flow conditions.
This technique has shown a significant added
value in:
• Deviated wells, where determining pro-
duction profiles are difficult due to
phase segregation.
• In wells with high or low water cut
where identifying minor fluid entry
points are critical.
• Increasing confidence and reducing am-
biguities in all PLT survey interpreta-
tion.
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J.2 FLAGSHIP PROJECT

J.2.1 Introduction
The FloView technique goes a long way to
overcome the difficulties in multiphase flow.
However there is still a problem of measuring
the velocities (flow rates) of the phases in
horizontal or very highly deviated wells.

The diagnosis of unwanted fluid in high-angle

and horizontal wells is made challenging by:

Challenges: Flagship Service

Approach

Flow regimes
Stratified flows, Identify the flow
downflow, water regime with an im-
sumps, oil and gas aging tool and
traps, three phase measure independ-
flow ently the velocity
and hold-up of each
phase.
Sensor response
No single sensor Multiple independ-
has a robust inter- ent measurements
pretation in all of (data redundancy)
the above condi- with different sen-
tions sors for enhanced
confidence in inter-
pretation.
Uncemented com-
pletions
Slotted liners, flow Accurate flow
in the annulus, measurement in
failed ECPs the liner is the
minimum neces-
sary condition for
reliable flow diag-
nosis. Water flow
in the annulus can
also be detected.
Toolstring access
and deployment
Time and cost One run toolstring
which can be de-
ployed in several
stages if required.
(01/97) J-17
Introduction to Production Logging

The hold-up and velocity of each phase must the predicted down-hole densities of the
be measured by the toolstring for accurate two fluids.
flowrate diagnosis. Very small changes in • A slip velocity is produced from the
well deviation can cause large changes in relative densities of the two fluids, the
these quantities independently of any fluid well deviation, and a slip model.
entry.
In horizontal wells:-
J.2.2 The Approach to the Problem
• The fluid tends to segregate and the
spinner's response may no longer repre-
In normal production logging operations:-
sent the average velocity.
• The spinner records the average flow
across a portion of the casing cross- • The composition of the fluid cannot
section. now be determined by differential pres-
sure across 21" of tool (although a nu-
• The composition, or hold-up, of the
clear density device does have some ap-
fluid is determined by a density meas-
plication).
urement, based on the differential pres-
sure across 21" of the logging tool and

Gas

Failed External Casing Packer

Fault
Formation Instability
Stagnant Gas

Fractures
Cuttings
Oil Layer Stagnant Water

Wa ter

Fig. J15: Some of the potential problems in horizontal wells.

J.2.3 The Flagship Service • The Phase Velocity Log, PVL, where a
The solution is a combination of measure- marker fluid is ejected and its time of
ments as follows: flight recorded. Oil miscible and water
miscible markers are selectively ejected

(01/97) J-18
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to record the individual segregated
phase velocities.
• The water flow log, RST-WFL, where
the transit time of activated oxygen is
used to measure the velocity of the seg-
regated water.
difference between water and not water.
This allows analysis of the flow regime,
"Do we have stratified flow?", and
evaluation of the water holdup, Hw.

• The FloView tool, (two in the string),

where impedance probes can detect the
Combinable Production
Logging Tool
Pressure & temperature Digital Entry Fluid
Reservoir Imaging Tool Fluid marker
Saturation Tool Flow regime injector tool
Oil hold-up Water hold-up (TEE-F)
Gamma Ray Total
Gas indicator flowrate
Detector
NFD-C

Dual DEFT
CPLT GR RST Spinner

Water Flow Log Phase Velocity Log

Water velocity Marker injection for oil
Water hold-up index and/or water velocity
Water flowrate index

Fig. J16: PVL tool string configuration.

Gas detection is still qualitative and based on The conventional spinners are also included
pulsed neutron count rate techniques which as, in favourable flow regimes, they can
date back to the early TDT's. measure total flow rate.

A new model for two-phase segregated flow
has been developed. This solves for the water
velocity, oil velocity and holdup and the well
deviation. If one of these variables is missing
from logging measurements it can be back
calculated thus giving redundancy in the data
acquisition requirements. The model is cur-
rently valid from approx. 80 to 92 degrees
deviation.
(A promising technique, still in development,
will provide 'Three Phase Holdup' from the
RST-A).
The Flagship Application (where and where
not to use it).
The toolstring sensors and related interpreta-
tion models have been developed specifically
for stratified flow regimes that are expected to
exist in very high angle and horizontal wells.

(01/97) J-19
Introduction to Production Logging
Typically such flows would only be expected
at deviations over 75 degrees. Results from all
field trials to date have confirmed this.
As deviation decreases the oil-water stratified
flow changes to become a dispersed bubbly
flow. This flow regime presents a different
and more formidable set of logging chal-
lenges. Whereas individual tools or services
from the flagship toolstring such as the DEFT
or WFL are designed for deviated wells, the
full flagship combination is purely for hori-
zontal well logging.
J.2.4 Phase Velocity Log
Record Measurement
Ejection
Ejection
Tool
Fluid movement
Fig. J17: Phase Velocity Log technique.
The markers used for the different phases are:
• Water-Soluble Marker
Gadolinium Chloride (GdCl3) in Water
(01/97) J-20
The other techniques have been explained
elsewhere in the text; the Phase Velocity Log
is a new measurement. The method is similar
to the tracer log however it uses chemical
markers instead of radioactive fluids.
A chemical marker with high thermal neutron
absorption cross-section (sigma) that will mix
only with a specific fluid phase is injected
into the borehole. Using a tool reacting to the
neutron capture cross-section, the passage of a
marker past a measure point is detected. The
fluid velocity is calculated from the time be-
tween injection and detection of marker.
Measurement
Oil
Water
High Gadolinium concentration
High Density
Low Viscosity.
• Oil-Soluble Marker
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New Organometallic Compound

High Gadolinium concentration
Low Density 400

Low Viscosity.

PVL Water Velocity (fpm)

300

200

100

0
0 100 200 300 400 500

Fig. J19: Flow loop tests for water flow only.

In a similar experiment with two phases, oil

Fig. J18: Phase Velocity Log Measurement. and water, the agreement is once again excel-
lent as shown in Figure J20.
The ejection time is known, showing as a 500

negative spike on this record (Figure J18). Results of Linear Fit

Intercept -3.4
The measured data is filtered to smooth out Slope 0.997
400
statistical variations. The positive peak is de- Correlation
0.998
Velocity Set in Flow Loop (fpm)

Coefficient
tected when the marker passes the sensor.
The measurement gives the specific fluid ve- 300

locity.
Oil
Water

J.2.5 Flow Loop Tests 200

Tests of the technique have been made using a

flow loop capable of flowing different fluids 100
14,000 BPD
and at varying angles. (5-inch Liner)

The example in Figure J19 shows the results 0

0 100 200 300 400 500
for a single phase, water, flowing in the sys- PVL Velocity (fpm)

tem. The measured flow rate is in excellent Fig. J20: Flow loop tests for two phases,
agreement with the actual rate. oil and water.
J.2.6 Field Tests
Measurements have been made in a number
of horizontal wells where the rates have been
verifiable by other methods.

One example is shown here with a number of

measurements. The water velocity is com-
puted using both the PVL and WFL tech-
niques and agree closely.

(01/97) J-21
Introduction to Production Logging

The oil velocity can only be computed by the

PVL method. The water hold up has been The flowrates have been calculated using both
measured using the FloView (LIFT in the dia- the measurements.
gram) tool.

6 00

PV L
W at er 4 00 WFL
Vel oci t y
( f pm) 2 00

5 00
Oi l
Vel oci t y
3 00
( f pm)

1 00

Un- Calib r at ed Ov er - ran ge d

80
W at er
Hol d- Up
( %) 40 RST
LIFT

4 00 0
Fl ow
Rat es
2 00 0
( BP D)
Wat e r
Oil
0
6 00 7 00 8 00 9 00 1 00 0 1 10 0
Rel a t i v e Dept h

San d st on e Form atio n with a 8.5-in ch bo reh o le,

co m p let ed wit h 5.5-inch , 17 lb / ft cem ent ed casin g

Fig. J21: Flow loop test results.

(01/97) J-22
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This example, Fig-

ure J22, shows the
results of a com-
plete Flagship in-
terpretation.

Track 1 shows the

well path.

Track 2 shows the

well sketch.

Tracks 3 and 4
show the velocity
data.

Track 5 shows the

hold-up data.

Track 6 shows the

flowaret analysis.

Track 7 shows the

porosity analysis.

Fig. J22: Flagship log example.

(01/97) J-23
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K. EXAMPLES
K.1 EXAMPLES Questions
1) Using this data predict the direction and
K.1.1 Example 1
extent of any crossflow. How could a quanti-
Information
tative value be given to the crossflow? Bu =
The well is a water injector with an injection
0.053, Bd = 0.058.
rate of 7550 bpd. The casing size is 5.5”.
2) What, if anything, is happening from 2436
The composite shows spinner up and down
to 2438 ft in the shut in condition.
passes and shut in, injection temperature and
two shut in temperatures. The major question
3) What produces the rapid warming seen in
is where are the injected fluids going.
the lower portion of the well between 2415
and 2470?

Example K1: Temperature and shut-in flowmeter.

(01/97) K-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Example K1: Flowing Spinners.

(01/97) K-2
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K.1.2 Example 2
The well is producing oil, 360 bpd, with a high GOR and a slight water cut, <5%. The casing was
set at 467.8 m with an open hole completion below this.
The logs below show:
• shut in and flowing temperature
• shut in flowmeter
• shut in and flowing gradiomanometer
What is the flow profile?

(01/97) K-3
Introduction to Production Logging

Example K2: Gradiomanometer Overlay.

Example K2: Spinners.

(01/97) K-4
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Example K2: Temperature Data.

(01/97) K-5
Introduction to Production Logging

K.2 ANSWERS The next two shut in passes indicate the oil
leg has gone and the gas water contact is now
K.2.1 Example 1
at 476.5m
The spinner indicates the extent of the cross-
flow to be from 2470.5 to 2414.6 feet. As the
Temperature
down flowmeter has a higher value than the
The temperature overlays indicate that the
up pass the fluid must be moving upwards.
wellbore from 470 to 477 is distinctly cooler
By logging shut in and/or flowing passes at
in the shut-in state than in flowing conditions.
three different flowrates (minimum) the spin-
The area at 472 is coolest.
ner can be calibrated.
Combining these observations gives the fol-
The average velocity can be estimated as
lowing conclusions:
= (difference between the up and down spin-
From 470-474 the well is producing almost
ners) / (Bu+Bd)
100% gas.
In the shut in state gas only is flowing from
= (0.42)/(0.053+0.058)*.83 = 3.14 ft/min.
472 to 476.5.
The oil must be produced between 475 and
2) According to the shut in temperature passes
472 as the flowing gradio showed no light
theis zone is taking some of the fluid from
phase below 475m.
2469.5 - 2470.5 feet.

3) The fluid flowing back from 2469.5-2470.5 K.2.3 Flowmeter Example 1

is at or near the geothermal temperature for 1) compute the spinner deflection for the
that depth and the fluid warms the borehole as maximum flow (top of the log) compared to
it flows up to 2415 feet. the zero flow zone at the bottom.
This gives 14 rps.
K.2.2 Example 2
2) Find the additional spinner deflection in
Flowmeter
each of the other intervals, A, B, C.
The shut in spinner shows the largest differ-
THESE ARE:
ences between 470 and 477m. This may indi-
cate an area of crossflow but it is small and A = 3.6RPS
inconclusive.
B = 2.1RPS
Gradiomanometer C = 8.3RPS
Flowing 3) Determine the percentage contribution of
There is 100% water up to 475, then a small each zone.
light phase entry. At 470 there is a large light A = 3.6/14 = 25.7%
phase entry.
B = 2.1/14 = 15.0%
Initial shut-in C = 8.3/14 = 59.3%
In the very first stages after flowing there are
three distinct densities on the log
1.11 at the bottom water K.2.4 Flowmeter Example 2
0.61 in the middle probably oil The zero flow line should cross the x axis at a
0.11 at the top probably gas threshold value of 6 ft/min.

Subsequent shut in The intersection of 15 rps with the response

curve gives a flow velocity of 140 ft/min.
(01/97) K-6

Therefore the peak fluid velocity
= 140 - 67 ft/min = 73 ft/min
Correcting for the shape of the flow to obtain
the average velocity
Average velocity = 73 * 0.83 ft/min
= 60.6 ft/min
The flowrate in bpd = (60.6/34.4)*1000
= 1762 bpd.
Note: There are times when the zero flow
curve cannot be logged due to debris in the
well, not enough sump or a different viscosity
fluid below the perforations. In this case the
line has to be created using the data from the
full flow and the threshold of the device. It is
drawn parallel to the full flow and goes
through the threshold.
K.2.5 Flowmeter Example 3
1) The response curve is drawn both for the
positive and negative quadrants, parallel to
line through the data points. It should go
through a threshold. The threshold is com-
puted by taking the mid point between the
positive and negative lines and moving this to
the origin.
2) The calibration line crosses the y-axis at
5rps, this corresponds to 120 ft/min on the
response curve.
The flowrate is thus
= (120/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 3331 bpd.
3) 6 ft/min corresponds to 140 ft/min using
the response curve. At a tool speed of 60
ft/min this gives the average fluid velocity
= (140-60)*0.83 = 66.4 ft/min
The flow rate is then
= (66.4/29.9)*1000= 2221bpd
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4) the calibration line for this pass crosses the
y-axis at 2 rps. This corresponds to 60 ft/min
using the response line. Hence the flowrate is
= (60/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 1666 bpd.
K.2.6 Flowmeter Example 4
The spinners are overlaying below 10408 in-
dicating zero flow here.
The down spinners decrease around 10350’
before increasing again.
The conclusion is that the top of the second
set of perforations or the bottom of the third
set is taking fluid produced from the lower
interval. The increase at the top of the latter
zone is due to production here.
The shut-in pass below shows the picture
clearly. Production from the lower perforation
is flowing into the second set of perforations.
K.2.7 Gradiomanometer Example 1
1) Above A the gradio reads 0.53 g/cc. The
maximum reading, at the bottom of the log is
1.0 g/cc. Assuming this is the density of the
heavy phase and that 0.53 is the density of the
light phase;
at point B
Yhp = (0.53-0.53)/(1.0-0.53) = 0
at point A
Yhp = (0.7-0.53)/(1.0-0.53) = 0.36
K.2.8 Gradiomanometer Example 2
Deviation
ρcor = ρgradio/cosθ
θ = 30°
cosθ = 0.87
ρcor = 0.63/0.87 = 0.72
density = 0.72 g/cc
Flowrate
From the chart,
(01/97) K-7
Introduction to Production Logging

ρcor/ρ = 1.027
ρ = 0.72/1.027 = 0.70 g/cc
K.2.9 Temperature Example 1
The flowing temperature shows the gas entry
at the top of the perforations. The shut in
passes suggest that this is coming from above.
The slope changes on the curves indicate
3931 and another change around 3924m.

(01/97) K-8
 P
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o
d
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t
i
o
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L
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