The Translation

Babel 47:2 133–157 ©ofFédération

Advertising
Internationale des Traducteurs (FIT) Revue Babel 133

The Translation of Advertising:

A Framework for Evaluation

Beverly Adab

Introduction

In Towards a Science of Translating, (1969) Nida asserts that “There will

always be a variety of valid answers to the question, ‘Is this a good transla-
tion?’ This question raises the issue of how best to evaluate the translated
text; it also underlines the fact that a source language text can generate,
(c) John Benjamins
through the process of translation, a range of translated, target language texts,
each of which could Delivered by serve
be ‘valid’, i.e. could Ingenta
a different purpose. Also of
importance ison: Sat,that18
the point Nov
a text 2006for01:10:33
is produced a given purpose (cf. Nord
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
1997). The question continues to be valid; one corollary of this, or perhaps a
pre-condition, is the need to know the
IP: 130.126.32.13 purpose of the text to be evaluated,
another being to know, prior to text production, the structure or shape of the
evaluation and the criteria upon which it will be based. Vienne (2000), makes
the point that all translation activity needs to be contextualised in relation to
the different features of the specific situation. Gouadec (1989: 41) explains
that each situation will have its own functionality and aims, which will, in
turn, determine the structure and nature of the process of evaluation. Gouadec
(1990: 334) further states that: “Nobody can translate with any reasonable
chance of success if they do not really know for whom (for which audience)
and for what (which purpose the test is to fulfil) they have to realise the
mediation” (translated by/ in Vienne, 2000). Newmark (1982) holds the view
that “detailed schemes for assessing translation are […] either too theoretical
or too arbitrary”, a view supported by Williams (1989: 13), who reminds the
reader of the difficulty of ensuring that the evaluator is competent to evaluate
and that s/he can do so in a reliable and objective manner. There appears to be
some consensus that there is a need for a reliable means of evaluating a
translated text, although the determining criteria may vary according to the
134 Beverly Adab

translation situation. McAlester (2000) outlines the problem of evaluation:

The definitions of methods used are frequently inexplicit, and often the
actual evaluation follows fairly rough guidelines based admittedly in the
best cases on experience and common sense, but in the worst on mainly
subjective impressions.

McAlester also reminds the reader that evaluation involves a value judgement
on the “appropriateness” of the translated text, with quality control placing
the emphasis on the usefulness of the product per se. The concern to reduce
the element of subjectivity is a common one, which, we would argue, can be
met in part by the use of a framework of key criteria.
In this paper we will propose such a framework, to be applied to
pragmatic texts, which could be used for the purpose of determining whether
a Target Text (TT) could be considered a ‘good’ translation. Pragmatic texts
constitute the majority of texts to be translated by trainee and practising
translators in a professional environment. The functionality of the pragmatic
text is also perhaps less
(c)difficult
Johnto Benjamins
define, and therefore to evaluate with
some degree of objectivity, than that of the literary text.
We believe that aDelivered bybeIngenta
pragmatic text can evaluated by means of a combi-
on:along
nation of criteria, Sat, the 18
lines Nov
of those2006
proposed01:10:33
by a functionalist approach
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
to translation (see Nord 1997). However, we recognise that a pragmatic text
may also have an expressive
IP: 130.126.32.13 function, which it is
or affective communicative
not so easy to evaluate in a reproducibly objective manner. Reiss (1989)
observed that a text may combine different communicative functions (infor-
mative, appellative, expressive) even when one function may be considered
dominant. This paper will also consider how it might be possible to measure
the more intangible aspects of the communicative purpose, taking examples
from advertising texts as representative of multi-(communicative) -functional
text type.

A.1. Theoretical aspects of evaluation

There have been various attempts to tackle the theoretical issues involved in
translation evaluation, most significantly those by House (1977 and 1997).
Other scholars have also considered this question, for example: Koller (1979),
Wilss (1982), Hönig and Kussmaul (1984); more recently, Nord (1991), Sager
(1983: 121), Hewson and Martin (1991), and Williams (1989). Most of this
work has focused on microtextual aspects of translation strategy. This in-
The Translation of Advertising 135

volves evaluating each choice through comparison with the corresponding ST

unit, positing thereby a relationship of correspondence between ST and TT, if
not at the level of forms, at least at the level of structure, organisation and lay-
out. This model of ST/TT relationship is very often the basis, at least in part,
for client evaluation of the TT as product. Hönig (1997) also notes that clients
in the professional translation environment may have preconceived ideas
about what the translation process involves and how the TT, as product,
should look.
What this expectation does not do is to take into account the concept of
the functionality of the translated text within its cultural environment, nor
does it allow for alternative approaches to text production. It also imposes
constraints on the translator, who may not be free to use all of his/ her skills to
produce an adequate target text, if required to observe a fairly close, docu-
mentary approach to the ST/TT relationship (cf. Nord 1991, 1997).
Current literature on advertising texts (cf. De Mooij 1998 and also below
— C. Values in and across cultures) suggests that the most appropriate way
to generate a useful and(c)communicatively
John Benjamins successful target language text of
Delivered
this type is by adapting the information byandIngenta
the product identity/ associated
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
values/ key message in the light of culture-specific features of perception.
However, since the expectation discussed above is often, still, the foun-
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
dation for the translation brief (cf. Adab 1998), it would be helpful to both
translator and evaluatorIP: 130.126.32.13
to know, prior to text production, the criteria against
which the TT will be measured to determine appropriacy and adequacy for
intended purpose. What we propose in this paper is a means to achieving this
aim of informed text production; we will also offer a set of reproducible
criteria for the purpose of evaluation, drawn from different approaches to
translation within an overall, functionalist perspective.

A.II. The need for a framework for evaluation

Evaluation can serve different purposes within a professional environment.

Gouadec (1989: 41) talks of the need to apply two forms of evaluation to a
translated text; the first, notation, relates to actual errors (quantity and type),
whilst the second, le contrôle de qualité, relates to the usefulness of the target
text as a product for a purpose. We would argue that the two are so interde-
pendent as to be fundamental to the process. In both cases, the evaluator will
need to offer justification for his/her judgement. Reference to issues of
136 Beverly Adab

translation theory can offer conceptual criteria for this purpose. Hönig (1997)
and Nord (1991: 165) agree on the need for a theoretical frame of reference
within which to conduct evaluation. Agreement between translation giver
and translator on the purpose of the text, the norms to be applied and the
criteria against which the TT, as a composite of decisions and choices, will be
evaluated, can help to rationalise the text production process to save time,
improve performance and maximise communicative effect.
In support of the need for a framework, Hönig also expresses the view
that for translation quality assessment (TQA) to be successful as both an
evaluative and/ or diagnostic/ therapeutic tool, it is essential for TQA to move
beyond consideration of errors in terms of comparative and contrastive
linguistic competence, to a broader approach which will allow evaluation in
relation to stated target text user needs and text purpose. Malmkjaer (1997)
argues that “no approach to translation can afford to do without contrastive
linguistics, but (that) to be of relevance to translators, contrastive studies need
to move well beyond the sentence level, to be corpus based rather than
intuition based and to (c)take John Benjamins
full-account of context and co-text”. Malmkjaer
explains that contextDelivered by Ingenta
includes the “concern of the functionalist approach to
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006of 01:10:33
translation with the TT function and the needs its users”.
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
B. A functionalist approach to translation
IP: 130.126.32.13
From a functionalist perspective, whether or not a target text is a “good”
translation will depend on the extent to which it can be used by the intended
reader for a pre-determined purpose. The question should therefore include
additional parameters, “Is this translation written in such a way that X can use
it for Y purpose?”. Nida would answer the question of “good translation” on
the basis that a TT is to be judged within his concept of dynamic equivalence
or equivalent response, the goal being effective communication of the mes-
sages of the Bible in a manner recognisable to the addressee: however Nida
tends to consider individual choices from a sociolinguistic perspective, at the
level of lexical units and associated values or connotations.
Within the functionalist perspective, Reiss and Vermeer (1984: 95)
offer skopos theory, emphasising target reader needs and placing greater
demands on the translator as decision-maker. Holz Mänttari (1984) focuses
on the role of translatorial expertise and the need to negotiate, with the
commissioner of the translated text, the purpose of the TT and the nature of
The Translation of Advertising 137

the relationship, if any, between the Source Text (ST) and the TT. This
depends on whether it is a commercially valid exercise, in the context of the
Target Language and Culture and with regard to the text type and purpose, to
submit a particular ST to a process of translation. As an extreme example,
there will not be a very large market in the Sahara for anti-freeze. Nord
(1991: 164) discusses how to evaluate a TT from the perspective of the text
user, whose needs include reliability and clarity, in order to ensure accurate
interpretation of the intentions of the sender.
More recently, in Target (1998), reiterating a functionalist view which
prioritises text purpose and user needs, Vermeer states that, “one can achieve
a good translation even by counting words, but one has to know when this is
adequate, that is, one has to act according to a skopos” (this being the purpose
for which the text is being produced). He explains that,
the translator, as expert in ‘interculturality’ has to come to terms with the
commissioner as to whether the skopos can or should be carried out and how
this should be done optimally, in view of the given circumstances, the target
(c) John Benjamins
culture circumstances in which the translation is meant to function and the
Delivered by Ingenta
circumstances under which the translator is to translate.

on: Sat, 18
These two quotes reflect Novin2006
an interest 01:10:33
the concept of what Nord (1997)
to: University
describes at as
as, “Translating Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
a Purposeful Activity”. The functionalist ap-
proach has encouraged a view of the translator as the person best qualified to
IP: 130.126.32.13
evaluate individual circumstances and needs. In addition, if purposeful evalu-
ation is to take place, then it is necessary to know the purpose of text
production. This can be achieved by looking at macro- and micro-features of
text production as discussed by different TS scholars. We shall firstly outline
these features, then consider cultural aspects of advertising in translation,
before giving specific examples from advertising texts.

B.I. Macrofeatures of text production from a functionalist perspective

Sensitivity to addressee needs

On the question of evaluation, Chesterman (1997: 123) discusses the need for
sensitivity to the target reader’s needs and probable responses, based on
assumed (SL and TL) native speaker competence of the translator, and of the
text critic, in the TL. He discusses different bases for assessment, including
inter alia: retrospective, focusing on ST/TT relationship, the degree of preser-
138 Beverly Adab

vation of ST features and of conformity to TL norms; and lateral, the adequacy

of resemblance by the TT to comparable authentic TL texts in the Wittgenstein
sense of family resemblances (cf. Reiss, 1977, text typological conventions,
Neubert, 1985 intertextuality). We would argue that Chesterman’s approaches
are both relevant, since the concept of appropriacy will be determined both by
client expectation and by the norms of the target language for the text type.

Effective communication

The responsibility of the translator for ensuring effective communication is a

prime concern for Holz Mänttari (1984). Gutt (1991) argues that there is no
need for a specific theory of translation, since all problems of translation can
be accounted for within the framework of the relevance theory of communica-
tion, as developed by Sperber and Wilson (1987). This theory sees communi-
cation as taking place in terms of intentions and inferences. In accordance with
Grice’s maxims (1975), a communicative event should “avoid ambiguity and
obscurity, also be brief(c)
and John
orderly” Benjamins
( Sperber, Wilson 1986: 34). However,
Gutt also advises theDelivered by Ingenta
translator to specify the function of a translation in a
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006
preface, to make clear his/her intentions and 01:10:33
to ensure that these intentions
correspond to reader expectations. For these
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign scholars, in different ways,
translatorial expertise is clearly still relevant and needs to be exercised in
IP: 130.126.32.13
accordance with (pre-)determined criteria. This is the role of the framework.

Respecting norms and fulfilling expectations

Unfulfilled expectations can obstruct the communicative process.

Chesterman (1997: 60) discusses the need for the translator to be aware of
the different types of norms which contribute to shaping choices of strategy
and decision-making, for the purpose of effective communication. These
include expectancy norms, determined by reference to discourse conventions,
text-type conventions, style, register, text features, syntax, collocation, lexis,
and professional norms — process-oriented norms, which regulate translation
strategies. He also discusses higher order professional norms of: accountabil-
ity — to the SL author, text commissioner, translator him/ herself, TL reader
(ethical); communication — the need to optimise communicative effect as
required by the situation; and relation — the need to establish an appropriate
degree of relevant similarity between ST and TT.
The Translation of Advertising 139

In considering a framework within which to make translation decisions,

Toury (1995: 53–69) describes sets of norms governing TT production, and
therefore also the ST/TT relationship, as preliminary — depending on the
translation policy in a given culture, regulating what kind of text is likely to
be translated (this is usually more relevant to literary than to pragmatic texts);
or operational — relating to textual norms, the text as product and the
mechanisms of the process; and initial — the choice between 2 alternatives
for a global approach to a source message (text) to be translated, these choices
being either adequacy to the source text form, style and content, or accept-
ability — where priority is given to TL norms for text type, style and use of
language.
As for the frustration of expectations, Chesterman (1997) explains that
this may be a positive translation strategy as well as the unintended outcome
of a translation choice, so it is important to differentiate between these.
According to Chesterman (1997), the choice of translation strategy can
deliberately flout different sets of norms; firstly, norm-breaking can be func-
(c) deviant
tion-enhancing, exploiting Johnspellings,
Benjamins structures, word-order, for com-
Delivered
municative effect. It may by to
also be necessary Ingenta
deviate from TL norms in order
to preserve TTon: Sat, 18 Nov 2006remains
function, so that the message 01:10:33
clear even if formal
expectations not met. Or it may happen that norm-breaking results in function
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
change, when unintended distortions of the message are more serious (e.g.
IP: 130.126.32.13
misprints, ungrammaticality, mistranslation), misleading the reader and giv-
ing an image of carelessness on the part not only of the translator but also of
the translation commissioner, hence detracting from the view of the company
and ultimately, by association, of the product. Evaluation needs to take these
forms of deviation into account when considering potential success of the TT.
In the case of the advertising text, it has been shown that the more serious
errors are those which prejudice the creation of the desired impact on the TL
reader, either by negatively perceived infringement of norms and expecta-
tions or by failure to recreate for the product the added value of lifestyle and
desirable qualities to be associated with the product.
As described by Nord (1991: 66), evaluation according to a functional-
ist approach will thus look at the text as a whole, its functions and effects, in
relation to the ‘prescribed model of action’ and the expectations of the
addressee. Evaluation is thus text, context and function-linked.
140 Beverly Adab

B.II. Microfeatures of text production within the functionalist

approach

In a professional situation, problems in the form of basic linguistic errors

should not normally be expected. Where these do occur, Nord’s category of
linguistic problems and the basic transfer strategies offered by Vinay and
Darbelnet (1958, 1977) can be used to describe both error and process.
Linguistic errors, taken at the level of the text as a composite message, can
have an impact on acceptability and intertextuality, as described by Neubert
and Shreve (1992).
Similarly, mismatches of lifestyle and product quality can occur at the
level of individual units of meaning as well as of the text as message.
Coherence and situational relevance of the thematic approach needs to be
matched by cohesion in the use of language. A functionalist approach allows
us to take such errors into account at these different levels. All of these
features will be exemplified in Section D, below.
(c) John Benjamins
C. The advertisingDelivered
text as message:by Ingenta
values in and across cultures
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
Specialists in
to: Universityadvertising
atresearch tendat
Illinois to agree that in the Western culture,
Urbana-Champaign
that the purpose of the advertising text is to persuade the reader to adopt a
IP: through
certain type of behaviour, 130.126.32.13
belief in the positive qualities of the
product. According to Kochan (1996: xi), “Products do not exist in a void,
they are bought because consumers have found something they relate to in
them, something which they value”.
For purchases involving greater expenditure, the appeal is achieved
through the creation of an identity which can be enhanced by use of the
product (e.g. different makes of car — family, sporty, adventurous, reliable,
luxury). This identification has to work on two levels, by simultaneously
creating a sense of belonging to a group to which the consumer could aspire
and yet asserting the individual and unique properties of the product, use of
which will confer these properties on the user (Williamson 1978). For ex-
ample, this is how Jack Daniel’s Whiskey advertisements seek to achieve
these effects:
We are always pleased and flattered to receive questions and comments
from our interested friends of Jack Daniel’s Whiskey. While we, of this
generation, would like to take credit for originating the distinctive quality of
The Translation of Advertising 141

flavor and smoothness of our whiskey, our history will not allow it.
(From product literature supplied by the manufacturer)

We can see that group membership is evoked by “friends”, while uniqueness

is implied in “distinctive quality”.
On this question, Cathelat (1992) wonders whether advertising creates,
or merely responds to and reproduces different life-styles and self-images,
concluding that whatever the response, ”la publicité est un phénomène
social, une fabrique de styles de vie et de nouvelles valeurs” (advertising is a
social phenomenon, a source of (creation of) new lifestyles and new sets of
values — our translation).
Hence the focus in evaluating the advertising message should depend, in
part, on the way in which the product image and user identity are constructed
through reference (explicit or implicit) to values, which form part of the
contemporary consumer mythology of lifestyle and value systems. The extent
to which these are transferable between the culture of origin, in which the
message is constructed, and the individual target cultures for which the
(c) John Benjamins
message is to be translated, is fundamental to the success of the translated
advertising message (DeDelivered by Ingenta
Mooij 1998, Adab.1). Of course, in situations where
the target texton: Sat, 18 Nov 2006of01:10:33
is produced on the basis of a set information and concepts
to: University
rather than on a source attext,Illinois atbyUrbana-Champaign
as described Harris (1983: 129), the question
of the translatability of myths and values will not arise.
IP: 130.126.32.13
One striking result of the development of mass communications and
multilingual marketing has been the growth of a new global culture which
“ignores national boundaries” and “reflects differences between cultures”
(Cook 1992: 15). Unfortunately, one feature of this new global culture is a
tendency to destroy, or at least seek to minimise, intercultural differences,
often due to assumptions about the relevance of source culture based myths
and values to a target culture (Adab.2., 2000). The absence of clear criteria
for translation quality assessment has also contributed to the continuing
process of what has been described as the “MacDonaldisation” of the global
consumer market (Ritzer 1998). This also refers to the way in which values
underlying globally-aimed advertising messages tend to replace local values
with those (mainly Western) of the consumerised first world. Of course, this
approach is commercially more interesting for the producer of consumer
goods; it allows some form of production cost control since it does not require
radical adaptation of goods or messages for local expectations. This approach
is particularly evident in such areas as information technology, the motor
142 Beverly Adab

industry and FMCGs (Fast moving consumer goods), of which prime ex-
amples would be, MacDonalds, Coca Cola, Levis jeans and manufacturers of
sportswear such as Nike (ranked by Kochan 1996 as 1st, 2nd, 8th and 11th
respectively in the global top 100 brands).
However, in the market for luxury (non-essential) goods or services
there is a contrast between those which already aim at a global consumer and
those which base their appeal on more locally-(i.e. nationally-)relevant val-
ues and expectations, an example of the first being most brands of cars (e.g.
Fiat, Ford, Volvo), of the second, Minton China, Old Charm Furniture, Laura
Ashley clothing. This can, of course work in reverse: IKEA had an interesting
television campaign in late 1998-early 1999, based on an appeal to reject
traditional British chintz (symbolising a certain style) for the clean-cut lines
of Scandinavian furnishings, including the exhortation, “Don’t be so British”.
According to De Mooij (1998), the promotion of non-essential, luxury
goods most strongly embodies the core values of a creator. A further consid-
eration is the fact that achieving the persuasive function in relation to the
(c)items
purchase of non-essential John oftenBenjamins
requires extended written text, unlike
Delivered
the brief, often audio-visual by toIngenta
message used promote FMCGs. These are the
kind of texts on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
that are most likely to be translated, whereas for FMCGs more
research is conducted to allow production of a localised key concept, encap-
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
sulated in one word, one line, a slogan, designed within and for a specific
target language culture IP:
(TLC).130.126.32.13
For example, Club Méditerranée (Club Med)
offers more than just an inclusive holiday; its USP (Unique Selling Proposi-
tion) (Rijkens 1992: 50) is “happiness”. Perceptions of happiness vary, so
advertisements are tailored to local perceptions. Rijkens gives examples of
this strategy: for France: “le bonheur si je veux”(happiness, if I choose); for
Italy “felicità…come ti va” (happiness — however you like it); for Germany
“Das Glück… zu tun oder zu lassen” (happiness — take it or leave it — a play
here on the way Club Med offers activities but also gives the choice of having
a rest). The French are attracted by “la plus belle idée depuis l’invention du
bonheur”(the most attractive idea since the invention of happiness), the
Americans by “the antidote to civilization” and those from Asia by “Absolute
Paradise”. However, basic information will still be translated from the SL,
hence the message uses a combination of the two approaches.
Another approach by multinationals is to assume the existence of a
global set of values and expectations, usually in relation to business. For
many companies, whether the USP is national-culture specific or based on an
The Translation of Advertising 143

assumed set of global values (Adab 1.), the tendency is still to commission for
translation the main informational and appellative content of the promotional
literature, with the expectation, by the translation giver, of a close relation-
ship between ST and TT, in Nord’s documentary sense (see C. I. below).
This is why, to illustrate the proposed framework, examples will given from
text pairs designed to promote non-essential goods and services, through ST-
induced TT production.

C.I. The relationship between Source and Target Texts: typical

examples in advertising

Although the ideal, in the world of advertising, is often presented as simulta-

neous multilingual text production from basic information (cf. for example,
Rijkens 1992: 198, fifteen case studies where an international agency devel-
ops localised texts from a basic idea), it is however likely that for the most
part, the translation of pragmatic texts will usually involve the production of a
target text on the basis(c)
of a John Benjamins
source text. A case study of a corpus of texts for
Delivered
the language-pair English-French by1 and
(Adab Ingenta
Adab 2) has also shown this to
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
be frequent practice.
Nord (1991)
to: University suggests
at that a more effective
Illinois form of translation criticism
at Urbana-Champaign
(evaluation) would be based on comparative analysis of both source and target
text, taking into accountIP: 130.126.32.13
the intended relationship between these in a specific
translation situation. This relationship, controversially discussed in past de-
cades by translation scholars, by means of the concept of equivalence of the
message (linguistic, stylistic, textual, discursive, functional), or as fidelity to
the ST (form, content), could be seen in terms of the degree to which features
of the source text are intended, by the translation giver, to be recreated in the
target text. Chesterman supports a position in which, “Translation equiva-
lence, in the usual sense of the term, is (thus) defined situationally”
(1989: 70). This is echoed by Neubert, for whom the only viable notion of
translation equivalence is that, “equivalence only holds between L1 and L2
items within the framework of the individual text or texts” (1985: 142).
Nord defines fidelity as a close relationship between ST and TT with
preservation of ST factual, linguistic and stylistic features, whilst adaptation
would be the choice where the primary intention is functionality as defined by
text user needs for intended purpose, involving consideration of “general
idiomatic, stylistic, literary and textual norms of the target culture” (1991:
144 Beverly Adab

163). Depending on the intended ST/TT relationship, Nord proposes two

different overall approaches to TT production, the first being documentary,
reporting the form of the ST, the second, instrumental, recreating the function
of the ST. Nord further advocates a translation-oriented source text analysis
in order to determine those features of the ST which would need to be
preserved in order to achieve the intended TT function within the desired ST/
TT relationship.
Reiss and Vermeer (1984) argue that a TT is produced to serve a purpose
and to function in the target culture; it does not have to fulfil the same
function as the ST, so that there is no need to specify a relationship between
ST and TT. Chesterman (1997: 13) prefers to consider translation as a form
of rewriting, in which meaning is ‘negotiated during the translation process’,
with the TT being produced according to different constraints operating in the
target language culture.
To describe the message content (information plus added value) to be
recreated, it is also useful to refer to Toury’s concept of the invariant
(1995: 58, 85–86) as the(c)ideal
John Benjamins
construct which could be inferred from the ST
and reproduced in theDelivered
TT, also the termby Ingenta
homologon proposed by Hewson and
Martin (1991: on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
48) to relate to this same concept, namely that translation
seeks to transfer a specific message, by whatever means will best ensure its
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
accessibility for the intended TL reader. These concepts, when applied to the
IP:to130.126.32.13
advertising text, will relate product USP and to intended text impact on the
TL reader. They relate also to concepts of adequacy (Toury 1995) and
informativity (Neubert 1992).

C.II. Individual strategies within an overall approach to TT production

If the TT is to offer a coherent message, strategies for transfer of the SL

message need to conform to an overall approach, depending on the ST/TT
relationship to be achieved (c.f. Nord 1991, documentary or instrumental,
Toury 1995, adequacy or acceptability). Questions of conformity to text type
conventions and discourse practices within a culture can be resolved by
reference to Neubert’s standards of textuality (1985). Neubert (1985, 1992)
offers advice on text production in the translation situation, by means of his
adaptation of de Beaugrande and Dressler’s criteria (1981) for text produc-
tion (standards of textuality). These include:
* acceptability (user-centred): relates to the extent to which a textual unit
The Translation of Advertising 145

corresponds to the attitude and expectations of the TT reader, which will be

formed on the basis of his or her interpretation of the intended text type and
function of the TT; this can also relate to conformity to use of TL language units
– Jack Daniel’s: in the TT, a simple example: a misplaced accent on gôut
(should be goût): minimal error but shows lack of careful quality control of
TT
– Minton: The Company was founded in Stoke by Thomas Minton in 1793,
and continued under the direction of his son Herbert.
La Société a été fondée en 1793, à Stoke, par Thomas Minton, et à (sic)
poursuivi ses activités sous la direction de son fils Herbert.
– there is a syntactical error in the TL, with the use of à (preposition — to)
instead of a (auxiliary to form third person singular of Perfect tense, passé
composé, for single action at specific point in time, corresponding to SL Past
Simple — a poursuivi — continued its activities)
* intentionality (user-centred): relates to the author’s intention within a
translation unit as well as for global message
(c) John
– It’s our efficient, functional, Benjamins
no-frills approach to all aspects of business
Delivered
that enables us to consistently offer bythe Ingenta
best prices in the industry. Our
systems offeron:
great Sat, 18 Nov 2006
value even by Gateway 01:10:33
standards, and we wrote the book
on value.
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Notre approche efficace, fonctionnelle et simple à tous égards nous permet
de vous offrir constammentIP: 130.126.32.13
les meilleurs prix de l’industrie informatique.
Pour vous, un seul choix: Gateway 2000.
loss of colloquial form of expression as boasting/ self-promotion: offers great
value-we wrote the book on value: there is also loss of repetition as a stylistic
effect, as the TL substitutes a simple statement (reduction): offrir … les
meilleurs prix(offer the best prices)
* situationality, informativity:
– in a text advertising Old Charm Furniture we read of the founder:
In 1924, at the age of 14, he founded in London’s East End what has now
become Wood Bros of Ware
En 1924, à l’âge de 14 ans, il fondait dans l’East End de Londres une société
connue aujourd’hui sous le nom de Wood Bros of Ware
no concessions are made to the TL reader, who is expected to understand the
sociocultural significance of the geographical reference to the East End. In
the same text we have a historical reference to quality born out of the strength
of the Tudor period which sets it apart from changing tastes and fashions.
146 Beverly Adab

La qualité durable de notre mobilier s’inspire de la solidité de l’époque des

Tudor qui protège des vicissitudes de la mode
Again, the relevance of the Tudor period and its connotative values is lost for
the TL reader
* coherence: this is a function of the quality and structure of the argument in
the text as a global message and as such is difficult to illustrate here
* cohesion (text-centred); in the same Old Charm text we find:
Our furniture has an enduring quality born out of the strength of the Tudor
period which sets it apart from changing tastes and fashions.
La qualité durable de notre mobilier s’inspire de la solidité de l’époque des
Tudor qui protège des vicissitudes de la mode.
– in the SL set apart from — reinforces idea of unique style, whereas protège
(protects) refers to a different and more negative effect of reference to tastes
and fashions
* intertextuality (culturally-determined correspondence to text typological
conventions), which we do not propose to illustrate through brief examples
(c) John Benjamins
Within whatever overall approach is to be adopted, functional choices can be
Delivered by Ingenta
made about solutions to four types of translation problems (Nord 1991):
* pragmatic: on: Sat, 18terms,
culture-bound Novplace,
2006 time, 01:10:33
relationship between com-
to: University
municative atVictorian
partners: the Illinoiseraat(Minton);
Urbana-Champaign
Stoke (Minton); Sydney,
IP: 130.126.32.13
Australia, Wildflower Country,
* intercultural: differences in conventions between the two cultures in-
volved, such as measuring conventions, formal conventions, text-type con-
ventions, conventional forms of address, salutation formulae, etc.
– Australia: 37, 000 kilometres of beaches: not a problem unless the target
culture uses miles
– In a text advertising Gateway computers:
The company is currently the biggest direct market computer manufacturer in
the United States. Financially stable with over 1.5 billion dollars annual sales
revenue, Gateway 2000 is in the enviable position of being virtually debt free.
Financièrement stable avec des ventes annuelles s’élevant à plus de 1,5
milliard de dollars, Gateway 2000 est l’une des rares entreprises qui peuvent
se vanter de n’avoir pratiquement pas de dettes.
The TT has kept the reference to dollars, presumably in the expectation that
the French reader will be aware of the value of the dollar. Had the SL quoted
a different currency (yen, rupee or other) it would have been more helpful for
the TL reader to convert into French francs.
The Translation of Advertising 147

* interlingual: structural differences in vocabulary, syntax and supraseg-

mental features of the two languages
Traveller’s Guide (use of capital letters), whet your appetite (collocation)
Koalas, Kookaburras and Kangaroos, (in French becomes: Koalas, martins-
pêcheurs géants et kangourous) — dealing with loan words
* text specific: arise in the translation of one specific text and cannot be
generalised, e.g. metaphors, puns, rhetorical figures, alliteration, rhyme, etc.
– Jack Daniel’s: (A Pictorial Introduction to) the Spirit of Tennessee: diffi-
cult to recreate the play on the word spirit (see extract A, below)
– Gateway: The company was founded in 1985 by Ted Waitt, a maverick
who strayed from his family’s four-generation cattle business.
La société a été fondée en 1985 dans une ferme d’élevage de bétail, loin des
grands centres de la Silicon Valley. par Ted Waitt, un non-conformiste
ayant choisi une autre voie que la ferme familiale exploitée depuis quatre
générations.
The TL has to accept a neutral description, non-conformiste (non-conformist)
(c) John
in the absence of a similar Benjamins
lexical polysemy, resulting in a potential loss of
Delivered
stylistic impact although byinformation
preserving the Ingenta content.
on: Sat, 18
These problem-types, Nov
and the way 2006
solutions 01:10:33
chosen deal with the prob-
to:inUniversity
lem the context of theat Illinois
specific at Urbana-Champaign
advertising text purpose, are a key feature of
the proposed frameworkIP: 130.126.32.13
for evaluation.
Chesterman (1997:87-116) describes strategies according to different
criteria, on a global level, how to translate a given text and on a local level,
how to deal with a particular problem. He claims that there are two types of
strategy, broadly speaking; one relates to change or reduction in message
(reduction); the other to the preservation of the message by a change of
means (achievement). He too stresses the importance of ST comprehension,
through analysis and inferencing. As transfer mechanisms, he offers different
types of possible changes to text units, categorised as mainly syntactical (with
reference to Catford, 1965 and Vinay & Darbelnet, 1957), mainly semantic or
mainly pragmatic. The concepts of reduction and achievement are incorpo-
rated into the framework in relation to impact created and success in achiev-
ing the text purpose.
148 Beverly Adab

C.III. The Translated Advertising Text as Product — Functional

Adequacy

One way to evaluate the functional success of a target text of this type would
thus be to include consideration of the potential impact of the TT, based on
the culture-specific relevance or intercultural transferability of the myths and
values used to construct the message, with reference to the strategies used for
transfer of units of the SL message. This is why these features are integral to
the framework proposed. Transfer strategies can then be evaluated, by an
experienced native speaker of the TL who would also, hopefully, have near-
native competence in the SL and SLC, to determine by means of comparative
and contrastive text analysis, whether the impact of the TT remains constant
to that assumed to desired by the translation giver, or even whether that
impact is in fact enhanced or reduced. Consideration of the overall impact of
the text can be assisted by awareness of how the individual units of the
message contribute to this global effect, through analysis of transfer strate-
gies for micro-units of(c) John Benjamins
a message.
Delivered by Ingenta
D. Features on: Sat,
of Text 18 Nov
Production: 2006
Examples 01:10:33
from Advertising Texts
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
In this paper we are reporting features advertising texts for which a. the target
text appears to have a IP: 130.126.32.13
similar function to the source text, and b. there is a
clearly identifiable (form of) relationship between a given source and target
text pair. Transfer strategies operated on the SL message can be evaluated
according to macro-features and micro-features. Here follows a list of ex-
amples of these features of text production.
A. Macro-features affecting text production
i. Text typological factors and intertextuality: this includes communicative
function (Reiss 1977), intended impact and the underlying structure of coher-
ence, as well as at the level of individual microstructures. In the case of ST-
induced TT production and in view of the need to minimise production costs,
the TT may in fact have to correspond more or less to ST lay-out, sequencing
of ideas and total length (1), although some internal reformulation is still
possible (2). For example:
1. extract from Australia Text (supplied by the Australian Tourist Office,
London)
The Translation of Advertising 149

ST.
From the sophistication of Sydney to wilderness of the Simpson Desert.
From Wetherby Cattle Station to Woolloomooloo to Wildflower Country
In short, Australia is every holiday you’ve ever dreamed about.
And our 1994 Traveller’s Guide is designed to more than whet your appetite
for the myriad delights to come
TT.
De Sydney, ville moderne au désert Simpson et ses paysages sauvages.
Des centres de bétail de Wetherby à Woolloomooloo et au pays de la flore
sauvage.
En bref, l’Australie … les vacances dont vous avez toujours rêvé.
Notre guide touristique 1994 ne se contente pas seulement de vous donner un
avant-goût des myriades de merveilles qui vous attendent….

2. Extract from a Clermont Ferrand tourist guide (supplied by local tourist

office) (c) John Benjamins
ST. Delivered by Ingenta
on: Sat,
Mais (1) il faut (2) 18 dans
se perdre Novles2006 01:10:33
ruelles (3) du vieux Clermont, (4)
plonger ses doigts (5) dans l’eau fraîche (6)
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaigndes nombreuses fontaines (7) qui
parsèment (8) la cité (9) et (10) se laisser aller (11) à flâner place de Jaude
(12) pour approcher (13)IP: 130.126.32.13
l’âme de la ville (14).
TT.
The best way (2) to get near to (13) the real Clermont (14) is, however (1),
simply (addition) to saunter down the winding streets (3) of the old town (4)
and (15) dangle your fingers (5-shift from impersonal third person to appella-
tive second person) in the cool water (6) of one of the innumerable fountains
(7) before (substitution for 10 et/ and) strolling around the Place de Jaude
(12).
omission of 8 — qui parsèment la cité — scattered around the city
omission of 11 — se laisser aller — enjoy the pleasures of strolling …

A.ii. Standards of Textuality: these have already been discussed, with ex-
amples
B. Problems for translation — micro-units of the message as text: these have
also already been discussed, with examples.
150 Beverly Adab

The following extract will demonstrate how comparative analysis of text

segments can be carried out using the above criteria of textuality and prob-
lems for translation, with reference to the concept of norms and to transfer
strategies, in order to form a view as to the potential success of the text in
creating the desired reader response.
Text from product information for Jack Daniel’s Whiskey, supplied by manu-
facturer:
The Difference in Jack Daniel’s
Un Whiskey différent: Jack Daniel’s
– impact is preserved through interlingual transposition: the result is a modu-
lation, a shift from abstraction of a particular aspect, quality of the whiskey to
the application of this quality to the whiskey as a whole. The need for brevity
is respected and so impact should be constant in terms of memorability
– US spelling of whiskey is repeated in TL as part of the product name. This
respects the TL reader’s need for information although the difference in
(c) John
spelling between US Whiskey and UKBenjamins
Whisky will not be evident. The US
origin of the product is not made explicit but assumed to be inferred from the
Delivered by Ingenta
following line with the mention of Tennessee; in terms of advertising strat-
egy, the USPon: Sat,
is overtly 18inNov
stated both ST2006
and TT 01:10:33
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
A Pictorial Introduction to the Spirit of Tennessee
Introduction illustrée à IP: 130.126.32.13
la fameuse eau de vie du Tennessee
– text-specific (also interlingual) problem: there is a loss of the play on
words, the Spirit of Tennessee, hence a potential loss of impact for this unit
– informativity: there is a misrepresentation here, since l’eau de vie refers to
brandy, not whisk(e)y. This shows an attempt to address a text specific
problem through an interlingual transfer mechanism of compensation but this
may result in a negative information content which could detract from the
success of the message, so a potential loss of impact
– informativity: the culture specific reference to the State of Tennessee is not
explained, so TL reader familiarity has been assumed.
– informativity based on culture-specific conventions for spelling: this text
uses the Irish form of spelling: the choice may not be evident to intended
product users and the underlying effect, for the of differentiating US Whiskey
from Scottish Whisky may be lost.
The Translation of Advertising 151

We are always pleased and flattered to receive questions and comments from
our interested friends of Jack Daniel’s Whiskey.
Nous sommes toujours heureux et flattés de recevoir des questions et bien
sûr, des commentaires de nos amis, amateurs du whiskey Jack Daniel’s.
– interlingual problem of terminology: the US culture specific (and less
formal) use of friends to mean those who enjoy JD is created through an
appropriate TL term — amateur de. The underlying intention of creating the
sense of belonging to a distinct group is thus achieved.
While we, of this generation, would like to take credit for originating the
distinctive quality of flavor and smoothness of our whiskey,
Nous aurions aimé que l’origine ainsi que les qualités distinctes du gôut (sic)
et de la finesse de notre whiskey soient attribuées à notre génération:
– intention: this is preserved through transposition, from active “take credit”
to passive “soient attribuées (be attributed)
– interlingual problem: transposition for acceptability, with a shift from use
of gerund, originating,(c) John
to noun, Benjamins
l’origine
– accidental deviation from language norm, affects acceptability: misplaced
Delivered by Ingenta
accent on gôut (should be goût):minimal error but shows lack of careful
on:
quality control Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
of TT
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
our history will not allow it (1). For the story of Jack Daniel’s is an old (2)
one. IP: 130.126.32.13
l’histoire trop ancienne(1) du Jack Daniel’s ne le permet pas(2)
– acceptability, stylistic norms: paraphrase, combination of two sentences,
reversal of theme / rheme
– pragmatic problem: product name has to remain the same, including apos-
trophe, although the function of this may not be evident to TL reader this may
become clear from the whole text.

In the Jack Daniels message, the appeal is based on The Spirit of Tennessee
as personification of the State, with a link between state and whiskey as
symbolic of the state. This has been shown not to be clearly recreated in the
TT. The value of tradition is also promoted, with the preservation of heritage
through resistance to change. The metaphors of a story of one man’s achieve-
ments, the personal touch and of resistance to temptation, ensuring preserva-
tion of the essence, are also fundamental. These should be identifiable by the
TL reader, so that this aspect of the message should maintain intended
152 Beverly Adab

persuasive function and impact.

E. The Framework: A Summary of Criteria

A. Macro-textual features:
– Text-external features: text typological conventions, intertextuality
– Text-internal features: standards of textuality; situation, intention,
information, acceptability, cohesion, coherence: respect of or devia-
tion from established norms for TLC and potential success for each
example of these
B. Micro-textual features: problems for translation
– pragmatic
– intercultural
– interlingual
– text specific
C. Invariability (c) John
of overall Benjamins
message: constant/ loss/ gain
Delivered by Ingenta
D. Overall potential impact:
on: conforms
– constant, Sat, 18 Nov 2006
to intended 01:10:33
purpose and communicative function
to:–University atvalue
enhanced, added Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
IP:to130.126.32.13
– diminished, likely be less effective
E. Adequacy for purpose
– does the text conform sufficiently to TL reader expectations
– can the TT fulfil its intended purpose within the TL ?

Section C, D and E are the sections which are most likely to require transla-
tion competence (intercultural, interlingual, transfer) on the part of the
evaluator, since he/she will need to collate the results of analysis according to
criteria listed in A and B, to form a global view of text function. The evaluator
will also need domain-specific expertise, to evaluate text-external factors,
acquired either through training in monolingual advertising techniques, or
perhaps, more usefully for translation purposes, through corpus analysis (of
intralingual parallel texts, also of interlingual text pairs of previously trans-
lated texts) of relevant text typological conventions and features. For these
reasons, we would argue that competent evaluation of a translated text, in the
specific situation of source-text induced target text production, should in-
The Translation of Advertising 153

volve the translator as expert, in conjunction with a TL native-speaker who is

also a domain-specific expert in the TLC.

In conclusion

The advantage of this kind of focus is that such criteria are not necessarily
language-pair specific but rather, that they can offer a set of linguistic and
text-production tools to be used by the translator. They can also be used for
evaluation, especially if the motivation underlying the choice of strategy is
one derived from the obligation to respect (TL) norms, particularly those of
expectancy, accountability, communication and relation. Reference to the
concept of norms allows evaluation to take place on the basis of conformity to
or deviation from these norms. It also allows for identification of translation
errors as defined by Nord, that is, in relation to the perception of the text user.
The combination of such observations permits an informed view of potential
TT adequacy for use.
(c) that
Finally, it is evident John any Benjamins
framework for evaluation could be as
Delivered
detailed or as generalised as the userby Ingenta
wishes it to be. The framework de-
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
scribed has attempted to respond to the twin needs of specificity coupled with
adaptability, offering reproducible, relatively
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign objective criteria whilst ac-
knowledging that these will always be interpreted within a relatively subjec-
tive framework of personalIP: experience
130.126.32.13
on the part of the evaluator and the
translator. The main aim is to offer some form of systematic and readily
applicable means of justification of choices and of critical evaluation.

References

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(ed.), Investigating Translation, Chapter 21, 225–237. Amsterdam, Benjamins.
Adab, B. 2000b. “Cross-cultural assumptions in the translation of advertising — how
realistic are these?”. In Across Languages and Cultures, I/2, vol 1(2). 2000,
Akademiai Kiadó Publishing Company, Budapest 193–207.
Adab, B. 1998. (unpublished thesis) “Translation Strategies and Cross-Cultural Con-
straints: A Case Study of the Translation of Advertising Texts”. Aston University,
Birmingham, UK, 335 pp.
Catford, J. 1965, 1974. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. An Essay in Applied Linguis-
tics. London, Oxford University Press, viii +103 pp.
Cathelat, B. 1992. Publicité et Société. Paris, Payot, 447 pp.
Chesterman, A. (ed.) 1989. Readings in Translation Theory. Finland, Oy Finn Lectura
Ab, 200pp.
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Chesterman, A. 1997. The Memes of Translation: the Spread of Ideas in Translation

Theory. Amsterdam, Benjamins, vii +219pp.
De Beaugrande, R., Dressler, U. 1981. Introduction to Text Linguistics. London,
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De Mooij, M. 1998. Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding Cultural Para-
doxes. London, Sage, 315 pp.
Floch, J.-M. 1990. Sémiotique, Marketing et Communication: Sous les Signes, les
Stratégies. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 256 pp.
Gouadec, D. 1990. Traduction signalétique. Meta, XXXV-2, 332–341. In C. Schäffner, B.
Adab (eds) (2000), Developing Translation Competence. Amsterdam, Benjamins, 244
pp., quoted in Vienne, “On translation competence and translation situation”, 91–100.
Gouadec, D. 1989. “Comprendre, évaluer, prévenir”. TTR 2,2, 35–54.
Grice, H. 1975. “Logic and Conversation”. In Cole, P., Morgan, J. (eds): Syntax and
Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York, Academic Press: 41–58.
Gutt, E.-A. 1991. Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context. Oxford, Blackwell,
ix + 222pp.
Gutt, E.-A. 1997. “Implicit Information in Literary Translation: a Relevance-Theoretic
Perspective”. Target 8:2, 239–256.
Harris, B. 1983. “Co-Writing: A Canadian Technique for Communicative Equivalence”.
(c) John Benjamins
In: von Jäger, G. (ed.), Semantik und Übersetzungswissenschaft: Materialen der III.
Konferenz “Grundfragen der Übersetzungswissenschaft”. Leipzig, VEB Verlag
Delivered by Ingenta
Enzyklopädie p.121–132.
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
Hewson, L., Martin, J. 1991. Redefining Translation: The Variational Approach. Lon-
don, Routledge, vii + 263 pp.
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Holz Mänttäri, J. 1984. Translatorisches Handeln. Theorie und Methode. Helsinki,
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Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 109–111.
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Revised and reissued as Translation Quality Assessment A Model Revisited (1997),
Tübingen: Narr, viii + 207pp.
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188 pp.
McAlester, G. “The Evaluation of Translation into the Foreign Language”. In Schäffner,
C., Adab, B. (2000), 229–241.
Malmkjaer, K. 1997. “Linguistics in Functionland: A Response to Hans G Hönig”. In
Contemporary Issues in Language and Society, C. Schäffner (ed.), vol 4, no.1,
Clevedon, Multilingual Matters, 70–74.
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Newmark, P. 1981. Approaches to Translation. Toronto, Pergamon, 200 pp., quoted in
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Nida, E. A. 1969. Towards a Science of Translating. Leiden, Brill, x +331pp.

Nida, E. A., Taber, C. R. 1974. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden, Brill,
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100.
(c) John Benjamins
Vinay, J.-P., Darbelnet, J. 1977. Stylistique comparée de l’anglais et du français. Paris,
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Delivered by Ingenta
Williams, M. 1989. “The Assessment of Professional Translation Quality: Creating
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
Credibility out of Chaos”. TTR 2.2.1989: 13–33.
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to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Boyars, 180 pp.
IP: 130.126.32.13
Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the following companies for allowing the use of their printed product
literature: Jack Daniel’s Whiskey; Minton Porcelain; the Australian Tourist Board;
Clermont Ferrand Tourist Office

About the Author

Dr. Beverly ADAB is a Lecturer in French and Translation Studies at Aston University in
the School of Languages and European Studies, where programmes focus on the interac-
tion between language and culture.
Dr. Adab’s research concentrates on Translation Theory in relation to translation
performance. She is interested in seeing how Translation Studies as a discipline can draw
on authentic translation problems to inform our understanding of the processes involved
and to help translators to deal with potential problems at different levels of text produc-
tion. Her particular area of interest is the translation of advertising and the nature of the
cross-cultural and linguistic problems for this LSP and text type, as is reflected in her
publications.
156 Beverly Adab

Address: Aston University, Aston Triangle. Birmingham B4 7ET, UK.

Email: b.j.adab@aston.ac.uk

Abstract

In Towards a Science of Translating, (1969) Nida asserts that “There will always be a
variety of valid answers to the question, ‘Is this a good translation?’” In the professional
translation environment, the whole question of how to evaluate a translated text is one
which poses a challenge to the client, to the translator and to those responsible for training
the translator.
Much has been written about the difficulty of identifying (objectively) verifiable and
perhaps more widely generalisable criteria for this form of evaluation, which needs to
relate to the functional adequacy (Nord 1997, Toury 1995) of the translated text for its
intended purpose. Such criteria would be equally welcome as guidelines for the actual
translation process, to assist the translator in selecting from possible translation alterna-
tives.
Think aloud protocols have tried to identify what goes on the ‘black box’ and the
cognitive processes involved in the process of text production (Kussmaul 1991, 1995).
However, TAPS are a means to an end, the end being the aim of achieving a better
(c) John Benjamins
understanding of the process in order to minimise the occurrence of potential errors and
Delivered by Ingenta
rationalise and optimise the process. This article attempts to show how Descriptive
Analysis (see Toury 1995) of text pairs can highlight potentially successful strategy types,
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
in relation to aspects of a functionalist approach to text production.
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Having determined which text production criteria can be of use in evaluating the
potential success of a translation choice within a text, it should be possible to formulate a
IP: 130.126.32.13
set of guidelines against which translators could test choices. at micro- and macro-textual
levels. Such guidelines, if also used to evaluate the target text, would ensure that evaluator
and translator were ‘talking the same language’ and might not only improve the evaluation
process but also optimise translation output. Translation theory can suggest potential
criteria: corpus analysis, using the DTS methodology. can identify authentic examples of
criteria in action. Bringing the two together into a usable format is the aim of this paper.
To demonstrate our approach we have used samples of advertising text pairs. This
text type is notoriously difficult to evaluate, relying as it does on persuasive effect through
impact on the reader. Since (potential or real) impact is recognised as being difficult to
quantify. it is particularly important, for this text type. to have some relatively objective
means of evaluating the functional adequacy of the target text.

Résumé

Dans son œuvre. Towards a Science of Translating, (1969) Nida affirme qu’il y aura
toujours toute une gamme de réponses possibles à la question. “Cette traduction est-elle
bonne? “ Dans le contexte de la traduction professionnelle, la question comment évaluer
un texte traduit (texte cible) constitue un défi au client, au traducteur et à ceux responsa-
bles de la formation du traducteur.
The Translation of Advertising 157

On reconnaît, dans le domaine de la traductologie contemporaine. la difficulté

d’établir des critères d’évaluation objectifs. qui se prêteraient d’ailleurs à une application
assez généralisée, pour l’évaluation du texte traduit. Une telle évaluation aurait pour but
de former une opinion quant à la fonctionnalité du texte cible par rapport à son utilisation
voulue, sa finalité (functional adequacy Nord 1997. Toury 1995). De tels critères pour-
raient éventuellement former la base des lignes directrices qui pourraient informer à leur
tour le processus de traduction, ainsi que venir en aide au traducteur au moment de la
sélection entre les différents choix potentiels des unités de traduction.
Les protocoles d’analyse à haute voix ont tenté de décrire le déroulement du
processus cognitif dans la production d’un texte traduit, à partir d’un texte source
(Kussmaul 1991, 1995). Ces analyses ne servent toutefois qu’à des buts finaux, à savoir,
primo, une meilleure compréhension des étapes différentes du processus de la traduction
afin d’éviter les pires erreurs; et secundo, pour que le processus soit réalisé plus systéma-
tiquement, de manière raisonnée. Nous partageons surtout ce deuxième but.
Par cette étude nous cherchons à démontrer comment une analyse descriptive des
textes parallèles (source et cible), telle que préconisée par Toury (1995), pourrait mener à
une connaissance des stratégies de transfert en traduction donnant éventuellement une
meilleure qualité de production d’un texte cible. Ces stratégies seront identifiées à partir
des critères fondés dans une approche fonctionnelle à la traduction.
(c) John Benjamins
Ayant tout d’abord précisé quels critères seraient utiles à l’évaluation du succès
potentiel d’un texte traduit, il serait alors possible de formuler une série de lignes
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directrices qui serviraient à mesurer des choix traductionnels (quoique toujours avec une
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:10:33
mesure de subjectivité de la part du sujet évaluateur), à tous les niveaux de la production
(macro- et micro-textuels) . Ces lignes directrices pourraient enfin assurer que le traduc-
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
teur et l’évaluateur du texte “s’expriment dans un même langage”; elles pourraient
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éventuellement servir à améliorer les deux procès, celui d’évaluation et celui de la
traduction même.
La théorie de la traduction peut contribuer à cette fin, en proposant des critères
d’évaluation d’un texte. L’analyse d’un corpus de textes, selon la méthode proposée par
Toury (1995), la DTS (la traductologie descriptive), permet l’identification des exemples
d’usage professionnel réels. La présente étude vise à effectuer la combinaison de ces deux
perspectives en une, par la formation d’un cadre de critères pour la production d’un texte
cible, cadre qui se prêterait aussi bien aux besoins du traducteur qu’aux fins de l’évaluateur.
Comme cas d’étude nous avons choisi d’examiner des textes publicitaires, connus
pour avoir comme finalité communicative la persuasion, en agissant sur le lecteur pour
créer un certain impact. Cet impact étant difficilement mesurable, il serait d’autant plus
important de pouvoir commenter, de manière relativement objective, le texte traduit.