Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Structural vibration mitigation – a concise review of the capabilities and T

applications of Cu and Fe based shape memory alloys in civil structures
⁎
Kenneth Kanayo Alanemea, , Eloho Anita Okotetea, Justus Uchenna Anaelea,b
a
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure PMB 704, Nigeria
b
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri PMB 1526, Nigeria

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This review paper discusses the potentials and applicability of cheaply processed Cu and Fe based shape memory
Structural vibrations alloys for vibration control in civil structures. Evidences available show that most devastations from seismic
Damping activities are accentuated by the consequent tremor induced collapse of buildings and civil structures.
Vibration control Accordingly, measures for controlling the threats of structural vibrations has been a huge concern globally. NiTi
Civil structures
based shape memory alloys which possess excellent damping properties have been the focus in recent times for
Shape memory alloys
the design of vibration control systems. However, the prohibitive material costs and complexity of processing has
raised concerns on the practicality of their commercial utilization in buildings and civil structures compared to
other vibration control approaches. From this background, this review paper advances the use of Cu and Fe
based SMAs by exploratory examination of the extent of their use in buildings and civil structures as vibration
control devices/systems. Based on the findings from the literatures analyzed, it is concluded that Cu and Fe based
SMAs are technically useful, simply implementable and sustainable SMAs for consideration as structural vi-
bration control systems/devices in buildings and civil structures.

1. Introduction with better energy dissipation/absorption capacities which can provide

Conventionally, buildings and other engineering structures in
seismic prone regions are designed using seismic codes which allow for
the structures to have appreciable resistance to ground vibrations
which could arise from seismic activities. These structures are designed
to absorb earthquake energy through localized damage of their sup-
porting members reducing the overall damage on the structure [60].
However, it has been observed that most of these structures still record
loss of structural stability and integrity resulting in catastrophic col-
lapse when subjected to seismic vibrations [71]. This understanding has
propelled interest in the development of vibration mitigation strategies
which could increase the resistance of civil structures to seismic in-
duced ground vibrations. In this regard, the use of materials or systems
with good energy dissipation/absorption capacities has been advanced
[82,76]. Structural engineers have established that the dynamic re-
sponse of civil structures is highly dependent on the presence of vi-
bration control units within structures when they are subjected to ex-
ternal disturbances or loadings [40]. Consequently, vibration control
systems are principally designed to integrate materials which have good
energy dissipation and absorption capacities into their systems.
Recently, there is advancement towards the use of smart materials
functions such as sensing, actuation and information processing which
are essential for monitoring, and healing of civil structures [91,103].
One of such class of materials which are of growing interest are shape
memory alloys (SMAs). These alloys, particularly NiTi based SMAs,
have been recommended for the design of vibration control devices in
civil structures because of their high energy absorption and dissipation
capacities which is on account of their high damping capacity [91].
They have therefore been used in bridge restrainers, beam-column
connectors, special braces, reinforcement or prestressing bar, dis-
sipating dampers and base isolation systems in design of civil structures
[64,94]. The high cost and processing complexity of NiTi based SMAs
has however, raised concerns on their sustainable use for structural
vibration control. Admittedly, these concerns are genuine – for which
reason the use of Cu and Fe based SMAs (which are cheaply and easily
processed) for structural vibration control is examined in this review.
This is with a view to assess their competencies and reliability to serve
as materials for the design of structural vibration control devices.
This review is not the first of its kind that has attempted to address
the application of SMAs for structural vibration control. Song et al. [93]
discussed the influence of the core SMA properties on their applicability
for the design of active and passive control systems. It was followed by

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kalanemek@yahoo.co.uk (K.K. Alaneme).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.11.014
Received 8 September 2018; Received in revised form 22 November 2018; Accepted 23 November 2018
Available online 28 November 2018
2352-7102/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.K. Alaneme et al. Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32

another review [94], which focused on the use of SMAs in civil struc- systems combine the operational mechanism of passive and active
tures as isolation devices, energy dissipation devices, shape restoration control systems in a bid to improve seismic performance of buildings.
devices, and self-rehabilitation devices. The review article by Janke This system is however beleaguered with the limitations of both sys-
et al. [45], was devoted to the application of two systems, NiTi and Fe tems. Of all the vibration control systems, the semi-active control
based SMAs in civil structures. Its semblance to the thrust of this present system remains of utmost significance because it merges the best fea-
review, is the coverage of Fe-Mn-Si based SMA as a potential low cost tures of the passive and active control system to proffer a superior
alternative for new civil applications. The works by Qian et al. [75] and system which can better control the dynamic response of civil structures
Ozbulut et al. [71] which are chronologically later review papers, [103,96]. Examples of semi-active control devices are electro-
covered generic concepts related to SMA applications in structural vi- rheological (ER) dampers, hydraulic dampers, variable orifice dampers,
bration and the novel use of constitutive and material models to smart tune mass dampers, variable friction dampers amongst others
monitor the response of SMAs in seismic applications. Presently, there [60,96].
are hardly recent reviews (within the past five years) from authoritative The success recorded by semi-active control devices inspired the
sources which have covered the current state of the art on the use and search for new materials which can be used for vibration control uti-
application of both Cu and Fe based SMAs for structural vibration lizing the concepts established in semi-active control systems. This led
control and civil applications in general. to the consideration of a class of advance materials referred to as smart
materials. These materials have the peculiar feature of changing their
innate characteristics in response to external fields, and they include
2. Structural vibration control systems
piezoelectric materials, shape memory alloys, electro-strictive mate-
rials, magneto-strictive materials, electro-rheological and magneto-
It was noted in the introductory section that the sole use of seismic
rheological fluids and fiber optics [94].
design codes for mitigating the impact of seismic induced vibrations
could have limitations, resulting in the complementary use of structural
vibration control devices. Fig. 1 presents an example of the total col-
3. Shape memory alloys in vibration control of civil structures
lapse of structures designed using modern seismic codes when under
the influence of seismic ground vibrations.
3.1. Overview of shape memory properties
Over the years, several vibration control systems have been devised
for the purpose of improving the seismic response of buildings. These
Shape memory alloys (SMA) are a material class which stands out
systems were designed based on energy dissipation and absorption
amongst the smart materials because they possess excellent engineering
capacities of the materials used for the design of the structures. Some of
properties in addition to their unique shape memory capabilities [64].
the systems were based on passive control, active control, hybrid con-
They have been basically applied for the design of a wide range of
trol and semi-active control of ground vibrations during seismic events
technological products, including: eyeglass frames, hydraulic couplings,
[75]. Passive vibration control systems were fore mostly used for re-
fasteners and connectors: electrical and thermal actuators, circuit
duction of structural vibration control. This system controls the dy-
breaker, window or louvre opener, valves and heat engines, orthodontic
namic response of structures by utilizing the structure's motion to im-
archwire, breast hook, guidewires, anchors and underwire brassiere
part control forces which mitigates the magnitude of damage/
[4,44]. The high strength, ductility, stiffness, good fatigue resistance,
devastation to the structure during seismic induced tremors [100]. This
and satisfactory working cycles (at least 104 – 108 service cycles, de-
is achieved by energy dissipation or seismic base isolation without the
pending on the application and service conditions, [9]; in addition to
use of any external power source. Some examples of passive control
the thermomechanical properties and high damping capacities of SMAs,
devices are viscoelastic solid and fluid dampers, friction dampers, tune
are the basis of their selection for use in the design of structural vi-
mass dampers among others [60,96]. The system is however posed with
bration control devices in civil structures [73].
the difficulty of adapting to changes in structure. Active control systems
Several reviews including Chopade et al. [18], Jani et al. [44], and
in contrast, rely on external power sources to operate electrohydraulic
Alaneme and Okotete [4], have provided detailed discussion on the
or electromechanical actuators which provide control force to struc-
fundamentals of SMAs and their essential properties. The current dis-
tures to improve their seismic response during external or internal ex-
cussion would only review the damping characteristics/properties
citations [40,100]. The applicability of this system is marred by the
which make them suitable as materials for vibration control in civil
huge amount of electricity required for seismic control. Examples of
structures.
active vibration control devices (actuators) are active mass damper,
hybrid mass damper and tendon controls [40,91]. Hybrid control

Fig. 1. Strong beam and weak column failures resulting from ductile beams with plastic hinges during the 1999 Marmara earthquake event in Turkey, [[61], with
permission from Elsevier].

23
K.K. Alaneme et al. Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32

3.1.1. Damping capacity

Civil structures applications (structural braces – [16] (Seismic Isolation devices –

Civil structures application (damping devices) [89]; medical application (guide
Damping capacity of a material describes the ability of the material

instruments, and orthodontic devices) Industrial (Robotics, civil structures)

to absorb or suppress vibrational energy or mechanical vibration by
dissipation of elastic strain energy [74]. Materials with good damping

Biomedical (orthopaedic implants, cardiovascular devices, and surgical

capacities are utilized for sustaining acoustic wave propagation in
musical instruments, for noise control (in aircraft wings, helicopters,
launchers, satellites), and for control of mechanical vibrations in
structures (buildings, machines).
Studies have shown that although the damping capacities of most

Civil structures (prestressing applications [19,66]

structural materials are low, a good combination of damping and me-

Medical (anthropomorphic limb prosthesis) [30]

chanical properties can be achieved by alloys exhibiting martensitic
phase transformation (MT) [79]. Thus, materials such as shape memory
alloys (SMAs) seem to be very useful for this purpose. Vibration ab-

Commercial (eyeglass frame) [35,44]

sorption and suppression is mostly attributed to friction (internal or
external) [72]. It is believed that the damping capacity of SMAs is
mainly due to high internal friction occurring during martensitic
transformation, which manifests in the loss of energy by the movement

Actuators, sensors [23]

between the martensite variant interfaces and the parent-martensite
habit planes [41,50].

Applications

wires) [99]
3.1.2. Energy dissipative/absorption capacity
This is a measure of the effectiveness with which a material redis-

[32]
tributes large amount of induced external energies in a bid to maintain
stability and integrity [98]. Energy dissipation/absorption capacity is
achieved by converting the associated kinetic and strain energies to

6 – 8% [4]

∼ 5% [4]
Recovery

4% [15]
other safe modes such as heat, electricity or by transferring these en-
Strain
ergies into vibrating modes [17]. Conversion of induced energies to
other forms usually incorporates hysteretic devices which dissipates
energy at a varying rate and viscoelastic devices which dissipate energy Elongation (%)
at a constant rate [48]. In civil structures, this property is desired to

6.9–7.3 [24]
6 – 13 [5,6]
[27,51,104]
control the transmission of damaging ground motions to structural

12.4 [38]
7 [65]
5 – 60
elements which can result in the collapse/failure of such structures
Summary of the processing techniques, mechanical properties and applications of NiTi, Cu and Fe based SMAs.

[88]. In this regard, energy dissipating/absorption devices are used as

braces, connectors in columns and retrofitting devices in civil structures
Yield / Tensile Strength

[94].

/348–820 MPa [24]

195–690/800–1900

400/250–800 MPa
3.1.3. Re-centering ability

463 /863 [38]

350/600 [11]

Re-centering ability is a material property that describes the ten- 300/600 [65]
[51,104]

dency of the material to return to its original geometry at regular in-

[11,78]
(MPa)

tervals during excitation thereby preventing the accumulation of in-

Mechanical Properties

elastic deformations within the material [68]. Devices which possess re-
centering abilities have distinctive force-displacement characteristics.
178–313 Hv [2]
∼ 250 Hv [52]
304–335 (HV)

Examples include pressurized fluid dampers, preloaded spring friction

Hv 303–362

200–210 Hv
∼ 45 HRA
∼ 24 HRC
Hardness

dampers, and phase transformation dampers [48]. Conventionally, civil

structures employ a linear-elastic backup moment frame as a restoring
[5,6]
[12]

[25]

[13]

force to reduce residual drifts in buckling restrained braces but this does
not produce full re-centering. Self-centering integrated materials are
Vacuum Melting Techniques - Vacuum

however able to eliminate residual drifts after external disturbances are

Principal Manufacturing Systems

Liquid/ Powder Metallurgy [23]

Liquid/ Powder Metallurgy [66]

removed utilizing nonlinear elastic restoring force [49].

induction melting (VIM) [25,35]

3.2. Application in structural vibration control

Several alloys have been discovered to have shape memory prop-

erties since the nineteen sixties, but only three of the alloy systems have
been of engineering interest. These alloys which are, namely: Ni-Ti
alloys, Cu based alloys and Fe based alloys have been extensively stu-
died because of their appreciable percentage shape recovery alongside
other engineering properties [79]. The processing techniques, me-
Cu-Al-Mn

Fe-Mn-Si
Cu-Zn-Al

Cu-Al-Be
Cu-Al-Ni

chanical properties, and applications of these SMA systems are pre-

sented in Table 1. Works on these three SMAs have now progressed
towards their use for vibration control in civil structures exploring both
Cu based SMAs

Fe based SMAs

their core properties and vibration control properties. In recent years,

diverse attempts have been made to tailor properties (engineering and
NiTi SMAs

shape memory) of SMAs (especially the three major systems) for civil
System
Table 1

engineering structures.
Structural vibration suppressions can be attained in civil structures

24
K.K. Alaneme et al.
using passive control and this depends on the damping capacity of the
material used for the control [94]. SMAs have been reported to be
useful for passive vibration damping and energy dissipation, active
vibration damping and tensioning in civil structures [45,66]. These
have been linked to high density of mobile interfaces present in shape
memory transformations [4]. SMAs have been used in energy dissipa-
tion devices (bracing systems, isolation devices), joints (beam column
connectors), passive reinforcement (SMA Rebars or wires and SMA fi-
bres) and retrofitting devices in civil structures [20,26,94]. NiTi, Cu
based and Fe based SMAs are the SMAs of research interest and all three
SMAs have high damping properties, and have been extensively studied
for applications in civil structures.
3.2.1. Ni-Ti SMAs
NiTi shape memory alloys pioneered extensive studies into the
shape transformation of alloys. These alloys have about 8% recoverable
strain, good corrosion resistance and good fatigues resistance. NiTi al-
loys have therefore been explored for use in several commercial and
industrial applications [80]. Recently, the vibration control properties
of NiTi SMAs have been successfully adapted to control of dynamic
response of civil structures in different capacities.
3.2.1.1. Beams, joints and connectors. In civil structures, NiTi SMA
reinforced concrete beams have higher normalised yield and ultimate
load than conventional reinforcement beams, and have comparable
displacement ductility and energy dissipation capacity with other
structures reinforced with conventional materials [1]. Wires made
from NiTi SMAs have been successfully used to decrease the mid span
deflection ordinarily observed in concrete beams by reducing
deformations and compressive strains in the beam [56]. In addition,
NiTi SMAs have aided damage repair in concrete beams by
transforming tensile stresses in the tensile zone to compressive
stresses to close up cracks in the beam [55,56]. They have also been
reported to increase fire resistance in steel structures, and reduce
damage distribution in steel resisting moment frames leading to a
reduction in inter-storey drift in tall buildings after seismic loading
[81,97].
3.2.1.2. Braces. NiTi SMAs in brace frame of structures have been
reported to be instrumental in the redistribution of inelastic
deformation over the height of building; while also effectively
reducing maximum inter-storey drift which minimises structural
damage in braced frames [67]. Consequently, these SMA braces
would be advantageous for seismic vibration control for structures
exposed to severe ground motion excitations [67]. Massah and Dorvar
[62] established that the energy dissipating capacity and reversibility of
vertical linked NiTi SMA wires in an eccentric bracing frame reduces
relative displacement (maximum drift) and permanent displacement
Fig. 2. The use of SMAs in the seismic upgrading of the Basilica of S. Francesco
of Assisi [[63], with permission from Elsevier].
25
Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32
(maximum residual deformations) in civil structures. Similar
connection of NiTi wires bracing system which has a good balance of
re-centering and damping was also reported to maintain a good balance
of strength and ductility under seismic loading [95].
3.2.1.3. NiTi dampers. The low stiffness requirement for beam control
makes SMA dampers preferable over conventional dampers for
vibration control in civil structures. For NiTi dampers, they have
been found reliable for simultaneous damping of tension,
compression and torsion in civil structures [36]. Superelastic nitinol
wires, due to their high fatigue life, have also been incorporated in
reusable hysteric damper, which have been found useful in reducing the
dynamic response of civil structures to strong earth quake [105].
Similarly, a superelastic shape memory alloy friction damper
(SSMAFD) consisting of pre-tensioned NiTi wires and friction devices
have been successfully utilized to suppress strong vibrations in building
structures subjected to strong earthquake [77]. The dissipation energy
of the damper was attributed to the synergistic damping properties of
the friction devices and the SMA wire. The re-centering capacity of the
developed damper was also able to suppress substantial post-
earthquake residual drift in the structure [77].
3.2.1.4. Summary. These reports have elucidated the successful roles of
NiTi SMAs in design of civil structures against ground vibrations in
cases of seismic events. Fortunately, some of these studies have moved
beyond laboratory scale and are presently incorporated in civil
structures all around the developed world. Fig. 2 for example, shows
the use of SMAs for the restoration of the Basilica of San Francesco in
Assisi—Italy, which was severely damaged during the earthquake of
1997. SMA devices were installed between the front tympanum and the
roof structure to supplement a number of oleodynamic devices placed
at a lower level, in order to increase global energy dissipation by
providing additional protection to the tympanum.1 But, this is not the
case in African nations and other developing nations of the world which
also experience some form of these seismic events. The government of
some of these nations are setting up regulations and building codes in a
bid to minimize the effect of these unavoidable disasters. However, the
use of NiTi SMAs for design of civil structures would be impracticable
for some of these nations despite the success recorded by these smart
materials. This is because NiTi SMAs are quite expensive to produce,
and the production processes requires special expertise and controlled
environments [43]. The economic and technical implications will be
overwhelming for developing nations and thus the use of low cost SMAs
may be the desideratum to address structural vibration control in
developing nations, Africa in very specific terms.
3.2.2. Low cost SMAs in civil structures
3.2.2.1. Copper based SMA as vibration control devices. Although Ni-Ti
SMAs have been widely implemented as vibration control materials in
structures prone to seismic loadings, Cu-based SMAs are considered the
most attractive alloys for practical applications because they are less
expensive and easy to synthesize than Ni-Ti SMAs [8]. Studies have
shown that Cu-based SMAs have potentials to be used as part of
vibration control systems in civil structures. This is attributed to their
good ductility, damping characteristics, superelasticity, self-centering
capability as well as the shape memory effect [34,92]. Among Cu-based
SMA, Cu-Al-Be alloy has been successfully put into practical application
1
It is noted that the use of SMAs in the ceramic roof structure of the Basilica
of S. Francesco of Assisi came under scrutiny considering the devastating col-
lapse of the structure in 1997 several years after the retrofitting of the roof was
performed. [33] posited that the cumulative effects of the overall changes made
to the roof, was what affected the structure's dynamic behaviour in a negative
manner and thus increased the seismic forces on the existing structural mem-
bers.
K.K. Alaneme et al.
Fig. 3. Retrofit of a soft-story woodframe building using SMA devices with full-scale hybrid test verification [[46], with permission from Elsevier].
for the mitigation of seismic loads [71]. Presently, there is growing
interest on how best to harness the properties of Cu based SMAs for
vibration control in braces for frame structures, seismic isolation in
structures, damping devices in bridges, and structural connectors in
buildings to control earthquake forces.
3.2.2.2. Structural braces. Bracings are widely used to stabilize
structures against lateral loads generated due to wind and
earthquakes [98]. Brace frames are therefore used to impose enough
lateral stiffness to limit large displacements in civil structures during
minor, moderate and extreme earthquakes, using brace frame systems.
Fig. 3 shows a brace frames which incorporates SMA wires for civil
construction. Cu based SMAs are often used in form of wires and rods in
braces for structural frame structures. Cerda et al. [16] reported that
superelastic Cu-Al-Be SMA wires of diameter 0.5 mm have been
successfully applied for damping devices, incorporated in bracings of
a scale model of a three storey steel rigid frame structure. It is expected
that more Cu-based SMAs may be exploited for structural bracing
system due to their comparative lower cost advantage and acceptable
super-elasticity.
3.2.2.3. Seismic isolation in structures. Seismic isolation entails the use
of a damping system (isolator) to reduce the transfer of ground
vibrations to the structure during a seismic event. The damping
system/isolator is designed primarily to protect structural integrity
and prevent damages and injuries to the occupants by reducing seismic
forces and deformations in the structure [7,40]. Seismic isolators are
typically installed between the girders and bent caps (abutments) in
bridges or between the foundation and first suspended level in a
building, in order to provide an energy dissipation mechanism to
reduce displacements and the effects of earthquake shaking [21].
Experimental and theoretical studies have recently been carried out
on exploiting SMA-based isolation devices for structural control
implementation and results showed that SMAs are good candidates
for seismic isolation in structures [29,31,37]. The good energy
26
Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32
dissipation capability and fatigue resistance, high stiffness and super-
elasticity of Cu-Al-Be SMAs have made them suitable for application in
the design of seismic isolation devices [27,32]. The seismic
performance of two types of isolation bearings was assessed by
Bhuiyan and Alam [14]. Combined isolation bearing made of SMA
wires of Ni-Ti and Cu-Al-Be was found to reduce earthquake damage to
an isolated three span continuous highway bridge) subjected to
moderate to strong earthquake ground accelerations in the
longitudinal direction. Fig. 4 presents a schematic representation on
the use of SMAs for isolation of elevated bridges.
Cu-Al-Mn superelastic alloy bars have also been established as sui-
table multi-functional material for both structural applications and
sensing elements [89]. This alloy reportedly performed better than steel
under cyclic loading in terms of stable response [90]. Thus, it is ex-
pected that Cu-Al-Mn SMAs will emerge as an essential material in the
construction industry [3]. Fig. 5 show typical application of SMAs in
civil engineering construction.
3.2.2.4. Damping devices. Cu-based SMAs (such as Cu-Al-Mn and Cu-Al-
Be) are considered to be well-suited for passive vibration control
devices (where NiTi is usually the choice SMA) since they possess the
primary functional requirements which are: superelasticity, good
damping characteristics, high strength and fatigue resistance, and
good corrosion resistance [84]. A Schematic representation of an
SMA damper is presented in Fig. 6. Several authors have studied the
application of a CuAlBe alloy in passive control devices as replacement
for NiTi SMAs. Isalgue et al. [42] established that the use of CuAlBe in
dampers for family houses can effectively reduce the impact of
earthquakes in seismic prone environments. This was supported by
the appreciable energy dissipation capacities of CuAlBe SMAs reported
in a study by Torra et al. [101]. Torra et al. [101] also stated that the
damping system comprising of CuAlBe had similar results with systems
which incorporated NiTi SMAs. Both systems were able to reduce the
maximum oscillation amplitudes induced by high magnitude
earthquakes and dissipate around 50% of the energy absorbed by the
K.K. Alaneme et al.
Fig. 4. Schematic of the SMA isolation device for elevated highway bridges [[102], with permission from Elsevier].
Fig. 5. Schematic of the SMA isolation system for buildings [[94], with per-
mission form Elsevier].
structure. A pictorial representation of a family house, and the
structural sketch of the house showing incorporated dampers is
presented in Fig. 7. Efforts are currently invested towards improving
the material properties of Cu-based SMAs, hence their practical
applications in this area are expected to increase in the near future.
3.2.2.5. Structural connectors. Structural connectors are required to
provide damping properties to the structure and effectively
accommodate relatively large deformations. SMA elements in the
martensitic phase have been reported to effectively dissipate energy
when used as connectors thereby limiting the dynamic response of
structures to earthquake excitations [47,70]. Cu-Al-Be and Cu-Al-Mn
alloys have good ductility and exhibits super-elastic behaviour
[34,92,99] which make them attractive for outdoor seismic
applications for structural system against seismic loadings. Sepulveda
et al. [84], reported an experimental investigation on a prototype
partially restrained connection using four Cu-Al-Be SMA bars and found
that the beam-column connection exhibited super-elastic behaviour. A
moderate level of energy dissipation, and no strength degradation after
being subjected to several cycles up to 3% drift, was also recorded.
27
Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32
Fig. 8 is a pictorial representation on the use of SMAs as column- beam
connector in civil construction.
3.2.2.6. Reinforced concrete (RC) columns. Cu-Al-Mn alloys on account
of their high superelastic property, are also being considered as
reinforcement to replace conventional steel bars used in the design of
concrete columns for bridges, in order to reduce the seismic risk of
bridge failures [39]. Hosseini et al. [39] investigated the use of
engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) and Cu–Al–Mn super-
elastic alloys (SEAs) to improve the performance of bridge columns
under dynamic loads. The study proposed a new column design made of
ECC tube with rebars totally or partially replaced with Cu–Al–Mn SEA
bars. The results show the new column design had superior tensile
ductility, bonding with steel, energy absorption and shear resistance. In
addition, there was lower permeability and reduced crack widths in the
ECC tube after subjection to simulated seismic loading. Specifically, a
high amount of recovered permanent deformation (91%) was achieved
in the proposed design, when Cu-Al-Mn SEAs where used as
replacement for steel rebars in the reinforced concrete columns. The
improved performance of the column design was linked to minimal
damage in the ECC tube, due to the energy absorption capacity of the
Cu-Al-Mn SEA bars. It was surmised that the use of the proposed
innovative column design, with a prefabricated Reinforced/ECC tube
and Cu–Al–Mn SEA bars in the plastic hinge region, would minimize
seismic risks and damages by reducing permanent drift and repair needs
in civil structures.
3.2.2.7. Fe based SMAs. Fe based SMAs also known as shape memory
steels are low cost SMAs which have been reported to hold promise for
structural vibration control. Fe-Mn-Si SMAs are currently the most
explored Fe based SMA system for application in civil structures
because of the type of martensitic transformation it undergoes. The
shape memory properties of Fe-Mn-Si SMAs which propel their use in
civil structures are the temperature independent stress induced
transformation from γ- austenite (fcc) to ɛ- martensite (hcp) which is
it can undergo; albeit the reverse transformation is temperature
sensitive [19]. These SMAs undergo shape memory transformation
when activated by electrical resistive heating at temperatures (between
100 and 160 °C) which are not detrimental to the stability of the
K.K. Alaneme et al. Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the SMA damper: (a) sectional view of the damper; (b) internal shaft group; (c) external tube group; (d) springs; (e) SMA wires group; (f)
the connection between SMA wires and roller system. (1) Internal shaft; (2) shim plate; (3) middle anchor; (4) outside anchor; (5) external tube; (6) spring; (7) SMA
wire; (8) roller system; (9) roller shaft; (10) roller; (11) stump [[59], with permission from Elsevier].

Fig. 7. Left: External view of the sample family house. Right: Structural sketch of the house [[101], with permission from Elsevier].

concrete [83,85]. Fe-Mn-Si has been sparsely studied for use in energy
dissipation materials and passive vibration dampers but has been
extensively studied for tensioning/prestressing applications.
Fe-Mn-Si SMAs are now being considered for use in tensioning ap-
plications in prestressed concrete to strengthen civil structures. Fe
SMAs tendons, wires, fibres and others, can be used for reinforcing or
repairing existing structures. The SMA is pre-tensioned and unloaded at
room temperature resulting in the formation of the stress induced
martensite (SIM) phase; the pre-tensioned wires are subsequently em-
bedded in a concrete member. Once the concrete hardens the SMA
material is heated to a temperature (austenite start) to cause the reverse
transformation of the SIM to the austenite phase but the contraction of
the SMA is hindered in the concrete and this generates tensile stresses
within the concrete improving its strength [54]. Fig. 9 is an
experimentation process which displays reinforced and unreinforced
concrete bars; prestressed with Fe based SMAs strip and without re-
inforcement
Studies in the area of Fe based SMAs for application in civil struc-
tures have also extended to include techniques which could be used to
increase the strength of the structures. These include Near Surface
Mounted (NSM) and shortcrete strengthening techniques. NSM has
been has been observed provide better bonding, better durability and
better protection against fire and vandalism, compared to other tech-
niques of introducing reinforcement in concrete [86]. On the other
hand, the shortcrete technique increases the loading capacities of
beams reinforced with Fe-Mn-Si SMA ribbed [87].
The success of prestressed Fe-Mn-Si based SMAs in strengthening
and repair of RC structures is highly dependent on the amount of

28
K.K. Alaneme et al.
Fig. 8. Reinforcement cage showing the bar and coupler arrangements inside the formwork; SMA bar is used as the connector for the structure [[69], with permission
from Elsevier].
recovery stresses generated during the shape memory transformation.
The recovery stress is a function of the thermal hysteresis in shape
memory alloys, hence Fe-Mn-Si SMAs are preferred over NiTi SMAs in
prestressed reinforcements since they have a wider thermal hysteresis
and by extension, large stable recovery stresses [22]. However, several
efforts have been made to increase the recovery stress in Fe-Mn-Si based
SMAs to increase their use as smart reinforcements in civil structures
[53,54,57].
Some other Fe based SMAs, namely FeNCATB and FeNiCoAlTaB,
which are noted to possess high super elastic capacity, have recently
being considered as reinforcements in reinforced concrete (RC) bridge
columns and restrainers in isolated bridge systems [10,58]. Billah and
Alam [10] conducted a probabilistic seismic risk assessment of concrete
bridge piers reinforced with different types of SMA rebars. The mate-
rials used as rebars were NiTi, Cu based (Cu-Al-Mn), and Fe/ ferrous
based (FeMnAlNi, FeNCATB) SMAs. The study was motivated by the
need to find alternative materials to replace conventional steel re-
inforcement in bridges to avert seismic risks. The investigation was
carried out using bridge piers designed following a performance-based
approach and the simulation of ground motions with different probable
earthquake hazard scenarios (crustal, inslab, and interface). Maximum
drift and residual drift were used as hazard demand parameters (en-
gineering demand parameters) to assess the seismic performance of the
bridge piers. The results show that the seismic fragility of the bridge
piers (measured in terms of maximum drift and residual drift) was
Fig. 9. Photo of the concrete bar experiments. Bars No. 1 and 2 were centrally reinforced with a Fe-SMA strip, and Bar No. 3 was not reinforced [[22], with
permission from Elsevier].
29
Journal of Building Engineering 22 (2019) 22–32
sensitive to the respective recovery strains of the SMAs. Also, all the
SMA- reinforced concrete (RC) bridge piers were effective in controlling
the seismic responses at the maximum considered earthquake level. In
terms of residual drift, the FeNCATB RC-bridge pier outperformed all
other SMA-RC bridge piers at all damage states, and significantly re-
duced the overall vulnerability of the bridge pier. The superior per-
formance of the FeNCATB SMA based RC-bridge pier, was attributed to
its higher superelastic strain (13.5%) and low residual strain. Dezfuli
and Alam [28] proposed a novel design consisting of FeNiCoAlTaB
based SMA and Lead Rubber Bearings (LRB) for seismic isolation of
highway bridges. The design incorporated the FeNiCoAlTaB, around the
LRB in a symmetric double cross configuration. A multispan continuous
steel girder bridge was isolated with the developed material, and the
seismic response evaluated by subjecting it to dynamic excitations. The
study showed that below 50% shear strain levels, the SMA wires were
not activated because no noticeable phase transformation occurred.
However, as the shear strain increased above 50%, the wires became
activated. This was on account of the superelastic effect and hysteresis
in the SMA wires, which results in increased energy dissipation capacity
and increased lateral stiffness of the isolation system. It was also ob-
served from the study that wrapping FeNiCoAlTaB SMA wires in the
double cross arrangement, significantly improves the re-centering
capability of the LRB by decreasing the maximum shear strain by up to
46%. The re-centering capacity from the report, can be further en-
hanced by pre-straining the FeNiCoAlTaB SMA wires prior to
K.K. Alaneme et al.
incorporation into the isolation systems.
3.2.2.8. Summary. Considering the reported low materials and
processing cost advantage, good mechanical and energy dissipating
properties of Cu based SMAs, especially Cu-Al-Mn and Cu-Al-Be, they
are highly recommended for vibration control in structures built in
tremor prone environments in Africa and other developing nations. The
findings from several studies reviewed show their comparable
performance levels to NiTi SMA in various structural control devices.
In addition, Fe-Mn-Si based SMAs, although not noted for high damping
capacity, have been found to be the best prestressing material for
concrete structures to improve strength and resistance to damage.
Other Fe based SMAs, such as FeNCATB and FeNiCoAlTaB have shown
promise for utilization as reinforcements in concrete columns and
restrainers in isolated bridge systems, respectively due to their
superelastic properties. Adopting Cu or Fe based SMAs in vibration
control systems, based on the findings from the reviewed articles, will
help reduce the extent of damages in civil structures during untimely
occurrence of earthquake events and other disasters. The successful
incorporation of these SMAs in civil structures would promote the
integration of low cost SMAs into building design codes for seismic
prone regions. These cheaply processed SMAs could be a source of hope
to nations that need to curb the devastating losses attributed to seismic
occurrences.
4. Conclusion
This review has illuminated the great promise of Cu and Fe based
SMAs for structural vibration control in civil structures. Since it is ac-
knowledged from documented evidences, that most of the devastations
arising from seismic activities are accentuated by tremor induced col-
lapse of buildings and civil structures; this review considers it more
sustainable if low cost structural vibration control devices are devel-
oped to protect civil structures. Admittedly, there are several vibration
control methods which can be implemented in civil structures, but that
based on shape memory alloys have been observed to be very compe-
tent and reliable, albeit cost has been a major drawback. The use of Cu
and Fe based SMAs is enthused will serve as a solution to this primary
challenge. The papers reviewed on the application of both SMA systems
in structural vibration control and civil structures in general, attest to
their functionality and reliability. A technical campaign aimed at ad-
vancing further studies on the effective deployment of Cu and Fe based
SMAs in civil structures is hoped to have been achieved by this review.
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