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11, NOVEMBER 2008
New Automotive Sensors—A Review
William J. Fleming, Life Senior Member, IEEE
Invited Paper
Abstract—This paper focuses on the primary automotive sensor
technologies used today and their related system applications. This
paper describes new automotive sensors that measure position,
pressure, torque, exhaust temperature, angular rate, engine oil
quality, flexible fuel composition, long-range distance, short-range
distance, and ambient gas concentrations. In addition, new fea-
tures are described for sensors that measure linear acceleration,
exhaust oxygen, comfort/convenience factors, and night vision.
New automotive system applications are described for sensors that
measure speed/timing, mass air flow, and occupant safety/security.
Index Terms—Automotive sensor applications, automotive
sensors, comprehensive sensor update, review paper, road vehicle
transducers, sensor technology.
I. INTRODUCTION
S ENSORS are defined as “devices that transduce physical
quantities such as pressure or acceleration into electrical
signals that serve as inputs for control systems [1], [2].” Engi-
neering literature does not consistently differentiate between the
terms, “sensors” and “transducers.” Whether devices are called
sensors or transducers often depends on the field of application
in which they are used. In the automotive field, these devices are
more commonly referred to as sensors.
Sensors are essential components of automotive electronic
control systems. Automotive sensors must satisfy a difficult
balance between accuracy, robustness, manufacturability, in-
terchangeability, and low cost. Because of the key role sensors
play in automotive systems, many advances have occurred
since a prior review paper [1] was published. For example, the
present paper describes 21 new types of automotive sensors,
and 25 new features available in automotive sensors. In addi-
tion, 14 new automotive system applications for sensors are
described. In total, therefore, 60 new developments related to
automotive sensors are reviewed.
The objective of this paper is to cover the most significant
sensors used in present-day automotive applications. However,
notwithstanding the breadth of this paper, some automotive sen-
sors were unavoidably excluded. Decisions on which sensors to
Manuscript received April 19, 2008; revised July 08, 2008; accepted July 31,
2008. Current version published October 31, 2008. The associate editor coor-
dinating the review of this paper and approving it for publication was Dr. John
Vig.
The author is retired from TRW Automotive, Washington, MI 48094 USA
(e-mail: WFleming@wowway.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSEN.2008.2006452
1530-437X/$25.00 © 2008 IEEE
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO.
TABLE I
AUTOMOTIVE SENSOR MARKET GROWTH—NORTH AMERICA [3]
Estimate
Predicted
Global automotive sensor market volumes are approximately three
times larger than the values for the North American market given
here.
Normalized to 2002, when the average sensor cost was U.S. $6.30.
exclude were based on the judgment of the author and the avail-
ability of information.1
II. BACKGROUND
There are three areas of automotive systems application
for sensors, namely: powertrain, chassis, and body. Automo-
tive control functions and associated systems for the three
areas of application were previously shown in Figs. 2–4 and
Tables II–IV in [1]. Several new applications are reviewed in
this paper.
Estimates for the automotive sensor market in 2007 and a
forecast for 2013 were derived from data in [3] and are given
in Table I. Current luxury cars have over 100 sensors per ve-
hicle, significantly more than the average number of 40 given in
Table I. This table illustrates the dramatic growth in demand for
automotive sensors.
1Excluded automotive sensors include the following.
-Brake pedal position/force sensor (force detected via a fluid pressure sensor).
-Passive tire pressure sensor (no battery required) using hoop antennas to
couple RF power into pressure sensors embedded in the sidewalls of rotating
tires.
-Fiber-optic engine in-cylinder pressure sensor based on light reflection off a
diaphragm.
-Side door-mounted pressure sensor (which provides wide-area side-impact
crash sensing).
-Multiple degree-of-freedom inertial-sensor modules for chassis monitoring
that include x-y acceleration plus  -angular rate sensing elements.
-Fuel level detection using: (a) Hall effect sensors to measure float-arm an-
gular position or (b) transit times of ultrasonic pulses reflected off the fuel-air
surface interface.
-Vehicle heading detection using magnetometer (compass) direction sensors.
-Window anti-pinch/auto-reverse sensing—obstacles are detected by:
(a) pressure-sensitive conductive window-seal strips, or (b) electric motor load
monitoring using Hall effect sensors in the motors.
Since these sensors do not currently enjoy widespread production, and are
based on generally straightforward operating principles, they were excluded.
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
III. SENSOR DRIVING FACTORS
Current driving factors that account for the increasing utiliza-
tion of automotive sensors are given below.
— Needs for sensors in powertrain systems are driven by:
legislation (e.g., lower emissions, improved fuel economy,
and onboard diagnostic requirements), best-in-class drive-
ability, along with the introduction of new types of alter-
native power sources.
— Chassis systems needs for sensors are driven by safety,
weight reduction, multiplex compatibility, and legislation
(e.g., collision avoidance stability systems and tire pres-
sure monitoring).
— Body systems needs for sensors are driven by safety (e.g.,
advanced airbags, rollover and side crash protection), com-
fort, and convenience.
— In each application—powertrain, chassis and body—
Moore’s Law is a dominant driving factor. Moore’s Law
states that electronics capabilities double approximately
every 18 months. Automotive electronics directly ben-
efit and exhibit corresponding increases in computing
power/memory. These increases provide greater systems
demand for feedback signals, which in turn drives con-
tinually growing needs for high-performance automotive
sensors.
IV. NEW SENSORS AND NEW APPLICATIONS
In a prior review paper [1], a total of 40, 27, and 40 sensors
were listed in Tables II–IV for powertrain, chassis, and body
automotive systems applications. This total of 107 sensors was
representative of the major applications for sensors used in au-
tomobiles seven years ago. As mentioned above, 60 new devel-
opments related to automotive sensors are reviewed here.
A. “Smart Sensor” Operation
A new feature, common to many types of automotive sensors,
is “smart sensor” technology. This consists of electronics signal
processing integrated inside the sensor which provides:
— Automatic gain control (e.g., to compensate for air gap
variation).
— Conversion of internally detected time-varying waveforms
into precise square-wave or digital protocol output signals.
— Dynamic threshold sensing which maintains zero-offset
and 50% duty cycle in a square-wave output signal.
— Pulse-width-modulated and digital protocol output signals
are clamped at specified upper and lower limits, e.g., at 0
and 5 Vdc.
— Ratiometric output signals are provided where output sig-
nals are normalized to the level of the supply voltage.
— Electronic interface with communication bus networks.
— Operation using two wires in place of a three-wire con-
nection (one wire carries a digital protocol output signal
superimposed on a dc power-supply loop current, and the
other wire connects to the reference side of the bus net-
work).
“Smart sensor” features are notably incorporated into speed/
timing, pressure, and inertial acceleration/angular rate automo-
tive sensors.
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B. Speed/Timing Sensors
Speed/timing sensors are used to measure engine crank-
shaft/camshaft speeds and angles for control of spark timing
and fuel injection timing. The sensors are also used for control
of transmission input and output shaft speeds for electronically
controlled gear shifting. In addition, high-resolution crankshaft
speed sensors detect engine misfire, as evidenced by cylinder
misfire-induced modulations of crankshaft speed. Another
major application is wheel speed measurement of each vehicle
wheel to provide inputs to antilock brake, traction control, and
vehicle stability systems.
There have been many improvements to speed/timing sen-
sors, beginning with the addition of the aforementioned “smart
sensor” features. A good example of a sensor with integrated
“smart sensor” electronics is a giant magnetoresistive (GMR)
speed/timing sensor described in [4]. This sensor, including
electronics, is packaged as a device.
Advances in the areas of packaging and processing have con-
tributed to the development of greater accuracy, lower cost, and
improved robustness. Further discussion of packaging and pro-
cessing is beyond the scope of this paper.
Variable reluctance, Hall-effect, anisotropic magneto-resis-
tive (AMR) and GMR types of speed/timing sensors were re-
viewed in [1]. New applications of speed/timing sensors include
the following.
1) Crankshaft Reverse-Rotation Detection: During repeated
restarting of an engine in a mild hybrid electric vehicle, idle-stop
engine control systems must continue to comply with emissions
requirements. Excessive exhaust emissions occur as a result of
time lags between the point when the engine throttle is first
opened compared with the time when the engine electronic con-
trol unit (ECU) is able to determine the true crank angle and
apply spark. Time lags are the result of crankshaft reverse rota-
tions which frequently occur when an engine is shut off at the
beginning of the stopping event. Speed/timing sensors with dual
inline detector elements provide the required direction informa-
tion. The phase angle of the sensor output signal, derived from
the difference of voltage waveforms between the two detector
elements, determines the direction of crankshaft rotation [5].
2) Vibration Interference Suppression: During restarting of
an idle-stop engine in a mild hybrid electric vehicle, a false en-
gine speed signal can be generated. Vibrations in the engine-
stopping event can create periodic variations in the air gap of the
speed/timing sensor between the sensor and the tone wheel. This
creates changes in magnetic field such that the sensor may inad-
vertently generate an output signal based on vibration, not on ro-
tation of the tone wheel. Because vibrations produce changes in
the magnetic field, the automatic gain adjustment in the sensor’s
signal processor may generate excessively large gain. In this
case, the voltage-crossing thresholds become too high, and the
sensor’s timing signal will be in error. A logic determining cir-
cuit in a sensor’s signal processor detects the onset of inappro-
priately high levels of sensor signal gain, and it then sends a
correction signal which reinitializes the voltage-crossing thresh-
olds back to their correct levels [6].
3) Wheel Speed Sensor New Features: Vehicle wheel speed
sensors have added four important new features.
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a) Improved serviceability: Wheel speed sensors are
mounted in wheel hub housings, and operate in a severe envi-
ronment that includes roadway curb impacts and pot-hole-in-
duced shocks. Consequently, these sensors are associated
with a majority of antilock brake and stability system repair
problems. Wheel speed sensors are made more serviceable
today, no longer requiring disassembly of major components of
the wheel hub/bearing components for replacement. Wherever
possible, sensors today are installed in an accessible portion
of the wheel-hub housing where their replacement does not
require hub disassembly [7].
b) Magnetically poled encoder rings: Magnetically
poled encoder-ring technology has rapidly replaced toothed
tone wheels. Tone wheels required the use of a larger sensor
because the sensor had to include a relatively large back-bias
magnet. Magnetically poled encoder rings (with repeating
north–south pole patterns) produce their own magnetic field,
enabling smaller magnet-free field-detection speed sensors.
Sharply defined north/south poles in encoder rings produce a
more desirable square-wave-like output and also yield better
accuracy than tone wheels. Another key advantage is that as
compared to tone wheels, encoder rings permit operation at
double the range of air gaps between the sensor and the encoder
ring, thereby facilitating relaxed installation tolerances and
improved reliability [8].
c) Wheel rotation direction detection: Wheel rotation di-
rection serves as an input signal for the “hill holder” function
of an electronic parking brake system. Hill holder systems au-
tomatically apply the parking brake as soon as the car comes
to a stop (as detected by the cessation of wheel rotation), or
for reverse wheel rotation when the accelerator pedal is not
depressed. The parking brake is electromechanically engaged
and then released when the driver depresses the accelerator (de-
tected by a pedal position sensor). The amount of brake force
needed to hold a vehicle in place on a hill is determined using the
dc-response of an accelerometer (functioning as an inclination
sensor). Direction of wheel rotation is detected using closely
spaced inline magnetic field sensing elements mounted in the
head of the wheel speed sensor. Comparison of the phase an-
gles of the leading element’s speed signal, with that of a trailing
element, determines direction of wheel rotation [9].
d) Self-monitored failure detection functions: An essential
self-monitored failure function is the air gap between the wheel
speed sensor and its encoder ring. Due to the severe on-wheel
environment in which it operates, damaging air gap displace-
ments can occur in the wheel speed sensor. Air gap is monitored
by measuring magnetic field amplitudes detected by the sensing
element in the sensor. Typically, three air gap operating-range
conditions are monitored: i) normal air gaps (normal signal am-
plitude); ii) reserve range (nearly out-of-operating range); and
iii) out of operating limit (loss of signal). Additional self-mon-
itored failure functions include detection of short circuits, and
intermittent open circuits.
Signals corresponding to: the self-monitored functions, the
wheel rotation direction, and the wheel speed signals—are
combined and are transmitted as a digital protocol signal
from the wheel speed sensors back to an ECU on a two-wire
interface. The digital protocol signals are superimposed on the
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008
Fig. 1. Inductively coupled sensor used to measure throttle plate position [11].
dc power-supply wire, and the second wire connects to the
reference side of the bus network. Digital protocols transmit
the operating status information via pulse-width-modulation
[10] or Manchester codes.
C. Position Sensors
Automotive applications of position sensors include:
— Engine throttle plate angle.
— Chassis-height link-bar angle.
— Fuel level (float arm angle).
— Steering-wheel angle.
Potentiometric, Hall-effect, AMR, and GMR types of posi-
tion sensors were reviewed in [1]. Three new types of position
sensors are described here.
1) Inductively Coupled Position Sensor: This sensor mea-
sures angular position using a multilobed single-turn conductor
coil on a rotor attached to the part—throttle plate, accelerator
pedal, or chassis-height link bar—whose angle is to be deter-
mined. An inductively coupled throttle-plate-position sensor is
shown in Fig. 1. The multilobed coil on the rotor is connected
to the throttle plate and is suspended next to the receive coils
which consist of three or more planar coils intertwined together.
The receive coils are mounted on a fixed housing. A single-loop
excitation coil, also mounted on the fixed housing, encircles the
receive coils and provides ac-excitation. The excitation coil gen-
erates a MHz-frequency RF field. The excitation coil’s RF field
inductively couples (like a transformer) to circumferential por-
tions of the rotor multilobed coil, and induces current in the
rotor’s conductor.
Current flowing in the radial portions of the rotor conductor
lobes generates a secondary magnetic field pattern that rotates
with the rotor and inductively couples to the underlying receive
coils. Each of the receive coils couples with the rotor magnetic
field and inductively generates its own (phase-shifted) voltage
waveform as a function of rotor angle. The angle of the mea-
sured part (e.g., a throttle plate) is determined via signal pro-
cessing of the magnitudes, signs, and gradients of the individu-
ally phase-shifted receive-coil voltages [11], [12].
Inductively coupled position sensors offer the following
features:
— Noncontact operation.
— No magnets are required.
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
Fig. 2. Integrated magnetic concentrator rotary position Hall-effect sensor used
to measure throttle plate, accelerator pedal, or chassis-height link-bar angle.
(a) Basic configuration [14]. (b) IMC layer below magnet alters the magnetic
field directions. The silicon substrate supports the IMC layer and also includes
the Hall-effect sensors [13].
— Low cost due to printed circuit board construction and non-
resonant circuit operation.
— Facilitates relaxed assembly alignment tolerances.
— Design flexibility allows the sensor to be made into either
angular or linear position-sensing configurations.
2) Integrated Magnetic Concentrator (IMC) Rotary Position
Hall-Effect Sensor: This sensor measures angular position
using a single bar magnet attached to the rotating part (throttle
plate, accelerator pedal, or chassis-height link bar) whose angle
is to be determined. As seen in Fig. 2(a), the sensor is mounted
on a fixed surface underneath a magnet attached to a rotating
part. The sensor consists of the following components.
a) High-permeability IMC ferromagnetic layer: As illus-
trated in Fig. 2(b), an IMC layer (which is disk shaped) alters
the direction of, otherwise, the parallel-directed magnetic field
( includes and components). The IMC changes
the -field directions to perpendicular-directed field
directions. The -field directions are altered as a result of a
boundary condition; namely, at the transition interface between
low-permeability air and the high-permeability IMC layer, the
magnetic field enters perpendicularly as into the IMC. Be-
cause Hall-effect sensors respond to both the magnitude and di-
rection of field, the use of an IMC layer to redirect the magnetic
field into perpendicular -directions largely eliminates direc-
tion variability. This allows Hall-effect sensing elements in the
silicon substrate below the IMC layer to respond solely to mag-
nitudes of the -field components [13], [14].
b) Hall-effect sensing elements: Hall-effect sensing ele-
ments are mounted in the silicon substrate, in four quadrant po-
sitions, below the IMC layer. Hall sensing elements detect mag-
nitudes of the - and -components of the magnet field.
As the part (whose angle is to be measured) rotates with its bar
magnet, pairs of Hall-effect sensing elements detect and gen-
erate quadrature and signal voltage waveforms
[14].
c) Redundant, dual, embedded digital signal processors
(DSPs): The and signals are in phase quadrature
and are processed to determine a resolved angle as
follows:
(1)
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1903
Fig. 3. Basic configuration of the dual-magnet sensor used to measure steering-
wheel angle [4].
DSPs are embedded in the silicon substrate along with the Hall-
effect sensing elements. Dual-DSP isolated dies are used for
redundancy to insure reliability [15].
The IMC rotary position sensor provides the following
features:
— Noncontact, easy-to-install, end-of-shaft mounting.
— Compact size, small outline package, (ex-
cluding the magnet).
— Insensitivity to variations of magnetic field strength, tem-
perature, and air gap.
— Absolute 360 angular position measurement.
— Angular accuracy bit (1024 step), and angular reso-
lution bit (4096 step).
3) Dual-Magnet Steering-Wheel Angle Sensor: A combined
optical/potentiometric type of steering-wheel angle sensor was
described in [1]. A new dual-magnet type of steering-wheel
angle sensor has been developed for automotive applications
[4]. Automotive applications for the steering-wheel angle
sensor include: vehicle electronic stability control, steerable
headlights, parking assist, and road navigation. The basic
configuration of the sensor is shown in Fig. 3.
Measurement of steering-wheel angle is difficult because
over the four or more turns of the steering wheel, i.e., over
1440 or more of rotation, the angle of rotation must be de-
termined within 1 accuracy. The sensor in Fig. 3 uses two
bar magnets, each attached to a free-running pinion gear.
The pinion gears engage the large drive gear attached to the
steering-wheel column. Adjacent to each pinion gear/rotating
magnet, is a GMR magnetic field sensing element, mounted in
a stationary sensor housing [16], [17].
The drive gear in Fig. 3 has 42 teeth, whereas one pinion gear
has 14 teeth and the other pinion gear has 15 teeth. Thus, for
each turn of the drive gear, the pinion gears and their embedded
magnets will each turn about three times. Because of the differ-
ence in the number of pinion teeth, the two pinion gears rotate
through 15 turns before their magnets realign. Therefore, as the
steering wheel turns through five revolutions, one of the pinion
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gears goes through 15 turns, and the two pinions realign with
each other one time.
The two GMR sensing elements detect the angles of the
pinion gears/magnets. The angles of each pinion gear exhibit
a unique relationship to the large-gear steering-wheel angle.
Steering-wheel angle is computed from the angular relation-
ships between the pinion gear angles with respect to the large
gear angle [16].
Signal processing methods used to enhance the accuracy of
the steering-wheel angle measurement include [4]:
— Sigma-delta A/D converters.
— Digital filtering.
— Coordinate rotation digital computing (CORDIC) angle
conversions.
— Data flow partitioning.
D. Pressure Sensors
Automotive applications of pressure sensors include:
— Engine manifold absolute pressure.
— Ambient barometric pressure.
— Evaporative fuel system leak pressure.
— Brake fluid pressure.
— Chassis adaptive suspension hydraulic pressure.
— Air conditioner compressor pressure.
— Common-rail fuel injection pressure.
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) piezoresistor, ca-
pacitive module, polysilicon-on-steel, and fiber-optic sensors
types of pressure sensors were reviewed in [1]. New types of
pressure sensors are as follows.
1) MEMS Surface Mount Package Sensor: This sensor
has integrated electronics and its sensing diaphragm is bulk
micromachined in silicon, with an exposed area of about 1
1 mm. Four piezoresistive sensing elements are diffused
into the diaphragm to detect stresses created by applied pres-
sure. The sensor is designed for the measurement of ambient
barometric pressure for engine control. The pressure sensor is
one of the first to be offered in a standardized small-footprint
surface-mount device package. This reduces the amount of
circuit-board area taken up by the sensor and it also makes the
sensor more compatible with standard electronics assembly
methods.
Key performance features of the sensor include [18]:
— Operating range: 60 to 120 kPa.
— Accuracy, 1%.
— Operating temperature, 40 C to 130 C.
— Small size, , surface mount package.
2) Integrated Multiparameter Tire Pressure Sensor: The
United States government issued a safety standard requiring
tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) sensors on each wheel
of each new car as of September 1, 2007 [19]. The standard
was enacted by an Act of the U.S. Congress in reaction to sport
utility vehicle (SUV) rollover-crash fatalities, and an associated
tire recall. The standard is unique to the U.S. and has not been
adopted by other countries. The standard requires that TPMS
sensors, within 20 min, detect a 25% pressure-deflation in any
or all vehicle tires. This includes the situation where all four
tires deflate uniformly due to seasonal falling temperatures.
The most common type of TPMS system is the direct valve-
mounted battery-powered type, seen in Fig. 4. The TPMS sensor
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008
Fig. 4. A MEMS multiparameter sensor is used in a direct/active type of tire
pressure monitoring system. The sensor is valve-mounted inside the tire rim and
is powered by a lithium battery.
is attached to the valve and is positioned in a protective location
inside the tire rim. This sensor: a) uses wheel motion-detection
power-saver circuits that extend battery life; b) uses ultra-low-
current-draw integrated circuits that also extend battery life; and
c) uses MEMS multiparameter—pressure, temperature and ac-
celeration—sensing elements to minimize weight [20]. The RF
receiver in the vehicle that receives signals from remote key-
less entry (RKE) systems doubles its functionality by also re-
ceiving TPMS signals. The RKE and TPMS systems operate on
the same 315-MHz frequency (United States), while utilizing
different signal modulations.
Integrated on a single substrate in the TPMS sensor are the
following devices: a) MEMS diaphragm-type capacitive pres-
sure sensing element; b) semiconductor temperature sensing
element; c) MEMS acceleration sensing element; d) voltage
sensing element; and e) signal processor and RF transmitter.
The sensor, including sensing elements and electronics, has
dimensions of , made possible by the use
of MEMS technology [21]. The operating functions of the each
sensing element are as follows.
— The pressure sensing element provides the desired tire
pressure measurement.
— The temperature sensing element allows ideal-gas-law
based corrections of tire pressure measurements to a
standard temperature, and it also detects over-temperature
conditions to provide electronics shutdown protection.
— The acceleration sensing element activates a battery
power-saver mode when wheel movement stops. In ad-
dition, the detected sequence of gravity-induced maxima
and minima output signals as a wheel begins to rotate is
used to identify right-from-left tire location [22].
— To distinguish front-from-rear wheels, differences in re-
ceived RF signal strengths from front and rear TPMS trans-
mitters are monitored. Because rear-wheel transmitters are
more distant from the RF receiver, rear wheels are identi-
fied by their reduced signal strengths.
— The voltage-sensing element monitors the TPMS battery
life.
As indicated in Fig. 4, an integral lithium battery typically
powers automotive tire pressure sensors. Various attempts to use
piezoelectric bimorphs (and a tuned vibrating mass attached in-
side the tire) for energy harvesting, to power tire pressure sen-
sors, have been investigated [23], [24]. Aside from the difficulty
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
Fig. 5. Piezoelectric pressure sensor integrated into a diesel engine glow plug.
(a) Essential elements of sensor [27]. (b) Physical appearance of sensor [28].
of maintaining bonding of the bimorph assembly on a constantly
flexing tire, the generated power is considered to be “insufficient
to energize both the sensor and transmitter [25].” This approach
is still under development.
3) In-Cylinder Combustion Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor:
In-cylinder pressure measurements are used in engine combus-
tion control systems. Through the use of a cylinder pressure
feedback signal, engine control systems can better regulate
cylinder fuel injection timing, exhaust gas recirculation, and
turbocharger operation. For example, the control system may
act to reduce combustion temperatures in cylinders in order to
lower NOx emissions [26].
A fundamental problem that has impeded development of this
sensor is that engine designers never wish to add more access
holes in the cylinder head to accommodate combustion sensors,
while existing spark-plug/glow-plug-integrated sensors up to
now have not been practical. A new type of pressure sensor has
been integrated into a diesel engine glow plug. The in-cylinder
pressure sensor utilizes a piezoelectric ceramic sensing element
mounted inside the glow plug housing.
During combustion, increasing cylinder pressure applies
force on the glow plug. The heating element in the glow
plug functions as a pressure transfer pin. It applies the forces
due to cylinder pressure onto a piezoelectric pressure sensor
diaphragm inside the sensor housing. In this way, as seen in
Fig. 5(a), forces due to cylinder pressure are passed along a
stress transfer path and onto the piezoelectric element [27],
[28]. Sensor-integrated signal processing electronics provide
a real-time cylinder pressure output signal. Separate sensors
monitor combustion pressures in each cylinder.
4) Diesel Exhaust Particulate-Trap Backpressure Sensor:
Sensors monitor buildup of backpressure in particulate filter
traps used in diesel engine exhaust emissions cleanup systems.
Differential-pressure-tap upstream and downstream tubes from
the trap connect to the sensor housing ports seen in Fig. 6.
As particulates in diesel exhaust accumulate in a particulate
filter trap, backpressure across the trap increases. When the
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Fig. 6. A ceramic-element capacitive sensor inside the sensor housing detects
the exhaust differential backpressure across an exhaust particulate filter [29].
backpressure reaches a predetermined level, as detected by
the sensor, a signal is sent to the ECU to add more fuel to the
engine. The resulting rich air–fuel mixture causes an upstream
oxidation catalyst to heat the exhaust. The increased exhaust
heat then burns up the carbon particulates in the particulate
filter, therein regenerating the filter by converting particulates
into gas.
The exhaust backpressure sensor consists of a ceramic capac-
itive-type pressure sensor that detects the differential pressure
across its diaphragm. The sensor has high accuracy and is de-
signed to perform with narrow pressure ranges, along with
high overpressure capacity. The sensor’s differential-pressure
operating range is typically 0-to-34 kPa, with an overpres-
sure capability of 690 kPa [29].
E. Temperature Sensors
Operating temperature ranges for these sensors are as follows:
— For temperature applications in the range of 50 C to
150 C, silicon IC sensors are used.
— Thermistor-type sensors operate in various ranges as high
as 1000 C.
— To measure very high temperatures over 1000 C, RTD-
type sensors are commonly used.
Automotive applications of temperature sensors include:
— Measurement of air and fluids using silicon IC sensors.
— Engine coolant, fuel, brake, and steering fluid levels are
commonly measured using thermistors (via differences
in fluid immersion/nonimmersion heat-transfer tempera-
tures).
— Very high temperatures are measured in catalytic con-
verters mounted in the exhaust system.
Resistive temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, and sil-
icon IC temperature sensors were reviewed in [1]. High-tem-
perature RTD sensors are used in three new types of exhaust
emissions cleanup systems, namely:
— Diesel particulate-trap exhaust-temperature control during
the trap regeneration process [29].
— Spark-ignition engine control of exhaust temperature to
enhance NOx trap-catalyst performance [30].
— Urea-injection diesel engine emissions control system reg-
ulation of exhaust temperature (to optimize performances
1906 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008

of a particulate catalyst and an NOx selective-catalytic-re-

duction converter) [31].
In one study, three types of high-temperature sensors were
compared for use in exhaust monitoring applications. Temper-
ature measurement accuracy was required to be stable over an
exhaust gas measuring range of 40 C to 1000 C, and after
500 h of aging at 950 C. This study showed that RTDs were su-
perior to thermocouples or thermistors for the demanding high
temperature exhaust monitoring applications [32].

F. Mass Air Flow Sensors

Mass air flow sensors measure steady state and transient mass
flow of air into an engine. An engine’s combustion process is
controlled by mixing the correct ratio of fuel to the mass, not
volume, flow of intake air. Accurate mass air flow measurement
permits precise metering of fuel into an engine for control of ve-
hicle emissions, economy, performance and driveability. Mass
air flow sensors were briefly described in [1]. A more compre-
hensive discussion of the sensors is presented here. There are
three methods of measuring automotive mass air flow.
1) Engine Speed/Air Density: This method first determines
volume, not mass, flow of air by treating the engine as an air
pump. Volume air flow is computed as a product of cylinder
displacement, times engine speed, times engine volumetric ef-
ficiency. Volumetric efficiency calibrations provide corrections
for variations of engine air-pumping characteristics due to ef-
fects of: valve timing, EGR rate, engine wear, etc. To determine
mass flow, the ideal gas law is used. Measurements of intake air
pressure and temperature are made, and the ideal gas law is used
to calculate the mass density of the air. In summary, volume air
flow, times mass air density, equals mass air flow.
Measurements of intake air pressure and temperature are Fig. 7. Engine true mass air flow sensor. (a) Measuring principle [34]. (b) Phys-
made using a two-in-one sensor that combines two sensing ical appearance of sensor (cover removed) [35].
elements to measure manifold air absolute pressure and tem-
perature [33]. A thermistor measures temperature and a MEMS
sensing element measures pressure. upstream and downstream thermal detection elements—all fab-
2) Mass Air Flow Direct Measurement: Direct-measurement ricated on a micromachined low-thermal-mass diaphragm. The
mass air flow sensors are based on thermal heat-loss principles. amount that the downstream sensing element is hotter or colder
An exposed heated resistive element plus a companion, com- than the upstream sensing element indicates both the direction
pensating, insulated element, are mounted inside the engine’s of airflow and its mass flow rate [34]. A true mass flow sensor
throttle body and are exposed to the air flow. This sensor mea- and its operating principle are seen in Fig. 7.
sures mass air flow into an engine based on convective heat Both types of air flow sensors in Sections IV-F2 and IV-F3
losses due to air flow across the two sensing elements. include means to minimize effects of contamination. In the up-
The exposed heated element experiences convective-flow stream side of the sensor’s air flow channel, a channel segment
heat loss, while the insulated element does not. The difference is structured so that it creates air flow vortices. The vortices
in electrical heating power required to maintain both elements act on the flowing air to separate out potentially contaminating
at the same temperature determines mass air flow. The greater liquid droplets and solid particles entrained in the intake air
the air flow, the greater the difference between current draws to flow. Contaminants are deposited on the channel segment walls
the exposed and insulated resistive elements, therein providing before they reach the measuring element, thereby protecting the
the mass air flow measurement. This sensor cannot detect flow sensing element from the effects of contamination [36].
reversals in the intake air flow, and therefore does not measure To take advantage of the best performance features of each
true mass flow under these conditions. method, vehicle manufacturers often combine different methods
3) True Mass Air Flow Measurement: Under certain en- of air flow measurement. For example, mass airflow methods
gine operating conditions—e.g., open throttle at low engine in Sections IV-F2 or IV-F3 provide more accurate steady-state
speed—pulsating reversals of air flow occur. Because the flow air flow measurement, and one of these methods is combined
sensor in Section IV-F2 does not detect reverse flow, it will in with the engine speed-air density method in Section IV-F1,
this case provide erroneous flow measurements. which provides superior transient response [37]. The combined
To detect flow reversal, another configuration of the mass flow methods, therefore, provide both steady-state accuracy and fast
sensor is used. This sensor utilizes a heat source and separate transient response.

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FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
Fig. 8. Magnetic encoder-ring/Hall-effect sensing-element sensor used to measure steering-wheel torque [38]. The encoder ring and the stator rings are connected
via the sleeve to opposite ends of the torsion bar, and twist with respect to each other when steering-wheel torque is applied. The twist angle of the encoder ring
with respect to the stator rings is detected and it provides the torque signal.
G. Torque Sensors
Various configurations of torsion-bar twist-angle types of
torque sensors were described in [1]. Twist angle due to the
applied torque acting on a torsion bar is detected using one
of the following approaches: a) potentiometrically (requiring
sliding contacts), or by assorted noncontact means including; b)
optics with varying apertures; c) magnetics with displaceable
air gaps; or d) electrical eddy currents with variable shaded
poles.
Additionally, magnetoelastic detection methods can be used
on solid (noncompliant) shafts. In this case, torque is measured
by noncontact means using: a) ac-excitation to detect torsional
stress-induced changes in the magnetic permeability of a shaft
surface layer or b) sensing the effects due to torque-induced
rotation of permanently magnetized domains in surface layers of
a shaft. (As the domains rotate, they self generate a torque signal
as a result of angular-dependent coupling of the magnetization
to external field detectors—no ac-excitation required).
Applications of torque sensors of automotive interest include:
— Steering-wheel torque for electric power steering (EPS).
— Driveshaft (transmission-out) torque.
— Clutchshaft (engine-out) torque.
Because of the more rapid development of EPS systems and
the less demanding operating requirements associated with the
steering column location, steering-wheel torque sensors are fur-
ther developed than driveline torque sensors. New types of EPS
torque sensors are described.
1) Magnetic Encoder-Ring/Hall-Effect Sensing Element
Steering Wheel Torque Sensor: This EPS torque sensor, illus-
trated in Fig. 8, consists [38], [39] of:
— Two co-rotating stator rings, each with 12 intermeshed fer-
romagnetic teeth are both connected via a sleeve to the
input end of a torsion bar that is inline with the steering-
wheel column.
— A magnetically poled encoder-ring rotor has 12 alternating
north–south poles. The encoder ring is connected to the
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1907
output end of the inline torsion bar. The encoder ring is
concentrically located below the stator rings.
— When torque is applied to the steering wheel, the torsion
bar experiences twist and the encoder ring is angularly dis-
placed with respect to the stator rings.
— An output torque signal is generated by flux created across
the stator teeth. If the north and south magnetic poles on
the encoder-ring are aligned with stator teeth, flux crossing
between teeth from one stator to the other (and the torque
signal) is maximized. If magnet poles straddle the stator
teeth, the output signal is minimized (because flux is con-
fined within stator teeth and does not cross between teeth
from one stator to the other).
— For example, when steering-wheel torque twists the en-
coder ring in one direction, the teeth in one of the stator
rings may be positioned more over the encoder’s north
poles and these stator teeth will collect flux. The teeth of
the other stator will be positioned more over the encoder’s
south poles and these teeth will return flux. The collected
flux is detected by the Hall-effect sensing elements shown
in Fig. 8.
In summary—the greater the steering-wheel torque, the
greater the torsion bar twist angle, the greater the displacement
of encoder magnetic poles with respect to stator teeth, the
greater the flux crossing between teeth from one stator to
the other, the greater the collected flux, and the greater the
Hall-effect sensor torque output signal.
Performance features of the sensor include:
— Accommodates a family of designs that operate with tor-
sion bar full-range twist angles of: 8-, 4-, and 1 .
(The stiffest 1 torsion-bar sensor requires three times
more encoder-poles/stator-teeth than the 8 design).
— All three torque sensor designs have the same compact
dimensions of 37.5-mm outer diameter and 8-mm width.
— Electronic signal-processing components are mounted in
a fixed housing and are not required to rotate with the
steering-wheel torsion bar.
1908
2) Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Torque Sensor: SAW
torque sensors can be used for driveline and steering-wheel
torque measurement applications. Utilization of SAW tech-
nology enables wireless, batteryless, noncontacting measure-
ment of the mechanical strains due to shaft torque. SAW torque
sensors utilize the influence of strain on the propagation ve-
locity of acoustic waves [40], [41]. The main elements in SAW
torque sensors are:
a) Coupler: A fixed-mount signal coupler with transceiver
electronics in one example provides a 433-MHz RF in-
terrogation signal. The RF signal wirelessly transmits en-
ergy to very low power-consumption SAW transducer el-
ements on the rotating torque shaft, and it wirelessly re-
ceives return signals.
b) SAW transducer: The SAW transducer elements consist
of interdigital electrodes and reflective gratings that are
fabricated on a quartz substrate which, in turn, is attached
to a flat surface, machined on the shaft in which torque is
measured.
c) SAW sensing element alignment: The SAW sensing ele-
ments are aligned with the principal lines of tensile and
compressive torsional strain in the shaft. These lines act
along 45 angles with respect to the longitudinal axis of
the shaft.
d) Sensor operation: The SAW interdigital transducers are
piezoelectric. In one example, 433-MHz pulsed-voltage
sine waves piezoelectrically generate 433-MHz acoustic
waves, which are transmitted along the quartz surface.
These waves propagate in straight paths along the shaft’s
principle lines of strain and are reflected off gratings and
travel back to the transducers that detect their return.
e) Output signal: Shaft torque creates strains that physically
change the spacing between transducers and reflective
gratings, altering the resonant frequencies in SAW prop-
agation-controlled resonator circuits.
f) Differential measurement: A differential measurement of
resonant frequencies from the two 45 oriented SAW
resonators provides the torque measurement. Interfering
effects of temperature and shaft bending are cancelled out
in the differential measurement.
g) Signal transmission: RF signals corresponding to the fre-
quency-shifted resonant responses of the SAW sensing el-
ements are transmitted back to the signal coupler, which
includes signal processing and provides the torque signal.
Key performance features of the sensor include:
— SAW sensors operate wirelessly and no battery is required
to power the shaft-mounted sensing elements.
— SAW sensors are small and lightweight.
— The high resolution and sensitivity of the SAW sensor al-
lows torque to be measured on a solid shaft, i.e., no torsion
bar is required.
3) Magnetoelastic Torque Sensor: Magnetoelastic torque
sensors, like SAW sensors, do not require a torsion bar, no
battery is required to power the shaft-mounted sensing ele-
ment (and no excitation is required to transmit power to the
shaft), and they utilize noncontact operation. Magnetoelastic
torque sensors can measure torque on a solid shaft because
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008
they respond to shaft stress (instead of strain). Note. The
aforementioned ac-excitation type of magnetoelastic torque
sensor is used primarily for instrumentation purposes and is
not discussed here.
The magnetized-domain type of magnetoelastic sensor has
shown potential for automotive sensor applications and is de-
scribed. An annular surface region on a shaft with magnetoe-
lastic properties is permanently magnetized such that magnetic
domains are circumferentially oriented around the outer surface
of the shaft.
If no torque is applied to the shaft, the circumferential mag-
netization field is unaffected and there is no change (no rota-
tion) of the magnetic domains. In accordance with the mag-
netoelastic effect, applied shaft torque causes the magnetic do-
mains to rotate from their initial circumferential directions to-
wards axial directions. The rotation of domains creates an axial
field component along the direction of the shaft’s longitudinal
axis. This axial magnetic field is detected using a dc flux-gate
magnetic modulator circuit (which exhibits ultra stable opera-
tion). As shaft torque is increased, magnetic domains rotate fur-
ther, strengths of the axial field components increase, and the
flux-gate circuit detects a stronger magnetic field, therein pro-
viding the torque measurement signal [42]. Since the axial field
reverses direction when applied torque reverses direction, the
sensor output signal automatically reverses sign when applied
torque is reversed.
One difficulty with this sensor is that its calibration is depen-
dent on reproducibility of the magnetoelastic properties of the
shaft (sleeve, coating material, or the shaft itself). Magnetoe-
lastic properties of materials are not specifiable or controlled
by metal manufacturers. Consequently, when large numbers of
magnetoelastic torque sensors are manufactured, it is difficult
to maintain part-to-part variation of torque sensor calibrations
within automotive interchangeability variation limits, which are
typically 1%.
There has been recent progress in development of the mag-
netized-domain type of magnetoelastic torque sensor [43].
Zero-carbon Ni-Fe maraging steel shaft material with special
heat treating is used—sleeves or coatings are not required. The
shaft material itself functions as a magnetized surface layer
[44]. To achieve interchangeability, these sensors are currently
hand-sorted to insure uniform calibrations. Both driveshaft
and clutchshaft torque sensors for F1 race cars are currently
supplied [43].
If this sensor is to satisfy high-volume production automo-
tive requirements, obstacles that must be overcome include: a)
finding a source of magnetoelastic steel which is lower-cost than
maraging steel; b) obtaining magnetic field detectors that are
lower cost than flux-gate detectors; and c) developing better
control of the zero-torque calibration point.
H. Linear Acceleration Inertial Sensors
Although the operating principles of acceleration sensors
have remained the same [45], there have been many improve-
ments, beginning with the incorporation of the “smart sensor”
features described in Section IV-A, along with advances in
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
packaging and processing that have yielded smaller, more accu-
rate, lower cost, more robust sensors. Automotive applications
for linear acceleration sensors include:
— Vehicle stability and chassis adaptive suspension systems.
— Vehicle frontal, side, and rollover crash sensing.
— Engine knock detection (using flat-response acceleration
sensors and bandpass frequency filtering).
Piezoresistive MEMS, capacitive MEMS, resonant-beam
MEMS and piezoelectric types of linear acceleration inertial
sensors were reviewed in [1]. New automotive applications
and features for acceleration sensors, not previously described,
include the following.
1) Chassis Acceleration: Chassis acceleration sensors today
typically offer two-axis ( - ) acceleration measurements and
come in surface mount packages as small as
This minimizes the amount of circuit-board area taken up by
the sensor.
One chassis acceleration sensor utilizes a seismic-mass that is
micromachined in silicon into the form of an elliptical-shaped
plate, with tether springs integral to its body [46]. The sensor
utilizes a lateral-to-substrate-displacement operating configura-
tion. Acceleration-induced deflections of the seismic mass are
detected by changes in capacitance due to lateral displacements
between comb electrodes. Chassis acceleration sensors have the
following features:
— Integrated minimal-overshoot, low-pass frequency
(fourth-order Bessel) filtering of the output signal.
— Built-in self-monitoring failure detection and self-calibra-
tion.
— Accuracy, 2% of full scale (over the entire range of accel-
eration, temperature, and sensor-to-sensor calibration vari-
ation).
— Resolution, 10-mg.
— Electrically selectable acceleration detection ranges.
— Wide measurement bandwidth, dc-to-400 Hz.
2) Vehicle Crash Detection: Modern vehicles generally in-
clude five acceleration crash sensors, namely: a) a right-front
and a left-front “satellite” crash sensor (to trigger front airbags
in offset frontal crashes); b) a right-side and a left-side “satellite”
crash sensor (to trigger side airbags and curtain airbags); and
c) a central “safing” sensor mounted in the passenger compart-
ment (for high reliability crash detection). Furthermore, because
three-row-seat vans and SUVs have longer lateral-coverage cur-
tain bags, these vehicles require two additional side “satellite”
crash sensors, mounted in their rear-quarter panels.
A typical satellite crash sensor utilizes a lateral-to-substrate
displacement configuration, is flexure-supported, and has a
rectangular-shaped seismic mass [47]. Displacement of the
seismic mass is capacitancely detected using comb electrodes.
The sensor is fabricated using the high aspect ratio deep-re-
active ion etching (DRIE) process in silicon, as described on
page 1546 of [48]. Crash-detection acceleration sensors have
the following features:
— Integrated minimal-overshoot, low-pass (two-pole Bessel)
frequency filtering of the output signal.
— Wide measurement bandwidth, dc-to-1000 Hz (to detect
short-duration crash events).
— Wide dynamic measurement range, 80 dB.
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1909
— Low noise operation, 1 .
— Built-in self-monitoring failure detection and self-calibra-
tion.
I. Angular Rate (Gyro) Inertial Sensors
As in acceleration sensors, automotive angular-rate sensors
also utilize MEMS technologies. Their operation is based on
detection of the effects of Coriolis forces acting on various types
of vibrating mechanisms. Vibrating-ring, vibrating-tine (tuning
fork), and vibrating mass types of angular rate inertial sensors
were reviewed in [1] and [45]. Although the operating principles
of these sensors have remained the same, there have been several
improvements.
Prior models of vibrating-tine automotive rate sensors
. required a large circuit board “footprint” of as much as
25 50 mm. To minimize the circuit-board area taken up by
the sensor, considerable effort has been made to reduce sensor
size. The 25 50-mm sensor today comes in a 16 19-mm
(76% area reduction) footprint package [49]. The reduced
footprint was made possible by utilizing a micromachining
(etching) process to fabricate the double-ended quartz tuning
fork, reducing its length to 10 mm.
Smaller-footprint rate sensors have been achieved using the
vibrating-ring type of sensor. Sensor footprints of 9 9 mm
have been realized. This was done by: a) replacing an electro-
magnetic actuation type of ring vibration with a capacitive elec-
trostatic vibration actuation [50]; b) micromachining a 4-mm
diameter, 100- thick, flexure-supported silicon ring; c) up-
grading from analog to digital circuitry; d) using back-to-back
stacking of electronics and sensing element dies; and e) utilizing
surface-mount packaging.
Automotive applications of angular rate sensors include the
following.
1) Vehicle Electronic Stability Control (ESC): Vehicle yaw
angle rate detection is a key component of ESC which is now re-
quired on all new passenger vehicles under a United States fed-
eral safety standard that phases in beginning with 2009 models
[51]. This federal requirement for ESC systems created a huge
demand for rate sensors. ESC systems are not mandated in other
countries, but new car assessment programs (NCAPs) such as
Euro NCAP, Japan NCAP, etc., additionally drive demand in
these countries.
2) Active Chassis Suspension: Suspension control systems
use angular-rate sensors to detect vehicle roll-rate and pitch-
rate.
3) Rollover-Protection Side Curtain Airbags: Vehicle roll-
rate sensors are a key part of a sensor suite used to trigger de-
ployment of rollover-protection side curtain airbags.
4) Vehicle Navigation Systems: Navigation Systems use
yaw-rate sensors to detect vehicle heading (yaw angle) when
the autonomous “dead reckoning” mode of navigation is re-
quired. Yaw angle is determined by a mathematical integration
of the yaw angular rate signal with respect to time. (When the
system’s GPS absolute position signal is unavailable, near
tall buildings or inside tunnels, the system switches to an
autonomous navigation mode of operation).
Rollover-crash-detection rate sensors in Section IV-I3 re-
quire operating range and bandwidth several times greater
1910
Fig. 9. Essential operating components of a dual vibrating-mass angular rate sensor used in vehicle electronic stability and active suspension control systems [52].
than rate sensors used for vehicle dynamics applications in
Sections IV-I1, IV-I2 and IV-I4. On the other hand, appli-
cations in Sections IV-I1 and IV–I2, and in Section IV-I4
require greater accuracy than in Section IV-I3. Sensors used
in Section IV-I3, therefore, are not interchangeable with the
vehicle dynamics sensors. In the safety-critical applications of
types in Sections IV-I1 and IV-I3, built-in-test self-monitoring
failure detection is mandatory because sensor failure could re-
sult in a system anomaly. There are less stringent requirements
for applications in Sections IV-I2 and IV-I4.
Two new types of angular rate sensors are described.
5) Oscillating-Rotor Sensor: Comb electrodes on the pe-
riphery of a rotor electrostatically drive a center-pivoted flexure-
suspended rotor into rotary oscillatory motion. If no angular rate
acts perpendicular to the oscillating rotor, the disk continues its
in-plane rotary oscillation. When an angular rate exists, Coriolis
forces superimpose an out-of-plane tilting motion on the oscil-
lating rotor. Rotor tilt with respect to its fixed substrate is capaci-
tively detected. Rotor tilt angle provides the angular rate output
signal—i.e., the greater the angular rate acting on the sensor,
the greater the rotor tilt angle, and the greater the output signal
[52]. This sensor is entirely fabricated using only surface micro-
machining in silicon. Detail on the multiple-degree-of-freedom
center-pivot flexures that suspend the sensor’s oscillating and
tilting rotor are given in [53].
The oscillating-rotor sensor features low cost, small size,
and batch fabrication using standard micromachining processes
[52]. This type of MEMS processing is limited to making
smaller lighter-weight rotor masses (due to limited feature
sizes). For a given applied angular rate, Coriolis forces acting
on the rotors are therefore small. This type of sensor is not
sensitive enough for use in the stability control applications
of Section IV-I1, where high accuracy at low angular-rate
inputs are required. The sensor is, however, used in the rollover
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008
and navigation applications (where higher angular rates are
measured), as described in Sections IV-I3 and IV-I4.
6) Dual Vibrating-Mass Sensor: The essential operating
components of this sensor are shown in Fig. 9. Comb electrodes
electrostatically drive dual masses in the axis direction, in an
in-plane anti-phase vibrating manner. If there is no angular rate
acting on the sensor, the masses continue their vibration along
the axis. When a axis angular rate input exists, Coriolis
forces induce a axis lateral motion, mutually perpendicular to
the directions of vibration and angular rate.
By design, Coriolis force-induced axis motions of the de-
tection-frames (coupled to the masses) oscillate at an eigenfre-
quency. For better detection of the angular-rate signal, the eigen-
frequency is approximately 20% different from the drive fre-
quency. The axis motions of the detection-frame masses are
sensed capacitively by another set of comb electrodes, therein
providing an angular rate output signal. The sensor features high
accuracy, excellent signal-to-noise ratio, high reliability, sur-
face-mount packaging and small size. More detail on this type
of sensor is found in [54].
The dual vibrating-mass sensor is made using a modified
DRIE process [48] which facilitates MEMS fabrication in sil-
icon of larger, heavier, vibrating masses [52]. Although more
costly, this design satisfies the more demanding high accuracy
at low angular-rates requirements for use in stability control and
active suspension applications, described in Sections IV-I1 and
IV-I2.
J. Chemical and Gas Composition Sensors
Exhaust gas oxygen monitoring, spark plug-mounted
in-cylinder ion-current misfire/knock combustion sensors, and
exhaust gas NOx sensing types of chemical and gas composi-
tion sensors were reviewed in [1]. Updated information on the
signal processing associated with the spark plug in-cylinder
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
combustion ion-current engine misfire/knock detection sensor
is found in [55]. An update on the status of NOx exhaust
gas sensors is given in [56]. New features and new types of
chemical and gas composition sensors are described here.
1) Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensors: Exhaust gas oxygen sen-
sors have been continually improved and the following new fea-
tures have been introduced.
a) Pumped-channel air-reference: In planar exhaust gas
zirconia oxygen sensors, a solid-state pumped-channel air-ref-
erence has replaced the previously used open-cavity access to
ambient air. (Planar sensors consist of layered sheets of zir-
conia electrolyte bonded together into a structure that includes
electrodes, heating elements, and gas diffusion channels). This
prevents contamination of the electrode on the air reference
side of the sensor. Oxygen is electrochemically pumped from
exhaust gas (which, even for rich air-fuel ratio engine operation,
includes adequate amounts of oxygen) to the sensor’s refer-
ence electrode, through a zirconia solid electrolyte element.
A chamber adjacent to the reference electrode, internal to the
sensing element, is pumped full with oxygen. A small, 0.1
mA, bias current, with negative voltage polarity on an auxiliary
exhaust electrode, supplies oxygen via oxygen-ion conduction
through the zirconia channel [57].
b) Helical-swirl double-wall shroud: Certain models of
zirconia oxygen gas sensors utilize a math model-designed he-
lical-swirl double-wall shroud which covers the sensing ele-
ment. The shroud’s design causes exhaust gas to swirl inside the
space between the shroud walls. The swirling action removes
particles and droplets, protecting the sensing element from con-
taminants in the exhaust gas. In addition, the swirling flow inside
the shroud provides longer gas residence time on the zirconia
outer electrode. This promotes more complete electrochemical
reactions and results in more accurate engine air-fuel ratio mea-
surement [58].
c) Three exhaust gas oxygen sensors replace one: A
decade ago engine emissions control systems would typically
require only one exhaust oxygen sensor to control engine
air-fuel ratio exhaust composition flowing into a catalytic con-
verter. Current emissions systems often require two catalytic
converters in series—an oxidation/reduction catalyst followed
by a NOx catalyst. To detect exhaust air-fuel mixture entering
each converter, and to satisfy onboard diagnostics require-
ments, emissions systems today often use three exhaust oxygen
sensors—one is positioned upstream of the first converter, one
is between converters, and one is downstream of the second
converter [59].
2) Oil Quality Sensors: Oil quality sensors are mounted near
the bottom of the engine oil pan. Previous oil quality sensors
monitored oil level, oil temperature, and oil dielectric constant
(dielectric constant was used to detect ionic deterioration of the
oil). Modern oil sensors possess enhanced capabilities.
a) Measurement of oil viscosity: One sensor today in-
cludes an oil flow-across “microacoustic” sensor element.
Transducers in the sensor element piezoelectrically generate
120-MHz acoustic Love shear waves in a planar quartz sur-
face layer. (Love waves propagate longitudinally with lateral
oscillating displacements). Differences in resonant frequencies
of oscillator circuits controlled by Love waves propagating on
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1911
a smooth quartz surface versus Love waves propagating on a
grooved, micromachined, quartz surface provide continuous
measurement of oil viscosity [60], [61].
A related sensor that also measures oil viscosity utilizes a
small quartz tuning fork immersed in oil. The tuning fork tines
are piezoelectrically driven and resonate at frequencies ranging
from 26 to 32 kHz. Characteristics of measured electrical im-
pedances of the vibrating tuning fork versus frequency are ana-
lyzed to determine the oil viscosity [62].
b) Measurement of soot-in-oil: This sensor monitors oil
flow between concentric tubular electrodes. The sensor mea-
sures ac conductivity of diesel engine oil, both at a low-fre-
quency of 20 Hz and at a high-frequency of 2 MHz. Measure-
ments are made during engine warm-up and engine cool-down
cycles. In this way, it is assured that the oil temperature passes
through, and is measured at, an interpolated-constant tempera-
ture of 80 . When day-to-day trend data of the low-frequency
oil conductivity reverse slope, this occurrence indicates that the
engine oil has ionic contamination and for this reason needs to
be changed [63]. On the other hand, the high-frequency mea-
surement of the oil ac conductivity provides an indication of
the concentration of soot in diesel engine oil. A computed ratio
of the high-frequency ac conductivity to the low-frequency ac
conductivity provides a quantitative measurement of the con-
centration of soot in diesel engine. When this ratio exceeds a
predetermined limit, it indicates that there is too much soot and
the oil should be changed [64].
A second approach to soot-in-oil measurement likewise
allows oil to flow between concentric tubular electrodes in a
sensor. This sensor makes mHz-to-kHz scans of the electrical
impedance of the oil. Changes in the relative magnitudes
of various frequency components of impedance are used to
determine the amount of soot in oil [65].
3) Flexible-Fuel Composition Sensors: In the United States,
corn is used to produce ethanol that is mixed with gasoline to
produce E85, a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. Be-
cause the chemical composition of ethanol includes oxygen, the
greater the percent of ethanol mixed with gasoline, the more
that engine air intake flow must be reduced to maintain stoi-
chiometric combustion (correct oxygen-to-fuel mixture) for cat-
alytic converter emissions control and good drivability. A flex-
ible fuel composition sensor is required to measure the ethanol
content of the fuel and provide an input signal to an engine con-
trol system.
The flexible-fuel sensor, shown in Fig. 10, internally includes
concentric tubes and fuel flows in the space between the tubes.
One oscillator circuit in the sensor measures electrical capaci-
tance—i.e., dielectric constant of the fuel (which primarily de-
termines the concentration of ethanol in the fuel). Other oscilla-
tors measure fuel conductivity and temperature (for compensa-
tion purposes). The oscillators do not utilize quartz crystal com-
ponents [66].
4) Occupant Compartment Gas Detection Sensors: Many
luxury vehicles today have gas-detection sensors mounted in
the air intake duct of their heating ventilation and air condi-
tioning (HVAC) system. These sensors monitor quality of the
air entering the vehicle cabin/occupant compartment. In addi-
tion, a HVAC-control humidity sensor can be mounted in the
1912
Fig. 10. Flexible-fuel sensor which measures ethanol content in fuel [66].
lower portion of the instrument panel, and a windshield fogging
prevention sensor can be mounted on the windshield behind the
rear view mirror. Each of these sensors is described.
a) Cabin air quality sensors: Cabin air quality sensors de-
tect harmful gas fumes like carbon monoxide CO and nitrogen
dioxide in the outside air drawn in by the HVAC system.
When air quality is bad, i.e., when ambient air CO and/or
concentrations are high, the HVAC system temporarily shuts off
intake of outside air and switches to recirculation mode, routing
cabin air back through the HVAC air filter [67].
The sensing element of an air quality sensor typically con-
sists of a thin porous layer of . The sensing element is de-
posited on top of a silicon micromachined diaphragm. The thin
Si diaphragm has reduced thermal mass that allows rapid, low
power consumption, heating of the sensing element. A heating
element embedded in the diaphragm raises the temperature of
the sensing element to 400 , where the sensor has greater
gas-detection sensitivity, and is more specific to the target gases
it detects. When CO adsorbs on the -surface, electrochem-
ical surface reactions form the product gas , while also in-
jecting (adding) electrons. This causes the element resis-
tance to decrease. Adsorption of gas has the opposite effect
on sensor resistance [68], [69].
b) Humidity sensors: Vehicle interior comfort was
originally controlled using only HVAC temperature and fan
adjustments. Auto manufacturers later utilized air conditioning
(A/C) to extract excess humidity and to increase occupant
comfort. The addition of in-cabin humidity sensors further
enhances cabin comfort, by automatically regulating HVAC
system operation to improve: i) comfort by automatically
activating A/C when humidity is high and ii) fuel economy by
turning off the A/C when it is not needed.
Automotive humidity sensors commonly detect humidity-in-
duced changes of capacitance in porous polymer films or thin
layers of porous metal oxide. As humidity increases, so does the
sensor capacitance. When relative humidity is low, below ap-
proximately 40%, no liquid water exists in the sensing material.
Only adsorbed water molecules exist and humidity-dependent
changes of sensor capacitance are due to ion transport
among adsorbed water molecules in the porous sensor material
[70]. When relative humidity is high, greater than 40%, liquid
water can condense inside the pores of the sensing material.
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008
Electrolytic ion conduction then occurs, creating microscopic
electrical shorting paths between opposite electrodes, which fur-
ther increase sensor capacitance [70], [71]. Resistive-type hu-
midity sensors function by the same principles as capacitive sen-
sors, except that their resistance decreases with increasing hu-
midity due to their electrode configuration.
c) Windshield fogging prevention sensor: Reliance solely
on a humidity sensor to prevent fogging of a windshield is not
sufficient. Reliable fog sensing can be obtained using a dew-
point sensor. The dew-point sensor includes three sensing ele-
ments that independently measure: i) windshield glass temper-
ature; ii) cabin interior temperature; and iii) cabin humidity.
Window fogging is prevented, or removed, by operating the
HVAC so that the cabin air dew-point temperature is maintained
above the windshield glass temperature. The dew, or frost, point
of cabin air is determined using electronics integral to the sensor,
programmed to use pyschrometric equations to compute dew
point as a function of measured values of cabin temperature and
humidity [72].
K. Comfort and Convenience Sensors
Dimming mirror sensors, solar radiation/twilight sensors,
fluid level sensors and rain-detection comfort and convenience
sensors were reviewed in [1]. While the automotive appli-
cations remain the same, there have been the following new
developments.
1) Automatic Dimming Mirrors: CMOS imager sensors
employ camera-on-chip technology, and are mounted on
the windshield behind the rear-view mirror. Upon sensing
oncoming light, a microprocessor integrated in the sensor per-
forms object recognition. If approaching vehicle headlights or
preceding vehicle tail lamps are detected, the system gradually
turns off the high-beam headlights to reduce distraction to
other drivers. The system also detects and ignores ambient light
coming from streetlights, sign reflections, buildings and other
sources. In situations where light from an approaching vehicle
is immediate—e.g., when another vehicle crests a hill—the
system then reacts automatically and quickly switches to low
beam [73].
2) Solar Radiation/Twilight Sensors: Solar radiation/twi-
light sensors utilize solar heat-detecting photodiodes that
respond to near infrared wavelengths, plus twilight-detecting
photodiodes that respond to visible wavelengths. The solar and
twilight photodiodes are packaged together and mounted in
a single housing atop the instrument panel, near the base of
the windshield. The solar photodiodes in the sensor provide
input signals for automatic HVAC temperature control systems,
whereas the twilight photodiodes are used to automatically turn
on headlights.
3) Multizone Infrared (IR) Sensors: Since objects emit in-
frared (IR) radiation as a function of their temperature, IR sen-
sors are able to measure the surface temperature of objects or
persons at a distance. Sunlight variations can cause fast temper-
ature changes, with correspondingly rapid changes in vehicle
passenger comfort. IR sensors rapidly react to passenger ex-
posed-skin temperature changes. The sensors provide closed-
loop feedback to a vehicle HVAC system in order to maintain
passenger-comfort desired temperatures. Dual infrared sensors
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
are mounted in the front face of the HVAC control panel. They
independently measure body surface temperatures of the driver
and passenger, and allow the HVAC to individually regulate
comfort according to the body temperatures of driver and pas-
senger [74].
Standard CMOS MEMS technologies are used to fabricate
the IR sensor. Dozens of thermocouple (thermopile) junctions
and associated n-well thermistors are formed in thin membranes
etched in bulk silicon on each sensor. Electronics is provided via
a separate integrated-circuit chip [74].
4) Rain Sensors: Rain sensors provide feedback signals
for automatic windshield wiper control. Depending on design,
IR-beam optics in the sensors either refract light away from,
or reflect more light back, when rain impinges on their optical
path at the interface between the windshield and the outside
weather. Detected changes in IR beam intensity are propor-
tional to amount of rainfall.
A capacitive type of rain/fog sensor is also in production. The
capacitive sensor includes a flat substrate. One side of the sub-
strate has surface electrodes that capacitively generate electric
fields that extend (fringe) through the windshield to outside air
and interact with impinging raindrops. Changes in capacitance
(dielectric constant) indicate the presence of rain. The other
side of the substrate includes electronic signal processing [75].
The capacitive sensor geometrically has three-times greater
sensing area than the IR optical sensor and consequently
detects moisture on three-times greater windshield area than
the IR optical sensor. Because the capacitive sensor detects
moisture on a greater windshield sensing area than its optical
counterpart, it better responds to difficult-to-measure fine mist
and is less affected by a dirty windshield [75].
5) Fluid Level Sensors: Thermistors are commonly used to
detect low levels in coolant, fuel, brake, and steering fluids. Dif-
ferences between the self-heating temperature of the thermistor
when immersed in a fluid, and not immersed, provide an output
signal. Another commonly used approach to low fluid sensing
uses a magnet mounted in a float. The magnet-in-float travels
along a slotted keyway and rides up and down with the changes
in the fluid level. A reed switch is mounted at a fixed position.
As fluid level drops, the magnet-in-float descends, and when
the level of the fluid drops below a predetermined point, the
magnet’s field actuates the reed switch, therein providing a low
fluid level signal [76].
L. Occupant Safety and Security Sensors
The United States enacted a safety standard that among other
things includes operating requirements for advanced airbag sys-
tems [77]. The standard is unique to the U.S. and has not been
adopted by other countries. The standard applies to all vehi-
cles in the United States manufactured since model year 2004.
The standard gives special attention to protection of infants in
rear-facing infant seats, unbelted small children, short-stature
adults, and elderly adults—persons who have been dispropor-
tionately susceptible to injury by early-model airbags. Occupant
safety sensors developed specifically to make airbags safer and
to comply with this standard are described below.
1) Occupant Safety Sensors: The federal standard for ad-
vanced airbags offers three compliance options. The option most
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1913
Fig. 11. Strain-gage sensing elements, integrated in seat-frame corner mounts
detect difference between seated weights of large male passenger and small fe-
male (or child) [79].
commonly used by automakers utilizes occupant-sensing tech-
nologies to statically classify occupants (weight, size, position)
and when necessary to suppress airbag inflation if an at-risk oc-
cupant is detected in a seat [77].
The following sensors are used for occupant static classifica-
tion purposes in advanced airbag control systems.
a) Seated weight sensors: Seated weight sensors measure
occupant’s seated weight to distinguish small children from
adults in the right-front passenger seat. When a lighter-weight
passenger is detected, the airbag system is adjusted to provide
a softer bag deployment, or no deployment at all if a child
or empty seat is detected. There are two main types of seated
weight sensors used in production vehicles today.
— Seat cushion-embedded, fluid-filled bladder with pressure
sensor readout [78].
— Strain-gage sensing elements, integrated in seat-base
corner mounts [79], as shown in Fig. 11.
b) Seatbelt tension sensors: Seatbelt tension sensors detect
the apparent added weight of a tightly belted child restraint seat.
For example, a large toddler in heavy child seat, buckled-in with
high seatbelt tension, might be mistaken for a small adult fe-
male. Even though they both may have the same apparent seated
weight, the airbag cannot deploy on the child, but must de-
ploy on the adult female. Inputs from the seatbelt tension sensor
allow belt tension to be factored out of the seated weight mea-
surement, therein avoiding an inappropriate airbag deployment
on a child. Seatbelt tension sensors are typically mounted at the
seatbelt buckle-anchor locations. The sensors often consist of
a magnet in a spring-loaded assembly, where belt-tension-in-
duced displacement of the magnet is sensed using a Hall-effect
sensor [80].
c) Seatbelt buckle status sensors: Seatbelt buckle status
sensors are used to detect whether or not an occupant’s seatbelt
is buckled. This input is, for example, used by airbag systems,
which have dual-level bag inflation rates. When an occupant’s
seatbelt is buckled, a less aggressive bag inflation rate is used
because the seatbelt is already restraining the occupant. Buckle
status sensors consist of a magnetic circuit internal to the buckle
1914
that includes a magnet, a Hall-effect sensor, and a circuit-com-
pletion buckle latch member. Full engagement of the buckle’s
latch into the tongue’s latch window completes the magnetic cir-
cuit [81].
d) Seat position sensors: Seat position sensors are used to
detect whether a driver’s seat is positioned far forward which in-
dicates that a short-stature person is driving the vehicle. When
the driver’s seat is far forward, typically in 80%-to-100% of
full forward travel, this indicates that the driver is close to the
steering-wheel airbag. When a driver is seated this far forward,
and a moderate-severity crash occurs, bag deployment can be
suppressed because: i) at this close distance the steering wheel
itself is protecting the driver and ii) there is a risk that the driver’s
close proximity could result in unintended injury by the de-
ploying airbag. Seat position sensors typically consist of a mag-
netic circuit that includes a magnet, a Hall-effect sensor, and a
circuit-completion vane member. A ferromagnetic steel vane at-
tached to the bottom of the driver’s seat acts as the circuit-com-
pletion member. The vane completes the magnetic circuit when
the seat is positioned far forward [82].
2) Intrusion-Detection Security Sensors: Two-way remote
keyless entry (RKE) and antitheft systems both utilize sensors
to detect unauthorized intrusion into vehicles. Intrusion sensors
are mounted inside the vehicle cabin. Types of sensors most
commonly used for intrusion detection are:
— Shock/vibration/motion, where low-frequency interior
vibrations, vehicle swaying, or vehicle bouncing are de-
tected.
— Glass breakage [83]. In some cases, microphones detect
the breakage and neural-network pattern recognition of the
detected acoustic energy spectrum is utilized.
— Ultrasonic doppler motion detection utilizes signal pro-
cessing that ignores stationary objects [84].
— Passive far-IR body-heat detection [83].
M. Distance Sensors
Distance sensors monitor areas surrounding a vehicle, and are
designed to detect dangerous obstacles such as other vehicles
on paths of potential collision. Distance sensors are categorized
as: a) long range sensors which look forward at distances of
approximately 30–100 m and b) short range sensors which look
in all directions around the vehicle at distances of approximately
0–30 m. Advances in sensor technology and new automotive
applications are presented here.
1) Long Range Distance Sensors: Adaptive cruise control
(ACC) systems require long-range distance sensors which use
either 77-GHz (a government-regulated frequency) millimeter-
wave radar or near-infrared laser radar. Instead of simply main-
taining vehicle speed, ACC maintains distance from the car in
front. If a vehicle cuts in front, the subject vehicle automatically
slows down and maintains a safe separation distance. If a lead
vehicle speeds away, then the subject vehicle automatically re-
sumes to its own set speed. Mutual interference among multiple
vehicle radar beams is suppressed, for example, by synchro-
nizing the modulation of the radar’s transmit carrier frequency
with its receiver tuning frequency, thereby distinguishing its
own received signal from those of other radars. Pseudorandom
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008
modulation of the carrier frequency is one method used to sup-
press mutual interference.
Another application for long-range distance sensors is for-
ward collision warning. Studies have shown that, “60% of
rear-end collisions could be avoided if drivers had an extra half
second to react, and there is 90% avoidance with a full one
second reaction time [85].” ACC distance sensors provide the
necessary reaction time.
The four types of sensors, described here were selected be-
cause each one is currently used in one or more production
vehicles. Pros and cons corresponding to the various types of
long-range distance sensors are summarized as follows.
Three sensor types are millimeter-wave radars—each fea-
turing all-electronic (no moving parts) scanning operation,
along with the ability to penetrate inclement weather. The
pulsed doppler type of radar features a GaAs Monolithic Mi-
crowave Integrated Circuit (MMIC) design providing very fast
radar scan update rates. The FM/CW radar claims to be the
smallest and lightest automotive radar sensor in production
today. Monopulse radar also features MMIC technology along
with complete range and azimuthal (horizontal) angle informa-
tion derived from each received pulse.
Laser radar, the fourth type of long-range distance sensor,
features great accuracy and very low cost (said to be 1/3 the
cost of mm-wave radar), but laser radar cannot penetrate heavy
fog, rain, or snow.
a) Pulsed doppler radar: Pulsed doppler radar trans-
mits pulses (bursts) of continuous-wave signals which upon
reflecting from a moving target additionally include a doppler
frequency shift as a means for discriminating moving from
fixed targets [112]. Gallium-arsenide MMIC circuits provide
fast switching of three transmit/receive beams which sequen-
tially scan the right-side, center, and left-side azimuthal areas
of the roadway [87]. The output signal of pulsed-doppler radar
provides range, range closing rate, and azimuthal location of
targets. Target range is derived from pulse transit time, range
closing rate is derived from the doppler frequency shift in
the received pulse, and target azimuthal angle is derived from
knowledge of which one of the three beams, or combination
of beams, detected the target. Pulsed doppler radar is used in
certain luxury European and North American vehicles.
b) FM/CW radar: Frequency-modulated/contin-
uous-wave radar directly measures range and closing speed.
Beat frequencies, the differences between transmit and
doppler-shifted received signal frequencies, are computed.
To extract vehicle range, sums of the beat frequencies are
formed (doppler shifts cancel out when beat frequencies are
summed). On the other hand, differences between beat frequen-
cies indicates range-closing rate (range components cancel out
when differences are computed) [86]. In this way, both target
range and closing rate are simultaneously measured.
One configuration of this radar transmits a 10 wide “flood”
beam. Three 3 wide received beam directions are electronically
switched in the receive antenna, therein providing azimuthal
scanning of the roadway [85]. In another configuration of the
radar, instead of just switching receive beams, the combined
transmit-and-receive beams are simultaneously switched among
the three or four azimuthal directions [88]. This latter type of
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
Fig. 12. Types of automotive long-range distance sensors currently found in
production vehicles.
distance sensor is the smallest, , automotive
radar sensor in production today. FM/CW radars are found in
certain European and North American luxury vehicles.
c) Monopulse radar: Range and azimuthal angle informa-
tion is obtained from single pulses that are transmitted and cover
a wide forward area. Sum and differences of detected phases of
wavefronts of reflected pulses are detected by dual side-by-side
receive antenna elements in the radar [89], [113]. Target range is
derived from pulse transit time of the sum signal, range closing
rate is derived by tracking target range data versus time, and
target azimuthal angle is derived from the phase difference of
the received pulse wavefront as detected by the side-by-side re-
ceive antenna elements.
When a target is straight ahead, the dual antennas will simul-
taneously detect the received pulse wavefront, and the azimuthal
phase angle is zero. If the target is located to the right of the
vehicle, then the detected phase of the right-hand receive an-
tenna will be leading, and the azimuthal phase angle will have
a positive value, and vice versa if the target is on the left side.
Monopulse radar is found in certain luxury European vehicles
and in heavy trucks in both North America and Europe.
d) Laser radar: In addition to millimeter-wave radar,
850-nm-wavelength laser radar is another long-range distance
automotive sensor. (Laser radar is also called lidar, acronym
light + radar). Transit times of laser pulses (from laser, to target,
and back, divided by two), times the speed of light, determine
distances. Electromechanically driven mirrors scan the laser
beam in two directions: i) in the azimuthal plane and ii) in
the elevation plane [90]. Target range is derived from pulse
transit time, range closing rate is derived by tracking target
range data versus time, and target azimuthal angle is derived
from knowledge of the direction the beam was pointed when it
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1915
detected the target. In rotating-mirror types of scanning ACC
systems, laser diodes generate the laser beam [91]. Laser radar
is found in certain luxury and mid-price Japanese and North
American vehicles.
Examples of each of the four types of long-range distance
sensors are seen in Fig. 12.
2) Short Range Distance Sensors: Seven automotive system
applications use short-range distance sensors, namely:
— Blind spot detection uses radar, or camera vision, to mon-
itor side rear-quarter areas outside a vehicle’s side mirrors’
fields of view. When cameras are used, image recognition
algorithms detect shapes of vehicles.
— Lane departure warning uses cameras, plus vision pro-
cessing and lane recognition algorithms, to detect vehicle
departure from road lanes.
— Forward collision warning with pre-impact brake assist
uses short-range radar, and in some systems camera vi-
sion with vehicle recognition algorithms, to detect rapid
closing rates with respect to slower-speed, stopped vehi-
cles, or pedestrians, ahead.
— Pre-Safing uses radar to detect imminent collisions.
Pre-safing distance sensor information is used to pre-
tension motorized seatbelts, pre-arm airbags, apply
prebraking, and move seats and windows into more pro-
tective positions. In Europe and Japan, it can also deploy
pedestrian protective devices such as external air bags or
raised hoods.
— Backup/reversing obstacle detection uses ultrasonic sen-
sors, radar, or camera vision, and combinations of the sen-
sors, some with object recognition algorithms. Backup ob-
stacle detection warns drivers of potential backup collision
objects. Backover crashes in the United States currently
cause over 180 fatalities annually (mostly children, often
occurring in the driver’s driveway). The problem has wors-
ened due to vision obscuration associated with increas-
ingly popular vans and SUVs.
— Parking assist generally uses ultrasonic sensors, but certain
luxury vehicles use radar or camera vision. Self-parking
systems require the added availability of certain vehicle
subsystems such as: electrically actuated steering, electro-
hydraulically actuated braking, wheel-speed sensing, and
steering-wheel angle sensing. These subsystems are al-
ready included in other vehicle systems such as EPS and
ESC, and are simply shared with the parking assist system.
— Stop-and-go/low-speed ACC utilizes radar and camera-vi-
sion sensor fusion, together with object recognition algo-
rithms. This system takes control of the vehicle during
stop-and-go driving. The system automates driving so the
driver can do other things (read, download e-mail, etc.),
while the car automatically negotiates stop-and-go traffic.
Automotive system applications that use short-range distance
sensors, and respective sensing areas, are illustrated in Fig. 13.
In Table II, eight distance sensor technologies are categorized
in terms of short- and long-range automotive applications. This
table also identifies areas around the vehicle that are monitored
in each application.
Pros and cons corresponding to short-range distance sen-
sors are summarized as follows. Radar short-range sensors
1916 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008

Fig. 13. Automotive system applications that use short-range distance sensors [92].

TABLE II
DISTANCE SENSOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS

Sense areas and application uses are based on published literature and the judgment of the author.
Also utilizes vehicle dynamics sensor inputs (braking, deceleration, etc.)
Various types of short-range radars, sometimes together with camera vision, detect rapid closing rates of
slower-speed vehicles with respect to nearby slow or stopped vehicles or pedestrians ahead.
Various types of long-range radars detect rapid closing rates of faster-speed vehicles with respect to more
distant slow or stopped vehicles ahead.

typically operate at a frequency of 24-GHz which, com-
pared to long-range 77-GHz frequency, allows for wider
beamwidths and broader road coverage, as required for
short-range operation.
Ultra-wideband (UWB) radars feature extremely fast mea-
surement update rates and close-range high resolution that al-
lows separate tracking of multiple approaching targets. Multi-
beam-forming radars feature near real-time broad-area coverage
of blind spots. Laser radars feature great accuracy, fast update
rates, and very low cost, but they can’t penetrate heavy fog, rain,
or snow. Camera vision has good lateral object size resolution,
but its range measurement accuracy is poor, and it also does not
penetrate heavy fog, rain, or snow. Ultrasonic sensors have slow
measurement update rates and are susceptible to errors caused
by inclement weather (including high wind), but are very low
cost.
a) Ultra-wideband radar: Short-range automotive UWB
radars currently operate in Europe and the United States at
the same regulation-allowed center frequency of 24 GHz, with
bandwidths of 7 GHz (U.S.) and 5 GHz (EU). This will be the
case for the foreseeable future in the U.S. However, in Europe,
starting in year 2013, the UWB center frequency will likely be
moved, from 24 to 79 GHz. UWB sensors transmit very short
pulses and, therefore, require large “ultra wide” bandwidths.
Although UWB sensors transmit wide bandwidth signals,
interference effects are mitigated because [92], [93]:

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FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
Fig. 14. An automotive 24-GHz UWB distance sensor (exploded view). This
short-range radar sensor is currently available in the United States and Europe
and is approximately the size of a deck of playing cards [92].
— By regulation, total radiated power from automotive radars
is limited to a few tens of milliwatts.
— The low level of radiated power is spread over a wide band-
width, resulting in extremely low radiated spectral power
density.
An automotive 24-GHz UWB distance sensor is shown in
Fig. 14.
UWB radar is used in short-range applications because it
features: i) fast measurement update rates (typically 100 up-
dates per second); ii) wide field of view (80 at 24 GHz); and
iii) close-range high resolution which allows separate tracking
of multiple targets. The use of pulse modulation provides ex-
tremely fast update rates which are also facilitated by range-
gated processing of the pulse signals [94].
Short-range UWB radar sensors are also easier to conceal
than, for example, laser sensors. This is because radar sensors
can be integrally housed in a vehicle bumper, behind plastic
fascia, giving them a concealment edge over laser radar and
cameras.
Certain luxury cars today have as many as seven radars
on-board—a single long-range forward-viewing pulsed-doppler
radar and six short-range UWB pulse-modulated radars. The
radars operate on a high-speed common-bus network. Two
radars provide forward-viewing short-range coverage for
forward collision warning and pre-safing. The other four
short-range radars are mounted near each of the four corners of
the vehicle for parking assist and blind spot detection [95].
b) Multibeam-forming radar: For rapid scanning of short-
range wide areas, certain automotive radars employ electronic
forming of eight or more narrow beams. Multiple beams are
electronically generated via switching among ports in a Butler
matrix using computer-controlled excitation of planar-patch an-
tennas. (A Butler matrix divides input power into output ports
with equal amplitudes and with linear phase taper. Electronic
beam scanning can be realized when a Butler matrix is used as
a feed circuit for antennas) [96]. Alternatively, multiple beams
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1917
are obtained by transmitting electronically switched FM/CW
beams through phase-array antenna elements using digital beam
forming [97].
c) Laser radar: Laser radar emits narrow, pulsed,
850-nm-wavelength IR beams. Short-range laser beams are
scanned over a wide area of horizontal and vertical direc-
tions. Transit times of individual pulses determine distances
to reflecting targets. The laser beam is scanned using an
electromechanically driven mirror. A trifocal lens provides
a variable azimuthal coverage pattern; namely, forward
scanning, widening to short-range side-angle scanning.
Throughout the entire azimuthal range, the beam also scans over
a -elevation range. This scanning pattern facilitates near
object detection. The side-angle beams detect vehicles
turning off the roadway at sharp angles and/or cutting-in-front
vehicles [98].
d) Camera vision: Vehicle camera-vision serves either
of two applications: i) scene viewing, e.g., as used in vehicle-
backup camera displays and ii) scene understanding machine
vision; e.g., when no one actually sees the video, as in lane
departure warning. For use in automotive scene understanding
applications, camera vision must have 120-dB dynamic bright-
ness adaptability (to allow the camera to produce clear images
in all lighting conditions). On-vehicle cameras also have to
work reliably in a harsh environment with operating temper-
atures ranging from C to 85 C, and work with longer
lifetimes than for consumer-oriented cameras [99]. Space
around the windshield rearview mirror where these cameras are
mounted is valuable, so another key factor is reduced camera
size. As evident in Table II, camera vision has more distance
sensing applications than other sensor technologies.
Although camera vision has good lateral resolution (i.e., good
size of object resolution), its range measurement accuracy is
poor. On the other hand, radar has excellent range accuracy, but
its lateral resolution is limited. Consequently, radar and camera
vision technologies are often combined, using sensor fusion, to
reliably detect both the range and size of objects [100].
e) Ultrasonic sensors: Vehicle reversing and parking aids
commonly use low-cost short-range ultrasonic sensors. The sen-
sors operate at frequencies in the neighborhood of 50 kHz. They
simultaneously transmit and receive short ultrasonic pulses by
means of a piezoelectric membrane element. A single sensor
lacks sufficient beamwidth. Therefore, full coverage of a ve-
hicle’s backup lateral area requires acquisition of signals from
typically four sensors. Signal processing circuitry is integrated
in the sensor. Ultrasonic sensors have a detection range of about
2.5 m. There are development efforts to extend the range to 4.0
m. The sensors are mounted in the vehicle bumper fascia and
have the appearance of a linear array of four circular dimples
[100].
N. Night Vision Sensors
Night vision sensors view the road and roadside nighttime
scene ahead. To assist the driver, these systems project video of
the scene onto heads-up or instrument-panel mounted displays.
Two different technologies are used for night vision: a) far-in-
frared (FIR) sensors that detect long-wavelength IR warm-body
thermal radiation and b) near-infrared (NIR) sensors that project
1918
Fig. 15. Two types of automotive night vision technology are used. (a) FIR
warm body-detect camera [106]. (b) NIR illuminator and camera [100].
shorter-wavelength nonvisible IR illumination to provide day-
time-like images of the roadway.
The two types of night vision sensors are seen in Fig. 15.
Both types of night vision sensing technologies are in current
use on production luxury vehicles in Europe, Japan, and North
America. Advances in night vision sensor technology are de-
scribed.
1) FIR Thermal-Radiation Sensors: FIR thermal camera vi-
sion is passive—i.e., nonradiating. This sensor detects nonvis-
ible, 8–14 , long-IR wavelengths, emitted by warm-body ob-
jects. Since no illumination source is required, a FIR system
does not blind oncoming night vision-equipped cars, and extra
electronics are not needed to prevent blinding. Because FIR de-
tection accentuates warm bodies of humans and animals; pedes-
trians, for example, are detected at greater distances than with
the NIR type of night vision. There has also been continued im-
provement of FIR image quality [101].
Focal plane arrays are used to detect the image in FIR night
vision cameras. (Note. Bolometric elements change electrical
resistance or capacitance upon exposure to FIR radiation. Ma-
terials such as barium-strontium-titanate [102] or vanadium
oxide [103] exhibit useful bolometric performance). A typical
focal plane array includes bolometric el-
ements. Signals from bolometric elements are processed using
on-chip electronics in the camera to provide a continuous dis-
play of the nighttime scene. An example of an advanced FIR
night vision system that additionally includes image processing
(to recognize pedestrians at night) is described in [104].
2) NIR Illumination Sensors: NIR camera vision detects
nonvisible 0.78-to-1.0 short-wavelength IR illumination.
These wavelengths are slightly longer than visible wavelengths.
NIR sensors provide a driver-friendly night scene display,
visibly showing road markers and reflective signs. It provides
images that the driver is used to seeing, and detects all objects
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2008
regardless of temperature. A NIR camera uses plain glass optics
and is lower cost than a FIR camera. When it is warm outside,
with temperature above about 32 , NIR vision stays clear,
while FIR displays may turn fuzzy gray.
NIR illumination is created by special headlamps. CCD or
CMOS cameras image the roadway illuminated by the NIR light
and their output signals are processed to provide continuous dis-
play of the nighttime scene [105]. NIR illuminators are typi-
cally mounted in vehicle headlight clusters. The NIR camera
is mounted inside the windshield behind the rearview mirror.
To avoid blinding between oncoming vehicles, NIR systems
use random pulse-modulation of the NIR illumination and syn-
chronous detection cameras.
O. Future Automotive Sensors Needs
Beyond obvious needs of being “smaller, lower cost, and
better integrated into system networks;” there are additionally
the following future needs for automotive sensors.
— The introduction of advanced engine and alternative
power-source control system technologies, to satisfy more
demanding fuel economy and emissions standards, will
require new sensors to provide monitoring of combus-
tion processes. This will necessitate the development
of high-temperature (greater than 400 ) sensors that
measure power-source internal pressures, temperatures,
and , NOx, and likely gas concentrations.
— There is a continuing need for powertrain clutchshaft (en-
gine-out) and driveshaft (transmission-out) torque sensors.
As described in Section IV-G, progress has been made, but
there is currently no practical torque sensor available for
the difficult clutchshaft and driveshaft applications.
— As evident in Table II, there are several applications for
radar and camera distance sensors. Exemplary new tech-
nologies currently under development to serve these appli-
cations are: (a) SiGe BiCMOS radar technology that func-
tions to 100 GHz [107] and (b) highly integrated low-cost
detector-array cameras with high-performance image pro-
cessors [108]. Because numerous nonautomotive appli-
cations also exist for these technologies, nonautomotive
needs will drive these two developments to maturity irre-
spective of automotive driving factors.
P. Automotive Sensors Technology Forecast
Sensor technologies forecast to find new automotive applica-
tions in the future are as follows.
— Within 5-to-10 years, sensors that operate at temperatures
above 400 will provide new means of monitoring
on-engine combustion processes [109].
— Within 10 years, sensors will have evolved from: be-
coming wireless, then batteryless and wireless, and
ultimately becoming energy harvesting and batteryless
and wireless [110].
— Ten-to-twenty years from now, carbon nanotubes may
serve as sensing elements in nanoelectromechanical
sensors which will provide new means of measuring tem-
perature, fluid flow, chemical gas concentrations, pressure,
and strain [111].
FLEMING: NEW AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS—A REVIEW
V. CONCLUSION
A comprehensive update and review of current-production
automotive sensor technologies is presented. New types of au-
tomotive sensors ranging from torque sensors to short-range
distance sensors are described. In addition, new features avail-
able in automotive sensors that measure acceleration and com-
fort/convenience are reviewed. New automotive systems appli-
cations, made possible by use of sensors that make measure-
ments ranging from angular rate to occupant safety, are also
summarized.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Use of TRW Automotive Inc. resources and facilities in the
Systems Technology Department of Occupant Safety Systems,
Washington, MI, were essential in preparing this review paper
and are gratefully appreciated.
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William J. Fleming (S’63–M’64–SM’78–LSM’08)
received the B.E.E. degree in electrical engineering
from the University of Detroit, Detroit, MI, and the
M.S.E. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Retired, served as a Technical Specialist at TRW
Automotive Inc., Occupant Safety Systems, where he
developed new safety-restraint sensor-related prod-
ucts and did studies involving risk-analysis and new
technology. Prior to this, he developed new types of
sensors for use in automotive control systems at TRW
Automotive Electronics Group. Before that, he was involved in sensor develop-
ment for automotive engine control systems at General Motors Research Lab-
oratories. From 1995 to 2007, he served as an Instructor of the seminar, Sen-
sors and Actuators—Powertrain, Chassis and Body Applications, offered by
the Society of Automotive Engineers. Approximately 1500 automotive industry
personnel attended the seminars. He has published more than 30 papers.
Dr. Fleming was the recipient of the Society of Automotive Engineers Vin-
cent Bendix, and Forest R. McFarland Awards. He also received the Avant Garde
Award, and the Long-Term Leadership Award from the IEEE Vehicular Tech-
nology Society.