18 MTE Slides - 02 PDF

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INSTRUMENTATION
AND
MEASUREMENT
2
Instrument Types
Active Instruments
▪ The instrument type in which quantity to be measured modulates or adapts to

magnitude of external power source is known as active instrument.
Passive Instruments
• Passive instruments are instruments where the output is

produced completely by the quantity that is measured.
3
Instrument Types (Cont’d.)
Example of a passive instrument:
• pressure-measuring device
4
Example of an active instrument
▪ float-type petrol tank level indicator
5
difference between active and passive instruments:
• measurement resolution.
6
• to increase measurement
resolution by making the pointer
longer
• the scope is limited
7
• Adjustment of the magnitude of the external energy input allows
much greater control over measurement resolution.
• External Energy has limitations due to the heating effects and safety
reasons.
8
Cost
• Passive instruments are less expensive
• A choice between active and passive instruments for a

particular application involves carefully balancing the
measurement resolution requirements against cost
9
Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments
Deflection type Instrument:

• the pressure gauge
10
Null-type instrument
Example: the dead-weight gauge shown
11
In terms of usage:
• a deflection-type instrument is clearly more convenient.
• for calibration duties, a null-type instrument is preferable

because of its superior accuracy.
12
Analogue and Digital Instruments
Analogue instrument:
• Output varies continuously as the quantity being measured
changes.
• The deflection-type of pressure gauge
13
Digital instrument
• Output varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite
number of values.
• The rev counter sketched in Fig. is an example of a digital
instrument.
14
• The distinction between analogue and digital

instruments:
• output in digital form can be interfaced
directly to the control computer.
• Analogue instruments must be
interfaced to the microcomputer by an
analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter.
15
Indicating Instruments and Instruments with a Signal Output
• an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of the physical

quantity measured
• an output in the form of a measurement signal whose magnitude is

proportional to the measured quantity.
16
Indicators:
• an analogue output
• A digital display.
• A common analogue indicator is the liquid-
in-glass thermometer.
• indicating device, which exists in both
analogue and digital forms, is the bathroom
scale.
17
Drawback with indicating devices

• human intervention is required to read and
record a measurement.
• process is particularly prone to error in the

case of analogue output displays
• digital displays are not very prone to error

unless the human reader is careless.
18
Instruments with a signal-type output

Commonly used as:
• part of automatic control systems.
• in measurement systems
• Usually the measurement signal involved
is an electrical voltage, but it can take
other forms in some systems, such as an
electrical current, an optical signal, or a
pneumatic signal.
19
Static Characteristics of Instruments
Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement

Uncertainty)
accuracy
• is a measure of how close the output
reading of the instrument is to the correct
value.
Inaccuracy or measurement uncertainty
• is the extent to which a reading might be
wrong
• percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of
an instrument.
20
If we have a thermometer in a room and its
reading shows a temperature of 20 0C, then it
does not really matter whether the true
temperature of the room is 19.5 or 20.5 0C.
Such small variations around 20 0C are too
small to affect whether we feel warm enough
or not. Our bodies cannot discriminate
between such close levels of temperature and
therefore a thermometer with an inaccuracy of
0.5 0C is perfectly adequate.
21
If we had to measure the temperature of

certain chemical processes, however, a
variation of 0.5 0C might have a significant
effect on the rate of reaction or even the
products of a process. A measurement
inaccuracy much less than 0.5 0C is therefore
clearly required.
22
• Accuracy of measurement
• Sensitivity
• Linearity
• and the reaction to ambient temperature changes
23
Values in data sheet:

• only apply when the instrument is used
under specified standard calibration
conditions.
• due allowance must be made for variations
in the characteristics when the instrument is
used in other conditions.
24
the maximum measurement error in an

instrument is usually related to the full-scale
reading of the instrument, measuring quantities
that are substantially less than the full-scale
reading means that the possible measurement
error is amplified.
25
it is an important system design rule that

instruments are chosen such that their range is
appropriate to the spread of values being
measured in order that the best possible
accuracy is maintained in instrument readings.
Clearly, if we are measuring pressures with

expected values between 0 and 1 bar, we
would not use an instrument with a
measurement range of 0-10 bar. 26
27
28
Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility
• Precision indicates the spread of the measurement. If a large
number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high-
precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be very
small.
• Precision is often, although incorrectly, confused with accuracy.
• High precision does not imply anything about measurement

accuracy. A high-precision instrument may have a low accuracy.
• Low accuracy measurements from a high-precision instrument are

normally caused by a bias in the measurements, which is
removable by recalibration.
29
30
• .
• Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when

the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location, and same conditions
of use maintained throughout.
31
Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the

same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location,
conditions of use, and time of measurement.
Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the
same input. This spread is referred to as repeatability if the
measurement conditions are constant and as reproducibility if the
measurement conditions vary.
32
Range
• The operating range of a sensor is usually specified
as the lowest and highest input values which it is
capable of measuring.
• for example temperature range refers to the
maximum and minimum temperatures in which the
device will work.
• It is important not to exceed these ranges because
not only may the device fail to operate effectively, it
could also damage other components of the system
or even be a risk to health and safety.
33
Linearity
It is normally desirable that the output reading
of an instrument is linearly proportional to the
quantity being measured.
34
35
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity is then defined as the maximum

deviation of any of the output readings marked
X from this straight line. Nonlinearity is usually
expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.
36
Sensitivity of Measurement
• The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount.
• The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the
straight line drawn on Figure.
• If, for example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10
degrees in a pressure transducer, the sensitivity of the
instrument is 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the deflection is zero
with zero pressure applied).
37
38
39
40
Threshold
• If the input to an instrument is increased gradually from zero,
the input will have to reach a certain minimum level before the
change in the instrument output reading is of a large enough
magnitude to be detectable.
• This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the

instrument. As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a
threshold of about 15 km/h.
• This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates,
no output reading is observed on the speedometer until the
speed reaches 15 km/h.
41
Resolution
It is the smallest value of measurand that an instrument
can detect . One of the major factors influencing the
resolution of an instrument is how finely its output
scale is divided into subdivisions.
42
Drift
• Drift is the natural tendency of a device to alter its

characteristics with time and environmental changes.
• This is a change in the output characteristics while the

inputs to the device have not changed.
43
Bias
Bias describes the effect where the zero
reading of an instrument is modified by a
change in ambient conditions. This causes a
constant error that exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument.
The mechanical form of a bathroom scale is a
common example of an instrument prone to
bias. It is quite usual to find that there is a
reading of perhaps 1 kg with no one on the
scale. If someone of known weight 70 kg were
to get on the scale, the reading would be 71 kg,
and if someone of known weight 100 kg were
to get on the scale, the reading would be 101
kg.
44
Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which an instrument’s

sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is
quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how much drift
there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter that the
instrument characteristics are sensitive to. Many components within
an instrument are affected by environmental fluctuations, such as
temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of elasticity of a
spring is temperature dependent. Figure b shows what effect
sensitivity drift can have on the output characteristic of an
instrument.
45
Hysteresis
Hysteresis causes
the difference in
the output of a
sensor when the
direction of the
input has been
reversed. This
produces error
and so affects the
accuracy of a
device. Figure
shows this in
graphical form.
46
It is caused by various factors, particularly

mechanical strain and friction. Slack motion in gear
systems and screw threads (often referred to as
backlash) is also a common cause. Hence
measurement systems likely to suffer significantly
from hysteresis may incorporate mechanical gears or
bearings, or other moving parts, and materials which
tend to be elastic, such as rubber, plastics, and some
metals.
47
Dead Zone
Dead zone is defined as the range of different input
values over which there is no change in output value.
Backlash in gears is a typical cause of dead zone and
results in the sort of instrument output characteristic
shown in Figure.
48
49
Variables
• Variables are entities that influence the test.

• Measurement variable is the entity needed to be
measured, e.g. force, temperature etc.
• There may be other variables that may affect the
outcome.
• All known process variables should be evaluated
for any possible cause-and effect relationships.
• If a change in one variable will not affect the
value of some other variable, the two are
considered independent of each other. E.g. speed
of motor temperature of human operator
50
Variables
❑ A variable that can be changed independently of other
variables is known as an independent variable.
❑ A variable that is affected by changes in one or more
other variables is known as a dependent variable.
❑ Variables that are not or cannot be controlled during
measurement but that affect the value of the variable
measured are called extraneous variables.
❑ Their influence can confuse the clear relation between
cause and effect in a measurement.
E.g. driving style affect the fuel consumption of a car
unless controlled, this influence will affect the result.
51
Variables
Extraneous variables can introduce differences in

repeated measurements of the same measured variable
taken under seemingly identical operating conditions.
52
Extraneous variables affect measured data
Two Types: noise and interference.
Noise is a random variation of the measured signal due to
extraneous variables. Noise increases data scatter.
Interference imposes undesirable trends on the measured

value.
Sometimes the interference is obvious.

But if the period of the interference is longer than the
period over which the measurement is made, the false
trend may go unnoticed.
So interference source need to be controlled or its trend be
broken.
53
Consider the effects of noise and interference on the
signal,
as shown in next slide.
Noise adds to the scatter of the signal.
Through statistical techniques and other means, we can

sift through the noise to get at the desirable signal
information.
But interference imposes a trend onto the signal, which is

difficult to identify and remove.
54
55
Notes:
Consider a thermodynamics experiment to establish the boiling point of
water. The apparatus for measuring the boiling point might yield the
results shown in Figure for three test runs conducted on separate days.
Notice the different outcome for each test. Why should the data from
three seemingly identical tests show such different results? Suppose we
determine that the measurement system accuracy accounts for only
0.10F of the test data scatter. So another plausible contributing factor is
the effect of an extraneous variable. Indeed, a close examination of the
test data shows a measured variation in the barometric pressure, which
would affect the boiling temperature. The pressure variation is
consistent with the trend seen in the boiling point data. Because the
local barometric pressure was not controlled (i.e., it was not
held fixed between the tests), the pressure acted as an extraneous
variable adding to the differences in outcomes between the test runs.
Control important variables or be prepared to solve a puzzle!
56
Consider fig. shown in next slide.
Barometric pressure caused interference in each individual

test. The barometric pressure did not change over the
conduct of any one test.
We can discover the effect because we showed the results

of several tests taken over a period for which the value of
this uncontrolled variable did change.
57
58
Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
Many experimental measurements are

taken under conditions where
sufficient time is available for the
measurement system to reach steady
state, and hence one need not be
concerned with the behaviour under
non-steady state conditions. --- Static
cases
59
In many other situations, however, it

may be desirable to determine the
behaviour of a physical variable over a
period of time. In any event the
measurement problem usually becomes
more complicated when the transient
characteristics of a system need to be
considered (e.g. a closed loop automatic
control system).
60
The most important factor in the

performance of a measuring system is
that the full effect of an input signal (i.e.
change in measured quantity) is not
immediately shown at the output but is
almost inevitably subject to some lag or
delay in response. This is a delay
between cause and effect due to the
natural inertia of the system and is
known as measurement lag.
61
The following general relation can be written between input and

output: where qi is the measured quantity, qo is the output reading,
and a0 . . . an , b0 . . . bm are constants.
If we limit consideration to that of step changes in the measured

quantity only, then this equation reduces to:
62
Zero-Order Instrument
where K is a constant known as the gain.
Following a step change in the measured quantity at time t, the

instrument output moves immediately to a new value at the same
time instant t.
63
Strain Gauge
64
A potentiometer,
which measures
motion is a good
example of such an
instrument, where
the output voltage
changes
instantaneously as
the slider is
displaced along the
potentiometer track.
Strain gauge is also
Rotary Potentiometer
a zero order
instrument. 65
66
First-Order Instrument
For first order instrument:
Defining K = b0/a0 as the steady state gain and τ = a1/a0 as the time
constant of the system:
67
The time constant τ of the step

response is time taken for the
output quantity q0 to reach 63% of
its final value.
68
Thermometers for
measuring
temperature are first-
order instruments.
The time constant of
a measurement of
temperature is
determined by the
thermal capacity of
the thermometer and
the thermal contact
between the
thermometer and the
body whose Thermometer
temperature is being
measured. 69
The thermocouple is
also a good example
of a first-order
instrument. If a
thermocouple at
room temperature is
plunged into boiling
water, the output
e.m.f. does not rise
instantaneously to a
level indicating 100
0C, but
instead approaches a
reading indicating
100 0C slowly due to Thermocouple
heat transfer to
sensor. 70
A cup anemometer
for measuring wind
speed is also a first
order instrument.
The time constant
depends on the
anemometer's
moment of inertia.
Anemometer
71
Rise Time, Tr
Time taken for the output to raise from 10 % to 90 % of the
steady state value.
Settling Time, Ts
Time taken for final output to be at steady state value or to
settle within some given value (for example 2% of steady
state value).
Time Constant, τ
Time taken for the output to reach 63.2 % of the steady state
value. It is measure of inertia of the sensor and how fast it
will react to the changes in output. The bigger the time
constant the slower the reaction to changing input signal.
72
73
Second-Order Instrument
Example: Spring-mass system employed for acceleration and force

measurements.
74
75
Rise Time, Tr: This is time taken for the output to raise to some
specified percentage of steady state output. Often it refers to time
taken for output to raise from 10 % to 90 % of the steady state value.
Peak Time, To: Time taken to reach the peak value.
Percentage Overshoot, P.O: Overshoot as percentage of steady state

value.
Settling Time, Ts: Time taken for final output steady state value or
settle to within some percentage of steady state output, for example
2% of steady state value.
76

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Fair Use Notice

The material used in this presentation i.e., pictures/graphs/text, etc. is solely

▪ The instrument type in which quantity to be measured modulates or adapts to

• Passive instruments are instruments where the output is

Example of a passive instrument:

▪ float-type petrol tank level indicator

difference between active and passive instruments:

• A choice between active and passive instruments for a

Deflection type Instrument:

Example: the dead-weight gauge shown

• a deflection-type instrument is clearly more convenient.

• for calibration duties, a null-type instrument is preferable

• The distinction between analogue and digital

• an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of the physical

• an output in the form of a measurement signal whose magnitude is

Drawback with indicating devices

• process is particularly prone to error in the

• digital displays are not very prone to error

Instruments with a signal-type output

Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement

If we had to measure the temperature of

• and the reaction to ambient temperature changes

Values in data sheet:

the maximum measurement error in an

it is an important system design rule that

Clearly, if we are measuring pressures with

• Precision is often, although incorrectly, confused with accuracy.

• High precision does not imply anything about measurement

• Low accuracy measurements from a high-precision instrument are

• Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the

Nonlinearity is then defined as the maximum

• This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the

• Drift is the natural tendency of a device to alter its

• This is a change in the output characteristics while the

Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which an instrument’s

It is caused by various factors, particularly

• Variables are entities that influence the test.

Extraneous variables can introduce differences in

Interference imposes undesirable trends on the measured

Sometimes the interference is obvious.

as shown in next slide.

Noise adds to the scatter of the signal.

Through statistical techniques and other means, we can

But interference imposes a trend onto the signal, which is

Barometric pressure caused interference in each individual

We can discover the effect because we showed the results

Many experimental measurements are

In many other situations, however, it

The most important factor in the

The following general relation can be written between input and

If we limit consideration to that of step changes in the measured

where K is a constant known as the gain.

Following a step change in the measured quantity at time t, the

The time constant τ of the step

Example: Spring-mass system employed for acceleration and force

Peak Time, To: Time taken to reach the peak value.

Percentage Overshoot, P.O: Overshoot as percentage of steady state

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