Processing of Plastics

(i) Study of major processes used in the manufacturing of a variety of

plastic products. Typical processes being dealt include industry
standard ‘Extrusion’ and extrusion-based processes, ‘Injection
molding’ and injection-based processes, ‘Thermo Forming’,
‘Vacuum forming’, and ‘Compression molding’.
(ii) Classification of the processes into two broad categories; one
for processing ‘thermoplastics’, and the second for processing
of ‘thermoset’ materials.

(iii) Mechanisms of material flow in different processes.

(iv) Salient design related features for different processes.
(v) The influence of process variables/parameters that control the
quality of the product.
(vi) Pultrusion of thermoplastic and thermosetting composites.

The laboratory work and writing of report on the experiment could

further enhance your understanding.

You are encouraged to go through the Essential Reading book for

further understanding of the subject.
Processing of Plastics
 Complex shapes are usually produced in one single operation.

 Fabrication or machining of rods or sheets is rarely done.

 Choice of method depends on component/product shape and

type of plastic; thermoset or thermoplastic.
 EXTRUSION

3 2 1

Fig. 1 Schematic view of single screw extruder

 Note that the depth of screw channel is reducing.
The three zone of an extruder are:
1. Feed zone
2. Compression zone
3. Metering zone (Extrusion)

Feed zone: Preheats the plastic and supplies to other zones.

 Must supply enough material to metering zone; Not less to starve
or not excess the overrun.
 Depend on - nature and shape of feed stock
- geometry of screw
- frictional properties of screw & barrel with respect to
plastic.
 Friction influences the rate of melting.
Compression zone: Screw depth decreases gradually to compress the
plastic
 Squeezes trapped air pockets.
 Improves heat transfer through the material.

Metering zone: Screw depth is constant but less than in feeding zone
 Melt is homogenized and supplies at constant rate, uniform
temperature and pressure of the die.
 Viscous melt flow along a uniform channel.
 Pressure build-up & melting in the three zones depends on the type
of plastic;
Nylon melts in the first pitch of screw
PVC varies up to the whole length of screw
 ACTUAL

Right angle at leading

edge blocks leakage
Reaction force Strengthen
tooth/thread
Material flow Leakage

Fig. 2 Typical zones and pressure build-up along a extruder screw

Mixing promotes uniformity of melt. Therefore, a variety of zone
geometries have been tried out, as shown in Fig. 3.

Objective: To break the flow pattern & promote mixing

Fig. 3 Typical design of mixing zones

Some plastics are hygroscopic, i.e., absorb moisture. This leads to
production of poor quality products requiring
 Either pre-drying of the feedstock (expensive)
 Or provision of venting in barrels, as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Zones on a
vented extruder
At 250°C, the water vapour pressure in the plastic is 4 MN/m² (MPa)
whereas the atmospheric pressure is approximately 0.1MN/m².

Gauge filter on screen packs are used to filter particles of 120-150μm

or larger. Particles smaller than this size can also initiate cracks. In
such cases use fine filter, say~ 45 μm.

Filter is supported by ‘Breaker Plate’ and typical arrangement is shown

in Fig. 5.
 It straightens the melt flow  spiral to straight;
 Periodically replaced  manual or automatic
 Assists in building back pressure which improves mixing
 A valve after the breaker plate can provide better control.
Fig. 5 Breaker plate with filter pack
Mechanisms of plastic melting and flow:
 A thin film forms at the barrel wall;
 It is scrapped by the screw and moves down the front face of the
screw flight;
 After it reaches the core it sweeps up again setting rotary movement
in front of the leading edge;
 Solid granules are swept by the rotary movement; and
 The process continues to give complete melt.
Features of plastic flow in extruder:
Plastic movement along the screw depends on whether or
not it sticks to the screw;
When it sticks perfectly, the screw and material move like
one solid piece and hence no output;
When the material slips on the screw, it has a high resistance
to rotation and results in purely axial movement;
In practice, the situation is in between the two extreme cases;
material sticks to the barrel as well as screw.
The useful output is the result of drag flow due to the interaction of
rotating screw and stationary barrel. This is similar to flow of
viscous.
fluid between two parallel plates- one is stationary and the other is
moving.
The pressure gradient along the screw offers resistance and reduces the
output.
The clearance between screw and barrel causes some leakage along the
screw and reduces the output- worse when screw is worn.
High output extruders do not need heating. Heat is generated by
shearing action. If excess heat is generated, cooling is provided. In
some cases, screw is also cooled to reduce the friction.
Feed zone cooling is essential to ensure unrestricted support of
feedstock.
Thermal characteristics:
The two simple basic thermal states are “Adiabatic” and “Isothermal”
Adiabatic  No heat is gained or lost to the surroundings
Isothermal  Heating or cooling is provided to maintain equal
temperature everywhere.
Even when extruders are run without heating or cooling, they are not
adiabatic since heat is lost.
Extruders are also not isothermal, at least near the feed zone.
Near isothermal conditions exist at the metering zone.
Generally, flow analysis considers 
(a) Drag flow; (b) Pressure flow; (c) Leakage; and
Assume constant viscosity and temperature.
Types of Extruder:
Extruders may use single or double (twin) screw. In the case of twin
screw type, the screws may co-rotate or counter-rotate and they offer
several benefits as can be inferred from the data presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Comparison of single-screw, co-rotating and counter-
rotating twin-screw extruders

(Twin)
 Processing Methods Based on Extruder
A. Granule Production/ Compounding
This is a primary processing techniques to produce polymer raw materials that are
normally supplied to plastic product manufacturers who use different
manufacturing process.
Typical manufacturing set-up is shown in Fig. 6.

Accessory

Ex: 3mm dia &

4 mm length
Fig. 6 Use of extruder to produce granules
B. Profile Production
Pipes, sheets, rods, window frames, etc. are produced using profile dies.
Typical product sections are shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 An extruder panel section and an extruded window profile

 Due to recovery
Post-extrusion swelling is a big problem and hence die design
for simple shape is also difficult and is not straight
forward.
Also, flow characteristics are complex.
Sizing units are used to control the shape.
Then cooled quickly in water (usually).
Longer baths are used for crystalline plastics since
recrystallization is exothermic.
Storage facilities depend on the type of product 
Rigid products are cut to lengths and flexible products are
wound on drums.
Extruder produces simple but useful shapes and minimum post-processing
is required subsequently. Typical manufacturing set-up for sheet extrusion
is shown in Fig. 8(a).

sheet

Fig. 8(a) Sheet extrusion set-up for (i) thick sheet, and (ii) thin sheet
Typical manufacturing set-up for pipe extrusion is shown in Fig. 8(b).

tube

Fig. 8(a) Pipe extrusion set-up for (i) rigid pipe, and (ii) flexible pipe
C. Film Blowing
Soft and flexible plastic shopping and packing bags are produced using
extrusion as the starting step of manufacturing. Plastic from the extruder
passes through a special die to produce a thick circular tube.
Subsequently, air is blown inside to inflate the tube to the required size
(diameter).
This develops stretching in the radial direction. Simultaneously it is drawn/
stretched in the longitudinal direction
These two stretching processes produce strong textures and are responsible
for the high strengths noticed in such bags.

Typical processing set-up and cross-section of the special die are shown in
Fig. 9.
The inside air prevents collapse of the bubble and the outside air cools the
plastic.
 stretch

Fig. 9(a) Film blowing process

Fig. 9(b) Film blowing process : Different die types
D. Blow Molding
It is extensively used for producing plastic bottles, barrels, etc. The
process is similar to glass blowing technology.

Extrusion blow molding:

First a smaller diameter tube, called “parison”, is extruded through a die.
Then, a jet of gas inflates the parison to take the shape of the mold. The
basic stages are shown schematically in Fig. 10.

Typically, materials such as PVC, PE, PP, PET, etc. are used for
producing products to store washing liquids, disinfectant, soft drinks,
cold water (tanks), large drums, etc.
Small thick tube

Fig. 10 Stages in blow molding

The process can be in either continuous mode or intermittent mode.

Continuous mode:
 Mold assembly moves to the die;
 Mold is closed around the parison;
 Hot knife separates the parison from the extrudate;
 Mold moves away for inflation, cooling, ejection, etc.; and
 Next parison is collected by the same or another mold.

Alternately,
 Mold is fixed at a location, and
 Required length parison is cut off and transported to the mold by a
robot.
Intermittent mode:
A reciprocating screw or ram accumulator extrudes the parisons.
Some important features of blow molding:
i. Parison dimensions vary due to swelling.
ii. There may be deformities due to flow defects.
iii. Weight of the parison causes sagging or draw which limits the length
of articles that can be produced by free hanging parison.
iv. Therefore, it is difficult to make articles of uniform wall thickness. In
case of irregularly shaped molds, it is necessary to programme the
output rate or die gap to produce a non-uniform distribution of
thickness in the parison which will give uniform thickness in the
inflated article.
v. Inflation rate and pressure should be carefully selected to avoid
bursting of parison. Inflation is generally fast. Cycle time is dependent
on the melt cooling at the mold wall. Liquid carbon dioxide, cool air,
or high pressure moist air improves cooling, but may affect the
mechanical properties and dimensional stability.
vi. Labels can be attached during blow molding itself.
Extrusion Stretch Blow Molding:
The process is basically similar to that of blow molding that was
discussed earlier. However, an additional stretching step is involved to
improve the molecular orientation that influences the properties of the
product.

In conventional blow molding, the inflation of the parison gives molecular

orientation in the hoop (circumferential) direction.

Biaxial stretching before cooling provides even better quality blow molded
components 
 Mechanical properties, clarity, permeation characteristics are improved
 Cost saving can also be obtained by adopting lower material grades or
thinner walls
The typical stages involved are depicted in Fig. 11. The important
differences compared to normal blow molding are-
i. Stretch the parison longitudinally before clamping the mold
and inflating
ii. Produce pre-form bottle in one mold and stretch longitudinally
prior to inflation in the full size bottle mold.

parison

Fig. 11(a) Extrusion stretch blow molding

 blowing

Fig. 11(b) Extrusion stretch blow molding

E. Extrusion Coating Processes
It is a secondary process to impart the properties of plastic onto other
materials.

Fig. 12 Extrusion coating process

Fig. 13 Wire Coating die
 Injection Molding
This process is similar to die casting of metals.
The basic advantages of this extremely popular process are:
 Wide range of products
 Ease of automation
 High production rates
 Close tolerances, and
 Variation of thickness as required.

Basically there are two types of machines:

plunger type and reciprocal type.
Plunger type machine:
This was the type introduced long time ago and is not often used
nowadays. After carefully studying the features of such machine,
schematically shown in Fig. 14, one would easily notice the following
disadvantages:
a) There is little mixing or homogenization of the molten plastic.
b) It is difficult to meter accurately the shot size. Since metering is
on a volume basis, any variation in the (apparent) density of the
material will alter the shot weight.
c) Since the plunger is compressing material which is in as variety of
forms (varying from solid granules to a viscous melt) the pressure
at the nozzle can vary quite considerably from cycle to cycle.
d) The presence of the torpedo causes a significant pressure loss.
e) The flow properties of the melt are pressure sensitive and since the
pressure is erratic, this amplifies the variability in mold filing.
Fig. 14 Plunger type injection molding machine
Reciprocal Injection Molding Machine:
This is the most popular type that is use currently, and the
disadvantages of the plunger type machines are practically
eliminated.
The basic stages involved in the production cycle are shown
in Fig. 15 and are described below:
a) The screw (not rotating) has pushed forward injecting the hot
melt into the mold. The screw remains forward to keep melt
pressure on the molding as it starts to cool and shrink. At a
certain moment (ideally when the gates have frozen) the
screw starts to rotate. This pushes the melt towards the front
of the screw but it cannot leave the barrel because the mold
is full. The screw is thus pushed to the right against a back
pressure which can be set on the machine.
 (b) When sufficient melt has been plasticized for the next shot,
the screw stops rotating. During the screw-back period the
molding will have been cooling in the mold. When it is solid,
the mold opens and the part is ejected.

Water-cooled Mold Nozzle Heaters Hopper

Non-return valve
Flow 
Flow 
c) The mold then closes and the screw pushes forward to inject melt
into the mold.
d) The screw maintains pressure until the gates freeze and then screw-
back starts. The cycle is thus repeated.

Hold in position until ‘Gate’

freeze/solidify

Fig. 15 Typical cycle in reciprocating screw injection molding machine

Structural Foam Injection Molding

The advantages of these types of foam moldings are:

a) For a given weight they are many times rigid than a solid molding
b) They are almost completely free from orientation effects and the
shrinkage is uniform
c) Very thick sections can be molded without sink marks

Compression molding machines have size limitation due to barrel size,

as shown in Fig. 16. The size limitation is removed by having separate
chamber for collecting the foamed plastic and then a plunger pushes the
plastic into the mold.
Fig. 16 Structural foam injection molding equipment
Usually longer cycle times due to larger wall thickness
and poor thermal conductivity due to air pockets. But
injection pressures are lower, requiring less clamping
force and lower strength molds.

Controlled Injection Pressure (CINPRESS):

Gas is introduced at the center of the flow and it
maintains laminar flow to produce hollow interiors.
Sandwich Molding:
This type of molding saves the overall cost by placing less expensive
type material inside the component while the outside is made of plastic
that has superior properties to serve the given purpose.
Obviously, the process uses two injection molding machines, each
delivering a different type of plastic as per a planned cycle (as shown in
Fig. 17).
 1 1
2 2

1 1
2 2

Press #1 - Superior quality plastic (black)

Press #2 - Inferior quality plastic (white)

Fig. 17 Stages in sandwich molding process

Injection Blow Molding
The process is similar to ‘Extrusion stretch blow molding’ process. The
main difference is in the production of parison. Instead of using extrusion
process for producing the parison, injection molding process will be used.
As in any stretching process, strong molecular orientation will be
developed which improves the mechanical properties. The process is
commonly used for producing soft-drink bottles. The main steps involved
are shown in Fig. 18
 Injection mold

Blow mold

Parison

Fig. 18 Sequence of events in

injection blow molding
The two stages, i.e., parison production and stretch blow molding, can
be integrated as a seamless process or can be done separately.
If they are to be done separately, the pre-forms (parison) must be
reheated and inflated.

The advantages of injection blow molding are:

i) The injection molded parison may have a carefully controlled wall
thickness to ensure a uniform wall thickness in the inflated bottle;
ii) It is possible to have intricate details in the bottle neck;
iii) There is no trimming or flash (as compared with extrusion blow
molding)
Injection Molding of Thermosets
What are the basic constraints in using injection molding process for
thermosets?
Critically observe the features shown in Fig. 19.
The barrel is kept at low temperatures, but the mold is kept at high
temperature.
It is entirely opposite to the conditions maintained for thermoplastics.
Heated mold Low Temperature
High pressure Low pressure

Fig. 19 Injection molding of thermosets and rubbers

Provided sufficient care is taken, the advantages of using injection
molding for producing thermosets components are:
a) Fast cycle times
b) Efficient metering of material
c) Efficient pre-heating of material
d) Thinner flash  easier finishing
e) Lower mold costs (fewer impressions)
 Table 2 Compression of cycle times for injection and compression molding

As can be seen from Table 2, for the same part, injection molding of the
thermosets can offer up to 25% production increase and lower part-cost
than compression molding (which will be discussed in the following
section).
Thermo-Forming Basically for thermoplastic sheets

The process appears to be similar to sheet metal forming but has some
major differences in developing the required shape.

(a) Vacuum Forming/Molding:

As can be seen in Fig. 20 (a), a plastic sheet is held over a shaped mold/die.
While it is heated to the necessary temperature by a heater, vacuum is
created on the mold side when the correct temperature is reached.
The pressure differential thus created between the two sides of the sheet
allows the material to be drawn towards the mold, as shown in Fig. 20(b).
Extra heating may have to be provided to maintain uniform temperature
across the whole sheet.
Atmospheric
pressure

Very low pressure

(a) (b)

Fig. 20 Vacuum forming process

When the depth of the formed product is almost same as that of width, it
is called ‘Positive forming’.
When the depth is only about 1/3 to 1/2 of width, it is called ‘Negative
forming;’.
A minor variation is ‘Plug assisted forming’, in which, a plug is used to
push the material onto the mold/die. It promotes good stretching and,
hence, molecular orientation leading to improved properties.

These processes are widely used for producing shaped packaging for toys,
trays, and similar items.
The thickness of the products range from 0.025 to 6.5 mm.

Commonly used materials are: ABS, PVC, Acrylic, PP, LDPE, HDPE &
PET.

As low mold pressures are applied, mold production is less costly

compared to injection molds and Aluminum can be used as the mold
material.
(b) Pressure Forming:
The process is very similar to ‘Vacuum forming’. Instead of creating
vacuum, here pressurized air is blown/pumped onto the heated sheet
that is kept over the mold/die.
Initial stretch is created through a plug or mandrel, as shown in Fig. 21.
 PLow

PHigh

Fig. 21 Pressure forming process

Calendering Process
It is a simple rolling process to produce sheet in the form of large
continuous rolls, as shown in Fig. 22.

Fig. 22 Typical arrangement of calender rolls

 Compression Molding & Transfer Molding
Compression and transfer molding processes are used for thermosets.
Typical temperature involved are 130 to 200 oC and the compression
pressure ranges from 7 to 25 MPa.
The basic features of these processes are as shown in Figs. 23 and 24.

or
Powder

Fig. 23 Principle of compression molding.

 Fig. 24 Transfer molding of thermosetting plastic

Transfer molding provides better temperature distribution, leading to

reduced cycle time and uniform properties in the components.
 Pultrusion of Thermosetting Composites
 Continuous processing method.
 Best suited for unidirectional composites.
 High throughput and reduced manufacturing costs.

Fiber Preforming Cloth Resin Pultrusion

Racks Guides Racks Tank Die

Pulling Mechanisms Moving Finished

Heaters
Engaged disengaged Cut- off Saw Product
Fig. 25 Schematic of the matrix injection pultrusion process .

 Fibres proceed through a bath to impregnate them with formulated resin.

 Preformed to the shape of the profile to be produced and pass through the die.
 Heat initiates an exothermic reaction and cures/sets the thermosetting resin matrix.
 The profile is continuously pulled, and then cools in air or water
 Pultrusion of Thermoplastic Composites
 Advantages same as in the case of thermosetting composites, but is
simpler in terms of number of stages.
 Similar to the extrusion of metals or non-reinforced thermoplastics.
 Best suited for constant cross section profiles -- solid &hollow parts.
 Permit a change in thickness for special applications.

Guidance Die Pulling Finished

Creel Stand Preheater
Devices Assembly Mechanism Product
Fig. 26 Schematic of the matrix injection pultrusion process of
thermoplastic composites.