Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AADAB - Volume 5 - Issue 12 - Page 67-95
AADAB - Volume 5 - Issue 12 - Page 67-95
1 $'2 3'4 . '( - +'. ' /" , '( ) )$* + !" #$% &
) 8'< 7 +' +# 1 )7 = (; 1 %71 56 7 1 8 2" 1 $2 % 1 $ ) $9() 7 1$:; , 3(
) '3 ' +' / '3/A . ) ' /" & +' ( < !" ) )+>;" .+ 3 ?@ ) 1 , > !" 1 $2
)$' % E' 1 &) 7 6 + % A$ . E 8% D ( C ( < !" ) /" B$"
3'2 ) )+'> J +' '" I)$' % ' ( H+ %G >E $ ( ) $3( F 7 ( 3 5 <
'% E'L" . '( '3 5 '< )$K. E 32 8& ) 7 J $ #$% " )$ % E ( 3 5 <
6% /" J + B ?@ )+>;" ( 3* < 52 2% 1 & , - +. /" 1 /" 5 A
& +' 7 '8% 7 N$O7 3( 7 $< " 5($3" A7 M L + !" #$% ) 7 . ( J " 1&
' G;" ( & D ,M L + M 1+ () ) 7 B7) . @ " &)7 ( #$% , L
'&J) ' 1 $' 7+'R" , ' @ '&J) ' ) ' !" Q+' 5 / %P < , 3 ) 7 ( H/9 " - +. /"
' J) ' ) , '( ) 7 1 /" S+> 7 & + T /%) 7 L + K ) U 34" V(7 +. 1 +6 , L +
' ) '( < ' !" ) )$'K. E' ' ' '46 7 E' ' )+'>;" $'#7 J W . $< " N 9" )+>
. )7 M) /" @ &J) J ) 7 MP < $ X( @ +& " ) 1 " 7 , "
' 'L % ' 'L ) ' '( 3 ?@ M)$> &z&7{@ )+>;" ( < !" J) )
J+'< ' /% 7 '( < ' !" '/" * J+< _3 7 ) >$% 7 )7 s8#
$'WA =' '&z&7{'@ ' Q+ o&) A7 . * @ E & $* L " ) (
: ( J+4 ^ ) LA}38A )+> ( < !" Q E 2"
J ) ' () )$" ) !" h2 ) E )+>;" 6 % z6 (1387) ) < .1
.E 6 6. ( &j $#7 7 ( & " 17+ $#7 ,E )+> ) . (
'8 . ) . ( J )7 + +@ _2 ) E T$ " 5^ 2" J) ) 8L" 7 +!3" ~ 3 8%
7 $< " +R3" L 7+ " ) 8 )$> $* 2 5!_ " 1 2 &j A !3"
1. modest foundationalism
2. foundherentism
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو70
,E' Q '2 Q '8% , . $< " +R3" [ ! 56 E [$ . ) 1 2 q_ , :
. ( 32& EA $ H 9% < !7 1 .7 ( )$K.
) )+>;" & 7) -" 6 J+& 4" (1387) C$ ) i 7 )$ + .2
. $< " H6R" q_ $#7 +3< $% @ ) U ) J$R .+ 3* @ 6 U) \2"
7 q_ 1 " 9 ) )+>;" . ( [ ! 56 )$ 5-" , ") J+& 4" )$" g
!" )$K. 8 ) 1 , 3 ) 7 32 < O •$ ) 7) ) U)+"
h#$" ,U ) ." ) 6 H 6. $#7 M+< 7 q_ U ) !O .+ "
" U ) 1 $ A$ . " . " L , 3) 7 6 &M)$> Q L
.+< +& $*
J () ) !" h2 7 U ) ) )+>;" /" * (1392) K% " .3
# 7E & ,Q$ !" 1 9 ) 7 E , &j $#7 1 $% " 8# 1 (
. J) < 6 6. !"
+6 z&7{@ "1 # .+ J+ 7 7 ) 7 &j H 9% (1393) )$@ 7 < /& .4
_ < ( $#7 8& 1 • #) 7 7 &j $& " H 9%
z&7{@ M 34" k . ( $& " MP$6" 1 w * 7E 1 $ $& "
. ) (1387) ) <
)7 ) $" 34 ) ( J+" ) R% 3<) &€ 3 7 8 )
.+ 3* @ ( < !" 5^ 2" ) )+>;" )7 /" 7 M "+6"
)+> ) >$% 7 )7 s8# L % 3_ z @ &z&7{@ ) +< <7) p
•7 +# () 7 5 R% $ o & &H 6R% ) . ( J+< _3
N7) = A " - +. /" . ( 3 W M)$> > !" ( < !"
J+4 5 R% 7 /% !" #$% 7 * < _2 B7) 7 )+>;" & 4+ E .
71 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
3 W ) 7 )$" ( < !" + +# 1 83_ ) N 9" h ) & 7 (
z&7{@ ) 7) . ( )+> ( < !" Q /% ) E 2 " $WA 1 $3
. /% 7 5 R% , () & 3( 7 &‚* ( J+< B;% O .
!"#
,1$% "$ ) $< " !% #$" tS > t)7 J) !" , > !" ( < !" )
) !" )+>;" 8# , ";( _(; .(40 ,1387 ,1 ) 8& 7 ) $" I40-41 ,1390
1 8& 1 j 63 .(3 ,1360 , <) 1+ J /!% « k tQ # tS > ƒ 63 »
.+& " 1 4 ) U)+" J) T /%) 7 $< " J+ " «)7 » > !" ( < !" ) (
+ , "P q_ 7 s 7 J) 6 9" !" ";( _2 ) !" !% ) S+> T <
. ( 63 )7 #$% 7 [P+3( $#7 W M /k T < 7 ?@ 9* !" Q #
#$% M7 _% A7 . )7 ( S+> 1 2 6" 7 M7 _% 1 $% " ) #$% 8&
v #$% 7 ( M$/k 7 s 7 EA T$ " S+> I $< " T$ " 1 4& W # S+> 7
( w) * J) T /%) W S+> ( L 8% "7 .M /k 7 &j Q 6"
h 9" < #$% + 3/A .+& " N < W + ) &J) T /%) #$% "
, # 3 3( C #$% ) A.) ( # 3 3( #$% + " &J) K! T$ "
S > ( ) M7 _% "$( .+ $< " #$% ) MP . (7 G;-" &J)
?@ 9* ^ ' K! " , ) + @ ) ) 1 1 $ #$" 4 8& J) = 1$
( ) Y;3* %J+8 7 ") Lp . ( S > 4 8& #$" J) + +63!" ' #$%
)7 #$% 7 > C+C q@ , ( )7 = 5 P () 7 #$% @ ) D < !"
D < !" ) J $. %EL" $< " ui4" 3 #$% .1 S+> (
!" # $ % &' .1
.()
73 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
( - +. /" +" . ( J+< /!% ?@ 9* 7 = (; , $ ,7)+ %
3< ?@ 9* 7 9( 7 3 !" , @ &J) 7 A7 [$> /2 E $% " "
&)7 " !" , W i( .E 8 w 3 3( ) H 6. ( L D( 7E<
. $< " 5> . ( w 3 3( H : &)7 ( !" " ( $L< V6 , @ G ! 7
7 « #$" $*» + %) / + ) z6 ?@ 9* 7 9( 7 !" 1 ) "$L_" 7
.« ?@ N;> »
+< #$" @ J) 1$ + $% " " L % J) = J + #$%
5> . !" 1 7 + )7 ) 1 W „ < =8 17+ , ) )1
+ 8& O ) @ H 6. 7 ( K 6 • _%) 7 • 83# • 3" ) ‡ % Q+ 1$ + " I+ 8
.(244-245 ,1387 , 8 $@) «1+1=2»
- " N;> 5 7 ?@ 9* ) @ &)7 ( +. /" ,5 6" )
8() @ C &)7 #$% ) &J$ < W 7 63( ,D J7; 7 +
.(283-287 ,1 8&) +( < "
/" ) " ) L J + + 1 8 2" 1 $2 69 " 7 _2 ) k #$%
, " ) J7 J" ) LA}38A )+> . 2 ( 3 ( /") - +.
C &J) #$% J ) L % D 7 + .;> 5 C 7 ?@ 9* @ &J) 7
.(33 ,1360 , <) ( @
$ , - $() * + #
$ $ &B7) , ( ) $3( 1 /" 1 @ &J) $#7 5>
,1389 , ) ) ( J+< M /k 'S + " J) < L / % M /k , AP+3( M /k E '
5 2% 1 & ) J+< 3 ) ";( 1 + 84 + V($% Q 6" ) & .(273
, ( ) ( J+< 6% ";( ( ) 1$ $ &M)$> + " " 3* <
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو74
) 32i .(65-66 ,1386 , )7 L( I118 ,3w ,1405 ,$8& I282 7 230 ,1w ,1403
J + ) ) ,1 & 82 ,1$ ) ) 7 . ( J J _3( 1 & $9()
M /k )7 ) L) 7 ( 7+R" ( < !" J +$ " 1 ^ 92 $(
-429 ,1378 ,$9() ) " s ) 3 !" 52 2% 5 4" ,J$ < 7 $< " $3"
: ( p 3* < 52 2% 1 & >;* .(428
«w» 3< )7 ) ( #$" %)$> ) «w» D ( «€» 3< )7 ) « A »
«» )7 ) ( #$" %)$> ) '+< # 3 3( ' «w» )7 ) 7 +< #$"
$< 8 B7) 3 ) . 7) " z @ L % $ 8& 2 ( 7 ,+< #$"
7 ( 7+R" [P+3( 2 ( A7 E 32& 7+R" M $#$" " p, [P+3( "
7 < E & $i L#$" )7 o & W " 7) I+ 8 ) 7+R" : . 7+R"
&)7 + [ < Q 3i ) p q@ . ( ) Q 8% <=
,1390 ,1$% "$ ) + < C (7 #$% 7 #$" $* $* + < 3< $#7
L3 Q7 A G > [P+3( < #$% + 3/A .(252-254 ,1387 , 8 $@ I82'83
L & {7 (71 $ 6 ,+ " M /k ) @ &J) @ C &J)
.)
( [ R" ,+< h23 " , 6 6. E :+ "1 p )1& )+>;"
,3w ,1419 , <) 2 $ A.) E +@ E 7 [P+3( 17+ \<
) A7 ,+ 32& W * $3" &H + % * :+2 $ " W # ) 7 1.(278
L + 7 A7 56 2_ 7 ) 2_ €$#7 E( L H+ % + L
.(26-27 ,1w ,1 8&) « 2 $* ‡ 6 p o &» 7 « ( B $* p &» 5-" I (
"$ !" + ,+ < " M "$ !" 8& _ + )+>;" M) / Š O$% )
ً
.«/ 0. 1' ل و و34 ء إ ﻪ78 &'9 :4 . $ %4 ﺤ ل أن )* +# $ % , ' ﺤ$ % ن. » .1
75 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
52 2% 7 )7 ) Q ( ,+ " M "$ !" Q 8% F D ( 1$p 7 ,+ $< Q$ !"
1 +#$A ) E 5> " %)$> ) ,+ () E & $i 3 !" W 7 E $< " 1 (
«€» , " Q$ !" «€» K +< « A» K ,1 W .E 3 ?@
2i I ( N 9" F 7 ,+< «w» 7 " Q$ !" «w» ( 1$p
L % 2( ,+ " Q P )7 ,1 Q$ !" « A » «w»
5> %)$> ) + 8 H6R% 5> A i" 7 7 , ( 52 2% Q 32" 7) z @
. ( +#7 M L + E $#7
M A7 /2 7 .+ " J) < 1 & 8O )$: ) W 1 )+>;"
h# 7 $#7 Q+ $ 1 8& 7) .+ " 8" h# 7 /2 + 8& ) M "$ !"
) 3 !" )7 52 2% A7 7 @ &J) $#7 Q+ ,+" " 52 2% $#$A
.(443-444 ,3w ,1 8&) ( : " ) J 8&
) [P+3( , 2i : ( #$% )$* ) 3 7 3* < 52 2% [P+3( J) )
&)7 $< " ~3 " 3 p , ( 1 $% 1 /" & 8& M /k
, @ &J) & { 7 M /k ) 7 $< E3* [P+3( ‹32" 7 /" &)7 +
8& J+< j 52 2% , Q7 . 2 +" ) ...7 1 $ [ 7 5 C7 ?@ 9* + 8&
7 W+ h% 3" 2 ( 8& s 38" 52 2% ) , ) + ) s 38" 52 2% V <
,1390 ,J 2.) + 32 $#$" 5!_A &j &J) 8& A . ) + $#$" 5!_A
.(179'180 7 168
$ / 0 12 .#
7) ,(3 ,1360 , <) + " E 26% 7 L+ ) H + % 7 )$ % )+>;"
3( 7 6+ % & !" 7 .M )$ % ) E& 7 ( /" M 6 + % ) E&
. $< " E 26%
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو76
1 j q_ 1 $ ) p 1 8& ) M)7 O $ 6" :$5 0 6 70 8 .1
! /: V6 1 j 7 ( 1& " 7 5A /A 9" 17+ , !" J) Y 3 7
. K 6 • _%) 7 • 83# • 3" + " ,+ " J)
) W" ) + 63 L R> q_ &J) : , "8 70 8 .2
) T$ " &J) ) q_ E . )7+> , 3 ) . )7 O 7 L + Y) !" $% @
1 .« ( 7 " » J) + "I ( L + H 6. 36 6. w 3 3( 7 1
.+ ( 3 !" #7 o & + $% 8 4 + $< h ( 4 &j A7 Y) !"
. ( A7 6 M "$ !" 1 8& 6 H9 " E " ui4" 1
1$p &B7) 7 E ) @ &)7 M 6 + % ) " $ 1 8& , )+> J +
J _3( E $% " M )$ % ) ,E w 3 3( &)7 ) &)7 ( E $% " D
@ &)$ % ) @ C &)$ % ,h % 7 5 R% , !% 1$g8& &B7)
) /" |R $< 8 M )$ % T$ " " |R .E )7 (
.E " J+ 2 M 6 + %
, . :# 0; $
) 2 / 34@ ( $9() - +. /" 1 8& )+>;" /"
)M6+ % LA}38A )+> . ( ) )$* C 7 ";( > !" 7 3 ( 1 $2 W
9( 7 + p 9( 7 17+ M6+ %7 .+ " E 26% 7 L + 3( 7
( % 6 + % $#7 +63!" g8& 7 .+ < ?@w 3 3( L+ M6+ % +
M6+ % •$ . 2 W M6+ % 1 4" $ 7 + J+4 h2 W M6+ %
.+ L + @ &)7 1 8&
z6 7 .+ " 1 <}4 " ) Y;3* ) h23 " C M 6 + % 8% )+>;"
, 3 ) ,+ " ( " 7 + L % A7 M 6 + % z + @ ) ) z%P 7 D $.
77 6789 :;< 56= >5?@ Aر 5و 01234
z +@ 7 _g8& . $ +& $* E& A7 M 6 + % + +< D $. + q 7
" L % + " W+ A7 M 6 + % h % 5> . ) /2 M 6 + %
- " ! /: h % ) /2 M 6 + % 1 )7 ( A7 M 6 + % h ) % 7.
) W H + % 1 )7 ( A7 M 6 + % & = ( +63!" ?A7 +
.+ 32& H + % 1 " ),+ 7
ً ً
! ﯾ ت ?@ # # <=% 1' 7أو ) .ﻪ ) 7أن ﯾ +ن ذ A)* /
' )?D ,E F9 1ر & ? ﻼف Gت Iن ﺤ س G ,E F9ت .
,'L 1E:ﻼ ﻼع ! /ر 9 ,' %دة و * Mت 7ﯾ% :
8ور و و 'Fت و د :9 A إ ? A)* P+ " 94ﻼف .ت ) ن
=9ر ) / 0ﯾ 1E: E :ﺤ $Q 1ﯾ %ه ذ /ﺤ! ل " ! /ر ت Dو' ,و
! ﯾ ت Dو ' $Q ,ﯾ 9ج T%) <=%و ﯾ ﺤ! &# Sه :ك "! ر ت و
ﺤ SVأن ! ل ! ر ت و ! ﯾ ت Dو ', "! ﯾ ت <4 ,)* +#ﯾ< ,
'P+ة إ 94ه ﺤ* ? Aﻼف Gت و ! ل ! ر ت و ! ﯾ ت
ً
,)* +9ﺤ* # Aج " % /م Dو' T%) <=% ,و ه# 7ﺤ )" " ,)" # ,
ً
(281-382 ,3w ,1419 , )' # S. '%م <) . ?W 9 , <:#
)% ,+ " AP 71 $ "/ >&)7 ) )+ /% @(+
7 ";>?@ " ) 1 )+ ( @ C7 @ &)7 $#7 63 "/ {7
H + % 7 )$ % = &» :+ $ " ) 48A M !8 A p I+ " + }% 1
,$8&) 1« )7 ( W E2 7 1 $% " ) * E2 . /2 7 (+. ( 9
.(3 ,1360
س و: '9 <. إدر7 ك8 ﯾ7 ,'# % رف%9 &# ﻄ ةE أول7 1E: , V ﺤ, %9 7 و ه, » ) ه.1
.«... ?Z ء7[ ﯾﺤ ج إ ﯽ و ] ﯾﺤ ج إ ﯽ 9. <4< إ أ:'% ) ﯾ<' ت7و ' ت و هD <:#
79 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
«1 U ) ) Q " 8& U 3< » 7 «M 9 [7 ) » &+ Q L ) !% [ <
J) .+ W ) )« ( 7 7 2" = O = » J) , $8 . (
( " p " , ( U) ) #QW& 12 . ( A7 &J)
M) / .+ H + % ) « ( 7 7 2" = O = » L + J) + $% "
$ 1 )7 ,z $ 1 )7 , # 1 )7 I ( " p 1 2 M 9 [7 , W
ŒW )7
h 9" ,H 9" )$: E 7 Q$ 1 " 1 L M7 _% + " B;% /: /: ";
J 1 ,E + H 9" ) 1 2 !" ( !" 7 i( .+& Š O$% ) 3<?
,E & ) +" ) 6 Q$ " ( Q+6" & !" W 2. * <
.(11 ,1362 , /: /:) $ +& $* h " 7 u* !" Q+6" V 2 7 E !" J 1
7 +) !% B ) + 32& A7 L + K ) 1 " ( i( 3
) .E ( ^ #E . E . E $% " ( L+ &)7 @ L%
.+ 67 @ ,+A$" M L + M)$>
J) U;" + " p ,«1 U ) ) Q " 8& U 3< » ! ,Q7 +
G %)7 O K , A7 L + H + % .+ ) ) 1 S+> G ) 9O q_ ( 1 L+
.(78 ,1375 , " $#) ( 9K" 1 1 j ) 56 7 ( S >
,1 •$O$" [$8R" M$/k ( J) A7 L + J) E $ " (7) 8&
h/( L % •$O$" M j , 7 h/( w 3R" 7 ( 7) h/( +"
.(209 ,1370 ,$8&) ( •$O$" [$8R" M$/k
% ( ( ,H + % 7 )$ % ) $ k 7 A7 M L + E2 ) Lp /% ) )+>;"
7+ " L K 7 E & _" ( • #) 7 [P+3( • 3" ) L {7
ﯽ وE: SP# د و ! ﯾ ﯽ < مE9. ^& ! ر# و ' تS'!& "ﺤ+9 » ﯾ:+ $ "
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو80
$#7 Q$L_" ! I(403 ,3w ,1419 , <) « ن [ﯽء و%E" ﯾ ن و%9 ﯾ ،) تQ
, K 6 • _%) 7 • 83# K g8& . ) + %Q Q$L_" 1$p , 2 5 R3A 8"
( 6 + % 7 )$ % E ) L + q@ . ( [P+3(P s 38" 1$p , 2 5 R3A 8"
7 A7 L + ,+< A 7 _A s 38" %) / 7 +< / ) . ) +.
. $ +& $* A7 /!%
M L+ !% , ) 6+ % /# !" 6 6. #$% (QP )
.E • L . 7 & $ , +!% j7 6+ %
, 5 ? %
" ) $#7 % ;3* 1 8 2" 1 + 84 + 1 " L+ &J) Q 2 J) )
7 L + [$> ( ";( 1 _3" )$L4" " .E " <$@E4p L 7)7
7 M 9 ,M % $3" ,M " ,M ($2R" ,M A7 :+ 82 z< $ k 7 A7 M 6
7 z& , 6 ( 63( . .(311 ,1422 , /: /:) M (+.
,1378 , A ! ) 2 [$6!" 7 [$/6" , " ) " #7 ( 8" L (L z
.(173
, % . ( J $ Y;3* 5R" 1 8 2" 1 + 84 + 1 " ) J) $8& «M %» &+
" [ -"P E .» 7 «G - 1$ P 7 G 8^ 1$ P S _%P » L@D , 63( Y;*
) M " [ < .(122 ,1360 , <) + " ( «+. 7 , $ P " 7 $
" 9A ‹" [P+3( 63( 7 ( u 63( &J) X( Q 8% 4 (
,1386 ,q 3( ) $< " 5" < ) 8& ‡! " C zL# ! , ( 5 „#
.(440-444
G 69 " ,(122'123 ,1360 , <) $< " 83 &7 ) /* 1 ) «M % $3"»
[ 83. /" ,+ ) $3( _i" / = K $ p ,+ () 8 6
81 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
1 8: ;" A . ) I+ < J \:$% + $W Ž7) 1 + & /* Q 8% ) +
7 i< " % $% g8& . ) + $#7 \:$% 7 Ž7) 1 + & /* • 8# Q+
J+ & /* +!% % $% ) 1$p , W M) / . )+ W8& ?@1$" ?A7 (
_ +> W 7 $< 5> . % $% _ 7 ( 8" , 2 T <
. W 5> . % $% E&
+ ") M L+ J " ) G! 7 &J) +() " ,+< 3_ g D(
M +#7 S+> 7 L 1 $ R% 5 A M A7 S+> .+ < M +#7 M A7
5A .E )$K. E )7 & ( )$K. E L 3 h/(
" ) , L J) ) %P < N : 7 M ($2R" $ k M L + T /%) 7 M A7 8&
.E & " ) () )$" 5632" )$: ) L 7 3* @ M ($2R" 7 M A7 ) 3*
, @ (>@
1 + " 7 % $% ,h C ,M L< , % ,D 2. V(7 +. + 32& K M A7
7 •$O$" 9 ) L )$ % ( J) # )$ % 1 8& L ) E . 7 +)+
)$ % K6 • 83# • 3" + " I " 5> . Q7 A Q # 7 $< " ui4" [$8R"
: ( p ) _( ) )+>;" /!% .(120 ,1 8&) ( E . Q# K6
D 2. + " W " ,+ 32 V(7 +. w 3R" $ 1 8& + 32& % L + M A7 »
: )$ % + ) p L % I+ ) + 1 C % $% 1 M L< %
1
J7; M A7 + " p )+> i( .(518 ,3w ,1419 ,$8&) « ( /2
.+ ) + ..7 % $% ,q. + " , 3 !" s/ " #$% ,+ 32 # 3 3( #$% + "
أو, " * س أوI. ?Z ء7[ ﯾﺤ ج إ ﯽ و ] ﯾﺤ ج إ ﯽ 9. <4< إ أ:'% ) ﯾ<' ت7و ' ت و هD » .1
.«,)*: ^ "! ر ﻄ '& و ،/ [< دة أو " " أو `' ذ
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو82
•$ + " z@ [ < E « @ &J) » ) «M A7 » "
M "$ !" p7+ $ 8 i( ' &j h% " 5 w) * ! ' «w) *» J) ) &J)
&J) , &J) •$ .(Moser, 1998, vol.6, 87) + 8 s 7 EA /2 "
+ $ 8 i( s 7 EA J) ) 7 + : < &J) G /A C + 32& 1 + " 6 6.
G /A C ( 6 6. J) «) A$ !" &» J) ,[ -" .(94-96 ,1356 , )
1 ?A7 " 5 $R% « ) +< 3< $#7 A$ !" » J) 7 ( :<
. ( $Wp «s 7 Q » + 8
/" ) > !" 1 $2 2 A < %EL" ) +6 1 $3 + <
)$: [+3!" 1 /" . ( J S$( [+3!" /" $( 7 1 W 7) - +.
+ ) + )7 ,+ $ J $8 E ( % @ &)7 3(1 /" $ 7+ [$8!"
?@ ) /" 1 $% " ,J + D( .(Moser and Vander Nat, 1993, 16)
+ $% " @ &)7 + +63!" 3. IE < J ) $3( ?@ 9* &)7 )1
1
.+< [ 9 5 7 J $ ?@‡6
+ : < G /A C 7 6 6. K G $ «M A7 » ( () , _ 1 $% " X( @ )
) $< 8 h#$" " A7 , * ( H6R" L •$O$" 7 Q+6" + 8 <7)
K " . 2 M A7 R" !" /" , $< 53i" 1 (Q 7 !"
Y := " , $8 1 $ .+ "}% ) M A7 •$O$" + $% " E ) E& +#7
7 M) . D 2. $* ) , W Y : 7 E ) ) « ( w 3R" A$ !" &» K
z6 " &j ) «E " M) . D 2. "» +#7 K ,7 IE " B $(
" :E " [P+3( p S$ +#7 7 A7 K 1 8 8O D ( q@ . + "
w 3R" A$ !" & . ( [$ !" ) J+ +@ 7E " M) . D 2.
1. defeaseble
83 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
") " $* 1 . ( w 3R" E& " ) J+ +@ q@ , (
" p ,Q J )7 $#7 ) 1 Q $* " . " w) * p E32& (J+ U)
" 5! B $( , ) C ( ) " 5! 1$p ,E< J )7 $#7 ) 1
,Q $( " 1$ 7 Q $2 E3( $* 8 & " , 2 " ) 5! I ) C (
2 " , $ B $( q_ )7 O 7 k , 2 E& " ) C 5!
$#$" Q " 3 q@ . 2 p %)$> ) ,E3< " < $( p 4 8&
. ( J+< " ) ) J+ +@ p 5" (J+ U) ) " )7 )
12 R% &J) A7 K [ < ) +() " , 17
K ) R" ) 4@ K 1 $( 1$p 2 $ 1 8& I ( J+< 3< W
q@ ,+< R% V6 7 , ( 4@ K ( +63!" 7 .+ 32 R%
E " 1 p A7 .(Moser, 1987, 13) + 32& R% 4@ K Q 8% 7 J+ 6
.(Ibid, 6) $ 5^ 4@ / % J) 7 p ( A i" J+ 6 J +
Y 3" R% K G" A A7 K < #$% 3 + X( @ )
1 58. 7 •$O$" [$8R" • 3 }4 " •$O$" )$ % ( K R% K .+ 32
* A7 .(28 ,1376 ,U %) &) « ( ?" " &» K 5-" , " •$O$"
%) / 7 [$8R" )$ % ,•$O$" )$ % J7; L ) + 32 R% K ,M A7
<$@ E4p h 9" + /, 3<? . ( Q P H + % /2 )$ % 3.
Q$ !" , _% Q$ !" p ,+ _ o & " E R% K 2 $
. ) M7 _% A 8# 32 ( W
(, ) , C" D (B
,D 2. [$ . q@ 7 + " ) q. 1 4 $O$" + 32& &J) M +& 4"
L .1 I+ $< " 3( 7 M +& 4" .+ " E . •$O$" [$8R" Q7 A 56
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو84
.+ $< " J+ " M 2. & ." (7 " E . + " ,+ $< " h2 & v D $. J )
. W 4% 7 W ( ,D % E + " ,+ $< " U ) : D $. V($% L .2
,1360 , <) < 7 EC ,D % H + % 7 E . + " ,+ $< " J+ " M +#7 &
.(122
. M +#7 )$K. M )+" . M +#7 (QP 3 #$%
~ ) M +#7 1 $ _2 Y ) 7 " g . ( M7 _3" : D $. U )
q. g " , ( q_ 1 +#7 1 8& )$K. Q$ . ( &J) , (
( A$ . E H " ,+ " U) , : D $. ...7 8& 7 ,[ * ,U 34"
.(165-166 ,1389 , ) ) )$K.
h2 D $. (7 &J) ( J+< N 9" [ < M ($2R" )$" )
& + " E . D $. D ( 56 ) $" ,+ 32 9* 8 ,+ $< "
& v D $. 3/" &J) )$" ) ?@ 9* .(127 ,1w ,1370 , ) + ?@ 9*
" E "E .7 ( k " E " $* D $. " G;-" , ( ŠO 7 ) 2
A 63 .7 ) 7 ( U R3" " E ) )7 J 7 " A.) , ( k
L 1 ,) 3* 5 A )7 1 $% " " W &[ -" . !O7 7
.(58 ,1366 , A$ ) E " Y>
7 / @ )$" + $% 8 & v q. + $ " ,S$ [ < X( @ ) )+>;"
) 7(F , /!% 7 < &hA 7 & $v L% + U) ) < H 6.
' $#7 3" 7 5> " ,+ $#7 7+. M & " 7 ) ( 3( < &" 1 2 1I )
32& 3" 7)7 3( % ) " & v D $. , W /!% . 2 ( < 5 '1 +.
) < U) . " = )+>;" i( .+ & 8 /* * 17) "+ "z@
.(367 ,3w ,1419 , <) « <: ﯾ<و ه' ت دون9 A [' ء و هa ل: ﯾ1 » ن ﺤ.1
85 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
L+ E ID$2R" •< 7+. 7 &" 1 5> . E ( M) / $< "
8& ( U ) Q7 . " T$ " M ($2R" ) 9* [ < . ( 9* )7 7
J $. )? )+>;" 4 + ) .+< &j [ 63 7 " D 2. )?
3( % L % ) 1 2 2. U ) + p & ( )7 7. ( % q. $%
1 8& \2" 5.J ) , 32& 17) 7 E . 3 ) "+ " & 8& < 3" 7)7
# $" 32& 6 6. 1 $% " )$K. E H : I ( )$K. E + 32 W
,6w ,1419 , <) + " J ) w) * 3" 12 ( ( 32 ) 3 L % 7 +<
.(157-163
1 ' $< " 3* < !" 5 4" 5. h#$" 'E \2" )+>;" J % J W
& 32 u Q% )E 7 . 2 E # p EA Q 8% , 7 (
,+< % $ B $#7 p & . ( 38 z3 "$ !" #) ,+< 34 z 6 p
W _W< ) k | ,+< $ " ) 56!% 7 G;-" I ( % $ B) k
.(283 ,1363 ,$8&) $ +& $* $ M* ) )$:1 8& I $< "
K . " .;" /" 8& +#7 &J) S+> )$" )
«Ht 9"» ! ,S+> : , K E2 ) 7+ " . " )$K. E +#7
. 1 +#$A ) L S+> 7 6 9" E $% " q@ , ( " ) 3* ) 7 & ,«H• 9"» 7
) + %, ) $* &j ) ) «E 8C "» K 7 ( U 8C i< .E
K p, +& $i J ) $* (7 )$K. E . 1 +#7 S+>
+ " z $* 34 $* ) )$K. E 9( 7; ) 1 6 6. 7 +$ " ) 1 8&
.(255-273 ,1363 ,N / ")
M ($2R" S+> ( z( @ . ) $#7 W 4" M 2. )$" )
9( 7 & v M ($2R" S+> , W M) / ŒH 9" ( /2 S+> & v q.
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو86
#) * k}% )+>;" ,X( @ ) Œw) * H 9% 9( 7 (" ) MP . H 9%
2. &J) 2 $ + " + }% 3 7 )? " 4W &j
,3w ,1419 , <) +< 3 5 < w) * : /%) o & 17+ 7 +< " &j 3* ( L %
.(363-506
L % J) 7 +< / " w) * ) ,« ( " »E $ " 3 7 , $8
&j ) 3* ( p ,E / ) " E W # & ( B " P ,+< " &j 3* (
" M7 _3" & p 7 7 L# & ) A . ) , $< 8 F$ " ( B
1 q J o & p ,+< &j 3* @ 7 3* ( G > J+& 4" .+ $< " J+
7J $ )? k}% ( #) * 3 ! 7 W 4 $* Œ ( 12 4 8& 7 +3 8 S _%
.) &j /2
$ ,G * $) FC
$5 0H 0 8 .I .1
!" N$9( ) 7 J $ #$" $* 7 @ &)7 * , /" J + D (
N 9" z( @ 7) .+ $< " #$% @ &)7 D ( W * 7+ ")
7 U;" 17+ ( ) !" 7 U;" ) , L+ 7 @ &J) 1 $ #$" "
) , 2 ) !" 7 U;" ) L 1 $ #$" 1 $% 8 6 Œ) !"
?@ + q@ . ( L + 7 @7 J) + + $% " 2 & ,M)$>
1 D( @ 7 L + )7 = { 7 " . ( ) !" ) J) = 1$ @
'+< p &' {71 63 Œ 2 p , ) ) 1 $ @ .;> )7 1 , {7
F A.) ( /3!" 5 A + " 1 3< W S > ( )7 $*
,J 2.) ) + W &)7 (7 #$% 7 J $ #$" $* @ )7 (
« @ &J) #) $* 5 4"» 1 $ R% W 6% [ < .(185 ,1390
87 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
.(369 ,1385 , * 8 ) ( J+< N 9"
J) 1 & + M /k 7 @ &J) M /k 1 " ,GP7 : _ + [ < X( @ )
+< 1 & + " ( 8" Q7 " " ) + 1& [7 " . ) $#7 M7 _%
+" @ &J) 1$ @ ( 8" + p & ,G k . ) + J) &+ % "
+@ E E E & $i I 2 L ) !" B ?@ 3/" L B ?@ " +< U;"
, 6 6. ) . ( Q P ) !" 1 #$% ,E M /k ) M L + 1 1 W E
E ( Q P ) !" ,1 $ #$" I ( M7 _3" 3< ) !" E 3< ) !"
.(189 ,1390 ,J 2.) + 3_ i( F Y;* $< [ < % ) !"
,1 $ #$" $* 1$ L+ @ 7 L+ &J) E ?• 3. ,G -A k
3* ( #$" J$R ( <7) , * ( #$" $R ) L 1 $% " 7 J $ ) !" + "
) M +#7 M A7 ,[ -" 1 $ . ( M7 _3" L + C7 @ C &J) L
( 7 M (+. ,M % $3" ,M ($2R" 7 (190 ,1 8&) 3/" )$K. Q$ 1 $% "
p ( ) < " . 2 #$" )7 +A$" s " D ( ) $ k M L+
( #$" , @ C &J) A. ) 2 W &J) D( ( #$"
.5 A +) @ &J) _ + q@ .+ ) J) K
,) !" I ( M7 _3" L + &J) U;" : _ 1 $% " +< j g D(
7+ ") M L + J " ) M +#7 7 M A7 V6 ,+< )$K. E L %
7# ...7 M % $3" ,M ($2R" ,E W W J) V($% #$% Q+ ) ) !"
E )$K. E ) $ kM L+ W" I+ $< " +8 @ &)7
1 $ #$" $* 3/A .( #1 8&) ( 3 ?@ M)$> M ($2R" )$" )
Q2 + J 1 j 1 8 2" 8 . #$% ,E < 5^ +!3" &) !" @ &)7
W &J) F 1 $% " , 6 ( 63( M L + J+< j
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو88
.+ ) @ &)7 7 # W &U;" ‘ RA
$5 0 H ; 8# ;" ; D .2
L+ &J) +!% )$" ) ( J+< ) 7 3 ( /" W [ <
&)7 $#7 +63!" - +. 7 /" . ( @ &J) J 7 J 7+R"
) 2 $3R" 7 $" - +. 7 /" ( J+< N 9" [ < , ( ?@ [ 9
!" =28% , 6 6. ) .+& " ) " ) 3* ) 2 !" 8
" 2 p 7 +() 8 # 3 3( &)7 1 )7 ) ?@ 9*
1 $% " $Wp , . " 4" ) $" 7 2. U ) ,w) * EA )$" ) <
+!% A . ) +< L + J) +p 3/" " 3 !" 5 ?@
.(255 ,1387 , 8 $@) + 8 _ % Q$ $8 " ,J) 7+R"
3i" &z #$% 7 2 z !/3( [ < , _ 1 $% " X( @ )
) _2 |. /" $8 " 1 $% " ,[ -" 1 $ . ( X( @ 5 _2 7 H9 " , O )
+#7 Q$ &J) , 8O ) .(193 ,1390 ,J 2.) 3/" @ &J) D(
7 /" 1 8 2" _(; ( N : 5 z( @ " . $ + & $i 7+R"
( 1 z( @ X( @ " P Œ+ J [/ ) 7 /" 58 ) ,+ 3< 63
E ) ) = & [P+3( (7J ) () )$" ) _2 ) 3i" &|R
8" " 7+R" 5^ 2" * ) ( 8" +() " .+ 8[ " )
. 2 ( ) &|R 34 ) " +<
( 1 - +. 7 /" 63 "P ( † ) )$* ) 3
L &[P+3( ( T < ,+< +<5. \2" = ) ui< 7 Y;3*
$#7 Y;3* 1 g8& L ) ( 8" A . 7 ) 3/A . $< E3* L + &J)
( W 7+ E3* L + )$" ) $* & + $3 :+< 3<
89 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
L + )$" B ?@ s " 2_ & $& 7 F C $#7 " ( J $ H $" L [P+3(
z6 /" ) +() " " .+< J+ " # @ 1 g8& L Y;3* 7 J+
5" $ / ( k}% 34 7 $< " 3 J+ " & !" ) 3 !" C 5" $ k}%
.L k}% % $< " %
( #$% 1 + ) 7 ( V/% " [ < W 3
&J) ,+ % +#7 7 M A7 , @ G ! 7 &J) - +. /" ) p
[ . , ( J+< J ) E2 ) M % $3" 7 M % 7 M ($2R" 1$g8& W
) $ k M L + , A7 M L + J7; p , W M) / .+ 32 L+ ! 7 L
Œ+ 32 L+ G! 7 $ kM L+ A.) + J 1 M L+ 5j
7 1 2 1+ )7 63 ! 7 7) #$% B W •$ ,GP7 : ( J+< 3_ X( @ )
, * 8 ) +< E & $* " $ 1 2& $ 1 , ( 12 3 )
, ) + $#7 U 34" V(7 +. @ &J) 5A ,G k .(484'485 ,1385
[ < ) h 9" '+ + L+ ) W &J) + J+< ) p 1 8 2" 1 $2
#$% J$R ) M7 _% +() " ,G -A k .(38 ,1372 ,1 ") ' * @ E & $* +!
L+ 5P ,+" 1 " 1 j G;/ , @ C &J) &J) $
.+< L 3< W $k
$5 0 H 0; LC &0 # ? K .3
1 $% 8 , L + &J) B ?@ F ( 1 W MP <
"+6" + () # + [P+3( () , $8 3/" L ) &J)
L+ &J) 1 ") [ . ,+< J+" ( L + "+6" 7 Q 8K "
1 $3 7 1 A}% % +< 3< U 34" V(7 +. ) J) 7 1 $% 8
.( #1 8&) ) @ ) AP+3(
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو90
+pD( ) |. /" 5 ( )7 M O ) [ < ( 1 X( @
3< U 34" V(7 +. +@ ) &[P+3( 1 $% " ,G k .+ " C L + 5>
7 & I ( M ?A h# 7 1 $#7 $#7 . 2& $#7 5-" I+ <
, .(194'195 ,1390 ,J 2.) + ) U 34" V(7 +. 7 L + J)
U 34" V(7 +. ) ,E ‘ RA ) M +#7 H " &J) 7 M A7 &J)
. $ + & $*
N 1 < O #0 .4
J) N$O7 $Wp ( 1 $< " J) < 1 [ " ) A < *
#$% 6 6. 5A ,+ 32 W + Q ;" 7 Œ @ z +> $< " , L +
1
, ( #$" [. ) K $< " h#$" 5" 8& 7 ) « 17) *»
« 6 » hA ) N$O7 ‹3" , W 1 .(Alston, 1989, 8) +< / S > J)7 KA
$* R" J) ( 3/2 «S+>» A7 , ( «J) 5^ » T$ " ,+ " %
1 5^ J) &+ " 5A p 8< ( [ ’( 1$ .)
N 9" 7 &j 1 " Y < 1 $ R% [ < . ( s 7 H 9" , ( ŠO 7
. ( J+<
) L + 7 )$ % Q 6" ) &+ 1 " ) : _ + [ < X( @ )
5^ J) ( 9 ) «J) N$O7» ( () . ( J+< V * M 6 + %
,) L + 7 ŠO 7 H + % ( K « L + K » «ŠO 7 K » A7 ) $*
s 7 H 9" ) /3 K +3 .E 8L " & +/A 7 N$O$A ) « K S+>» " !
J) N$O7 , .E 8L " ) 1 S+> " q•( 7 $< " S+> 3" , (
EL s 7 ) J) H + % N$O7 7 ,J) 1 H+ % &+ N$O7 ( M) /
@. P (
+ ) !" #$% ) 7 J + , LA}38A )+> 69 " 7 _2 ) k #$%
) $ 1 8& )+>;" J + . 2 ( 3( /") - +. /"
&)7 ) &)7 ( E $% " D 1$p &B7) 7 E ) @ &)7 M 6 + %
7 5 R% , !% 1$g8& &B7) J _3( E $% " M )$ % ) ,E w 3 3(
M /k 7 /" .E )7 ( @ &)$ % ) @ C &)$ % h %
. ( +63!" ( ?@ 9*) L + C 7 ( ?@ 9*) L + &J) $#7 $< "
7 #$% @ &J) D( + ) @ C &J) ( +63!" g8&
/" + ) 7 /" ,+ " ( w 3 3( ) @ C &J) #$% J ) L %
. 2 - +.
r) " $( & /" ( < !" J $. ) N 9" MP < ( # 8&
#) * ) /* Q+ 1 $% " , ( J+< ) 7 J) ) & 8# .+ 8 "
) U 34" V(7 +. $/ 7 V(7 +. ) % Q+ , L + &J) ) !" 1 +6 ,M A7
,+< ) < |. /" [;* ) p. J) < S+> 7 N$O7 1 " T /%) 7 @ &J)
$R ,[$6!" 7 5 R% 5> 7 )$K. E 1$g8& , )+> 8 . /" #$%
( < !" E 2" " 7 +< J p /" 1 +63 " & J * 32 <
7 ! 8& 2 +" 7)o & z&7{@ ) J+ ) W 3/A . ^) /"
"$ " ) Q 8% /% " , ( J+< /% )+>;" ( < !" Q M ^#
E 32& 7 3 !" 8!" W J $6_" &zi 5 8 % + " )+> ( < !"
/ر ()* + ،١٢و ز&$%ن ١٣٩/ و و 92دو
.+ ) "h: %J 32 [ " L @ *
93 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
$C (
L" ' ) J W'4 :1 'L% , 'L8 ) Lp$' " '8# % , ـ و ـ ،( ز ـ ن1356) . A$# _A ,
.( <)
.€ 3 4 3 :1 L% , ($: +A # $* N < J 8& ,ت رت و (S1403) . (
. 4 " _ “ i 3 :E ,( )ت (S1405) .$8&
. ";(” Q; • h3 " : # , 7+ 1 8. A +/ Š R % ,ت (S1414) .$8&
.J W :1 L% , 9 ( h +A q8< " 8# % , "!ن#( ر1378) $9()
. 8 . :1 L% ,) 4 “ 8# % , $ %( و*!د و "('ﯾ1386) .q % 3A 7 ,q 3(
. O) < M )$4 " :E ,+, ! ( 'ح1370) . +A +K ,
,J +'8R" 'O) '8# % , $ ـ% ـ' "('ﯾـ3 % ـ2 :/ﺳ .' (1387) . @ q ^$A , 8 $@
.S > Q " J W4 :1 L%
. 8 J $. +" " :E ,ن4', در/ﺳ $ (1370) .“ +/ , " $#
.„ ( :E , 2$ ت5 6 ' ه6 (1375) .$8&
4&7{@ < $" 2(’" :E ,'; /ﺳ .' در/ /8وه9: (1390) .+8R" ,J 2.
. 8* Q "
,« )+''>;" '( < ' !" ) ' 7 '&j $''#7 '6 9"» (1393) . ‹''> ,)$@ ' 7 +''L" , '< /&
.9'28 ,7B , 3* < !" &z&7{@
.€ 3 1 3($ :E , - R Š R % ,' ق = > (1386) . R +A € L< , )7 L(
' ,«1 ~ '3 '() 7 )+'>;" '( < ' !" ) &j $#7 7 Q M7 _%» (1387) K% " , ) <
.1'26 ,14B , !"
.J :1 L% , +A J$ 4" 2RA +/ 8# % 7 Š R % ,6"!ﯾ (1360) .+8R" +A )+> , <
. W & M 6 6R% 2(’" :1 L% ,? @ A (1363) .$8&
. !A – 3A „ . ) :M7 ,= رB = ﺳ رB (S1419) .$8&
. /: /: "; 7 8 :E ,% ﺳCD ( رﺳ1362) . 2.+8R" + ( , /: /:
. ";( 4 2(’" :E ,= >E =( " ﯾS1422) .$8&
١٣٩/ ن$%& *)( و ز+ ،١٢ ر/ و و دو94
.„ $O• ) :M7 ,CHE F G (S1405) . +A # $* , ($:
Q '" '4&7{@ 7 '< $" '2(’" :E' ,/ﺳـ .' ن در4 I و " ـ/ ﯾ2( ـ1389) D / , )
. 8*
J W4&7{@ :E , J : ه#2 ز دﯾ/ ور دﯾ/ﺳ .' (1385) 2. + ( , )$< * 8
.J W4 7 J $.
. A ) :E ,% ﯾ: !مM (1378) . 6%+8R" , A !
.45'58 ,2B ,6 ذه% H. ,« )$K. 7 A$ . E » (1379) .$8&
.1 L% J W4 :1 L% , 7+L" R 8# % ,% 2 ﯾ/ ! M % ﺴ. (1366).5@ , A$
. 8 . :1 L% , @ [;# 8# % ,/ﺳ .' (1390) . ) g ) ,1$% "$
,/ دﯾ ـ%ـ8ﯾ2" ,« )+'>;" ( < !" ) 6 J+& 4"» (1387) .J+ !( , C$ ) i 7 2R" ,)$ +
.31'50 ,28B
. 8 . :1 L% ,) " " 8# % ,/ﺳ .' (1390) .1 ) 8& 7 . ( . ,† A
.4'28 ,1B ,6 ذه% H. ,(N 3 ) « ) !% 7 4 @ , ( < !"» (1379) .+8R" ,1 7 & WA
. / " :1 L% , # / E & Š R % ,ق2H نP E ( ن1364) .D /!A $ , $A
/" ـ!م "ﺴـM 3 هـIوه9: ,« )+> ;" ( < !" ) E Q$L_" () » (1392) .“ +( , K% "
.103'116 ,27B ,ن ; هJ8" د
'2(’" :1 'L% ,/ ﯾQ Q % RM % " ﯾ د6 ت دو ,« * < B ) » (1363) . 6%+8R" ,N / "
. W & M 6 6R% 7 M !A 9"
. 8 . :1 L% ,1w ,% !( ( 'ح ﺴ!ط1369) . K% " , L9"
.C ﯾ ن و:2ﯾ2* مRT /وه درﺳU* (1372) . _9 " ,1 "
, O) “ 8.) 8# % ,'; /ﺳ .' ' /M!V! 32 4( در1387) .1 ) 8& 7 5@ ,) $"
.(J)) 8* Q " 4&7{@ 7 < $" 2(’" :E
' :1 'L% ,[ ' +'. !";C 8# % , " T % ﺴ. در .' %( "('ﯾ1376) .D$3($ ,U %) &
. 7)
Alston, William P. (1989) Epistemic Justification: Essays in the Theory of
Knowledge, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
95 01234 و5ر6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
Audi, R. (1995) The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge
University Press.
Moser, Paul K. (1987) Apriori Knowledge, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
-----. (1998) Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London and New York:
Routledge.
Moser, Paul K. and Vander Nat, Arnold (1993) Empirical Knowledge, USA:
Rowman and Littlefield.