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1. The internalist charactcr of justification


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. 7)
Alston, William P. (1989) Epistemic Justification: Essays in the Theory of
Knowledge, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
95 01234 ‫ و‬5‫ر‬6789 :;< 56= >5?@ A
Audi, R. (1995) The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge
University Press.
Moser, Paul K. (1987) Apriori Knowledge, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
-----. (1998) Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London and New York:
Routledge.
Moser, Paul K. and Vander Nat, Arnold (1993) Empirical Knowledge, USA:
Rowman and Littlefield.

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