Sets Propositions Conditional Propositions and Logical Equivalence Arguments and Rules of Inference Quantifiers Nested Quantifiers Problem-Solving Corer: Quantifiers Notes Chapter Review Chapter Self-Test Camputer Exeresses Chapter 1 SETS AND bOGIe Logic, logic, logic. Logic is the beginning af wisdom, Valetis, not the end. FROM S7AR TREK VI: THE UNDISCOVERED COUNTRY ‘Chapter I begins withsets. A seis a collection of objects; order is mot taken inte account. Discrete mathematics is concerned withnbjects such as graphsisets of vertices and edges) and Boolean algebras (sets with certain operations defined on them). In this chapter. we jntrod 1nd notation. In Chapter 2, we treat sets more formally after discussing proof and proof techniques. However, in Section 1.1, we peovide a taste of the logie and peoofs to come ia the remainder of Chapter | and in Chapter 2. ‘Logic is the study of reasoning; itis specifically concerned with whether reasoning in correct, Logie focuses on the relationship amnong statements as apposed to the content of any purticular statement, Consider, for example, the following argument sel terminolog All mathematicians wear sandals, Anyone who wears sansa is an algebruist, ‘Therefore, all mathematicians ure alyebraists, ic is of ow help in determining whether any of these statesmen is true, the first two statements are true, logic assures us that the 1 All mathematicians are algebraists, is also true. Logic is essential in reading and developing proofs, which we explore in detail in ‘Chapter 2. An understanding of logic can alsa be useful in clarifying acdinary writing. For example, at one time, the following erdin: fect in Naperville, Illinois: “it shall he unlawful for any person to keep more than three dogs and three cats upen his property within the city”” Was one of the citizens, who owned five dogs and me cats, in violation of the ordinance” Think about this-question new, then analyze it (sce Exercise 74, Section 1.2) after reading Section 1.22 Chapter 1 @ Sets and Logic 1.41% Sets “The concept of st is basi to all of mathematics and mathematical applications, A set is simply a collection of objects. The objects are sometimes refered ty as elements Or members Ia sets finite and net foo lage, we can describe iby listing te elem in a i For example, the equation A=HL2341 a describes 2 set A made up of the four elements 1, 2.3, and 4. A setis determined by its cclements and not by any particular order in which the elements might be listed. Thus the set A might just as well he specified as As (Lia) ‘The elements making up a set are assumed to be distinet, und although for same reason ‘we may have duplicates in oar Tis, only oae eccurrence-of each element is inthe set. For this reason we may alse describe the set A defined in (1.1.1) a8 Ae RLM, Wa set isa lange finite set oF a ite set, we eae describe t by fisting peoperty ‘tecessiry for the bership. For example, the equation = |y |.x isa positive, even imtegert 44a) describes the st # made upof all pasitive, even integers; hati, 2 consist ofthe integers 2, 4.6, and so on. The vertical bar "|" is read “such that.” Equation 111.2} would bx read “B equals the set ofall x such that « is a postive, even integer.” Hes the property necessary formembership is "isa positive, even integer” Note thatthe property appears after the vertical bar, ‘Some sets af tumibers thot occur frequently in mathematics generally, and in discrete mathematies in particular, are shorn in Figure [-L, The syonbo Z eames tram the German word, Zablen. for integer. Rational nornbers are quetiems of integers, thus Q for quotient, The set af real numbers R ean be depicted as coasisting ofall points an susiraipht line extending indefinitely in wither direction tee Figure 1.1.2)! ‘To denote the negative numbers chat belung to ane af 2, Q, ar R, we use the superscript minus. For example, Z~ denotes the se of negative integers, namely — |, —2, —4,.... Similarly, to denote the positive numbers that belong tone of the three sets, we ‘use the superseripe plus. For example, Q* denotes the set of positive rational numbers. Sobol Set Example of Members Bh | teiegens 3.0.2, 5) | Rational numbers | —1/3.0, 2418 | Realnombers | —3,—1,766,0.4/15, v3.2.686... 9 Figure 1.1.4 Sets of numbers, ‘Toe eal memibecs cau be canara! by ring with» moms primiive motion wh ase" ar integer ‘hey em be obwaned by stag properties fuxioms! they areastorned to obey, Foc parpores, it waliees Ahink of shee nurses ao points on traigh ine, The cararastion of the eal ernbees and the axis fo the rel embers ae Beyond the cape oe osene ee Figure 1.4.2. The real number line. ‘To denote the monnegative numbers that belong to one of the three sets, We use the superscript nonaeg. For example. Z™°™ denotes the set of nonnegative integers, namely O12 3:00 TEX is. finite set, we let [X| = umber of elements in X. ‘We call |X| the cardinality of X. For the set A in (1.1.1, we have |A] =4, and the cardinality of A is 4. The cardinality ‘ofthe set (R. Z] is 2 sinee it contains 1wo elements, namely the mo sets Rand Z. Given adescription of a set X such as (1.1.1) 0r(11.2) and an element x, we can detennine whether or not x belongs to X_ Ifthe members of Nate listed as in (110, ‘we simply look to sce whether oF not x appeues i the listing. In a description such as (1.1.2), we check te see whether the element x has the propery Listed. If» is in the set X.we write x & X, und if x is nor in X.we write x g X. For example, 3 {1.2.3.4}. but 3 ¢ [x | x is. positive, even integer). The set with ne elements is called the empty Cor null or void set and is denoxect Ths 2 = ‘Two sets X and ¥ ane equal anc we write X= ¥ if X and ¥ have the same elements, To put it another way, X = ¥ if the following twa conditions hod: Forevery x, ifr €X, then € ¥, and m Porevery «iff © ¥thene 2X ‘The first condition ensures that every element of X is an element of ¥, and the second ‘condition ensures that every element of ¥ is an elernent off X 7 132) ad B=23, Is by inspection, A and Mf have the same-elements, Therefore A =H. 4 ‘Let us verify that if As(t|P+e-6=0) and &= (2-3, then A= B. aterial right4 Chapter 1 @ Sets and Logic According to the criteria in the paragraph immediately preceding Example 1.1.2 ‘we must show that for every x, ifs € Athens € 8 aay sand foreveey x, ifs ¢ Bythenxve AL ta) To verify equation (11 ). sippose that. © AL Then, V4a-6=6, Solving for x, we ind that x = (1.1. 3p holds: To verily equation (1.1.4), suppose thal x € 8, Then x = 2 orc ory = <3. In either case, x € B. Therefore, equation Bie then wta-6=F42-6 ‘Therefore, x € AIF = ~3,then a +(-3)-6=0. Again, x.¢ A. Therefore, equation (1.1.4) holds, We conctude that Ppa =8. « Fora set X to nor be equal to a set ¥ (written X 9 ¥), X and ¥ must or have the ‘same elements: There must be at least one element in X that is not int ¥ ora least one element ia ¥ that is not in X (or both) Le 123F and 2, 4) Then A # B since there is at least one element in A ¢| for example} that is not in B. [Another way 10 see that A is to note that there is at least one element in B Anumely 4) shat is no in A 4 ‘Suppose that X and ¥ are sets, Ifevery element of X is an element of ¥, we say that X isa subset of ¥ and write X © ¥, In other words, X isa subset of ¥ if for every site e X,thenr e ¥, C= (3) and A= 41.3.4), by inspection, every element of C is an element of A. Therefore, C isu subset of A and we write CS A Pi Ree Le Ketr[st4+r-2=0] We shuw that XS Z. ‘We must show that for every x, if. © X.then x € Z. fx © X, then rightSRR Seen eee ee es Example 1.1.11 > CoRR eee eee 116 Sts 5S Solving for x, we obtain x = Lor x Incither case, x € Z. Therefore, forevery ayiffx © X, then x € Z. We conclude that X isu subset of Zand we write XZ, The sel of integers % is a subset of the set of rational numbers Q. If n € Z. xe: be expressed as a quotient of integers, for example, n = ar/1. Therefore a & Q inch 2EQ 4 ‘The set of ratinnal nurnbers Q is a subset of the set of real sumbers R. If x € Q, the number line (see Figure 1.1.2)s0.x © R, 4 commesponids Lo 3 po For to nor be a subset of ¥, there must be at least one member of X tha ix pot in ¥. Let Kom {x [3x?—x—2 =O}. ‘We show that X isnot a subset of Z, x € X, hen at -2=0, Solving for x, we obtain.c = 1 or. = ~2/3. Taking «= —2/3, we bave x © X but x ¢ Z. Therefore, X is nota subset of Z. 4 ‘Any set X isa subset of itself, since any element in is in X, Also, the empty set is a subset of every set. If 2 is not a subset of some set ¥, avcording ta the discussion. preceding Example 1.1.9. there would have to be at least one member of that is wot in ¥, But this cannot happen because the empty’ set, hy definition, has no members ICX isa subset of ¥ and X dees nat equal ¥, we say that X isa proper subset of ¥and write X<¥. Let Caplap and A= 423.4) ‘Thea C is a proper subset of A since C is a subset of A but C does not equal A. We write CoA 4 ‘Example 1,1.7 showed that Z isa subset of Q, In faet, Z for example, 1/2 € Q. but lj2 ¢ Z, ‘Example 1.1.8 showed that Q isa subset of R In fact, Q isa proper subset of R because, forcxarmple, V3 € Ry but v3 ¢ Q, tin Example 2.2.3, we wall show that V7 isnot the ‘quotient of integers}. 4 ‘The set of all subsets (proper oF not) of a set X, denoted PX), is called the power set of X. ICA = (a, bye}, the members of PCA) are 2, fol, (bs Ic). ta. Bb. (a, ch, 1b, eh La, Bc] Al but (a, 6c} are proper subsets of A < aterialChapter 1 # Sets and Logic en kee Cena Example In Example 1.1.13, [d= and PEAY =? In Section 2.4 (Theorem 2.4.6), we general that i, the power set ofa set win n elements has 2" ele Given tw aots 2 and share ane various set oparanions involving X and ¥ that an produce a new et. The et sive a formal proof that this revolt baids in XUYs (else Xorre ry is called the union of X and ¥. The union consists of all clements belonging te cither or ¥ (or bath The set Xn¥=(s|eeXandre Ft is called the intersection of X and ¥, The intersection consistsof ail elements belonging to both X and ¥. ‘The set XaV=(x|ceXande eT] is called the difference (or relative complement). The difference X — ¥ consists of all elements in X that are not in Y. WA =[1, 3,5) and B= (4,5, 6), then AUB mw 11 34,5, 61 ands tsh A- Heth a B-A=(4, 6). Notice that, in general, A — 8 BA. < Since QER, Rug RnQ=@ Q-Re2 ‘The set R — Q. called the set of irrational numbers, consists of all real numbers that are not rational « Sets X and ¥ are disjoint if. 1.Y = ©. A collection of sets S is said to be pairwise disjoint if, whenever X and ¥ ure distinet sets in-S, X and ¥ are-disjoiat. ‘The sets (4S) and (2.64 ‘are disjoint. The collection of seis Sm (0, 4.51, 42,6), 18 17.81) is pairwise disjoint, «116 Sets 7 Sometimes we are dealing with sets, all oF which are subsets of a set U. This set U is called a universal at ora universe.'The set U must be explicily given or inferred from the conext. Given u wiversal st O und u subset X of U, the wet U = X is called te complement of X and is writen X. RRA Lt = 11.3.5). 198, auniversalsctinspocificdas = (1.2.3.4, Slthen a Ifa the ather hand, a universal sets specified as U = (1. 3.5.7.9). thon 7 “The coraplement obviously depends on the univers in whieh we are working. EMME Tey | 1et the universal set be Z. Then Z=. the complement of the set of negative integers is 0", the set of nonnegative integers 4 ‘Veun diagrams provide pictorial views of sets. In a Venm diagram, a rectangle dlepicts universal set see Figure 1.1.3). Subsetwof the universal setare drawn as circles. “The inside of circle represents the members ofthat set. Figure 11.3 we see twa sets. A and within the universal set L. Region | represents (A UB), the elements in neither A nor B. Region 2 represents A — B the clements in A bu aot in B. Region 3 represents AT “ PETE 2 esi nedgn ac ices. Tee AU Bitoni Figure 1.1.4, and Figure |.1.3 represents the set. A — B. 4 u CBS) a x diagram of AU 9 COMPSCL Figure 1.1.5 AVenn Figure 1.1.6 A ¥enn diagram agra of A— B. of ince sels CALC, PSYC and COMPSCI. The numbers sory haw: maiay students belongs to the particular region depicted. ‘To represent three sets, we use three overlapping circles (see wre 11,6), OMNES) Among groupof 165 students, 8.arc taking calcutus, peychology, and computer science; 33 are taking calculus and computer science; 20 are tuking calculus and psychology;& Chapter 1 # Sets and Logic Figure 1.1.7 The shaded region depicts boi TU Bj and 401 thus these sets are equal, Theorem 1.1.21 24 are taking psychology and computer science; 79 are taking calculus; 83 are taking psychology; and 63 are taking computer scicnec, How many are taking none of the three subjects? Let CALC, PSYCH, and COMPSCI denote the sets of students taking calculus, psychology, and computer science, respectively, Let 0 denote the sct of all 16S sikden's (see Figure 1.1.6), Since 8 students are taking calcubis, psychology, and compiler science, we write B im the region representing CALCD PSYCH COMPSCI OF the 33 students taking calculus and computer seience, 8 ane abo laking paychol- ‘ogy: thus 25 are Taking calcnlus and computer science tat not psychology. We vi 25 in the region representing CALC PSYCH 1. COMPSCI, Siiniarly, we write 12 in the region sepresenting CALC A PSYCH N TOMPSCT and 16 it the region repre seating CATT 7 PSYCH 71 COMPSCI, OF the 79 students taking calculus, 45 have now been accounted for. This leaves 34 students taking only calculus, We write 34 in the region represeating CALC 7 PSYCH 11 COMPSCI. Similarly, we write 47 in the region representing CALC 7 PSYCH 71 COMPSCT and 4 in the region representing EALCh PSYCH COMPSCI. At this point. [56 students have boen accounted fo. This Jeaves 9 students taking none of the three subjects « ‘eon diagrams eanalsohe used to visualize certain properties of sets. For example by sketching both CU BT and 17H (see Figure 1,1, Th we se that these sets ane eq A formal proof would show that for every x, ifs ¢ (AU Ay, theas © ANF, and iP © € ANE, then s © (AUB). Wesiate many useful propenies of sets.as Theorem 1.121. Lei U be wamiversat ses and let A, B, and C be subsets of U. The following properties rola, (a) Associative faws: (AU B)UC = AU(BUC), (AN BNC = AN(ENCY (b) Conmuative laves: AUB=BUA, ANB=BNA (c) Distrtbuaive Faves: AN(BUC)=(ANB)U(ANE), AU(BNC)=(AU B)N(AUC) {d) density laws: ANU=A (e) Complement laws: (0) tdempotent tows: AUAs AN ASA (ig) Rowe laws: AUUSU, Ang=o (1) Abserptiane laws> AU(ANB) =A, ANIAUB)=A (4) Ivotisian JawSo rn) 5 11 © Sets GP O41 fave Bau, Tse (h) De Morgan's laws for sets: (AUB =ANB, TAR = AUR Praaf The proofs ure let us exercises (Exercises 44-54, Section 2. alter more discussion of logic and proof techniques. ‘Wesetine theunionaf an arbitrary ty te at least one set X in S, Formally, ily S of sets to bethose elements betonging US= (x |e X for some X eS}. ‘Similarly, we define the intersection oof an arbitrary family $ of sets tobe those elements t belon mewery seu Formally, né (a | 4 eX forall ¥ eS}. ir = fA Ay... Ande Us-Ua. As-fa and if For? > 1. define and = (Au Aa Then A partition of a set X divides X into nonoverlapping subsets. More facmally, collection S of nonempty subsets of X is said to be a partition of the set X if every element in X belongs to-exactly one member of S. Notice that if S is a partition of %, ‘Sis pairwise disjoint and US = X. Since each element of ¥=4123,4,5,6,7,8) is in exactly one member of S = 114,54. 12,6) (3), (7, 8H S in.a partition of X. 410 Chapter 1 Sets and L _Althe beginning of this section, we pointed out that a set is an unordered collection of clements; that is, » set is determined hy its efements and not by any purticular onder in which the elements are listed, Sometimes, however, we do want to take ander into account, An ordered pair of clements, written (u,b), is considered distinct from the ordered pair (B, a), unless, of course, a = b. To pub it another way, (a, 8) = (e,d) precisely when a = cand b= ef. IU X and ¥ are sets, we Ret X 3 ¥ denote the set of all ordered pairs (x,y) where x € Nand y € ¥. We call X x ¥ the Cartesian produet of X and ¥ Wx 1,2,3}and ¥ = fa, 6), then Xx ¥ = (Ca), 61, 6), 02,0), (2, 6),43,0, (3, 09) Yo X= (C0, 1), (8 Dd 29.6, 2h (a, 34 (Bs 3) XK = (L112 1 2, 1,02 29,03), 08, D2 Fox ¥ = ((a.a). ta. By. dba (. A} Example 1.1.24 shows that, in general, Xx ¥ 2 x X. Notice that io Example 1.24, |¥ x ¥| = |] [| (both are equal to 6). The reason is that there are 3 ways to choose aa element of X for the first member of the exdened pair, there are 2 ways to choose an element of ¥ for the second member of the ordered pair, ond 3+? = 6 (sce Figure 1.1.8). The preceding argument holds for arbitrary finite sets X and Y5 itis always true that [Xx ¥| =[X|+|¥] (ay 15 }2.0) (2.8) Bayt.b) Figure 1.1.8 |X x Y)=[X|-(¥|,where X = (1, 2.3) and ¥ = fa, b). There are 3 ways to-choose an clement of X forthe first member of the ordered pair (chown at tbe top of the diagram) and. for each of these choices, there are 2 ways to chnose-an element of ¥ for the second member of the ordered pair (shown at the betiom of the diagram), Since there are 3 groups of 2, there are 3+2 = b elements in X x ¥ (labeled al the bolton of the figure) Pr A restaurant serves four appetizers, reribs, om aches, ss ahcimp, f and three entrees, cm chicken, be beef, 1 Irs, Fl and £ = Jo, bysh the Carestan product A 25 # lists the 12 and one entree, <4 Ordered lists need not be restricted to gue elements, An maple, written fay, 3, -.. 04). takes onder into account; that is, (2425 oe aty) = hn Bae eee be precisely when ay = bya cathy = Ba.en 1A Sets 11 ‘The Cartesian product of sets X, % rae eed Where x) € Xp for’ X,, is defined to be the set of all n-luples ni is denoted Ky x Nyx +10 Ny Ke? Fetnth Zale sh then Xx ¥ x Z=[la.e), tla, 8), 41,6, 0), 01,6, Bb (2.4, or, (2, 0, Bh (by art (2b, 4 ‘Nonie chat in Example 1.1.26, |X. ¥ x Zl =[XI+|¥| [ZL In general, Xp Nao x Xe UX) LX PX ‘We leave the proof of this Iust statement as un excecise (sce Exercise 26, Section 2.4). ICA is a set of appetizers, Eis a set of enttees, and Dis a set of desserts, the Cartesian product Ax E Bi lists all possible dinnees consisting of one appetizer, one enteee, and ‘one dessert, a thar que sets A and Hare equal, writen A = #2, show that for every 5, if ce Avthens ¢ B,andif.re B, then rc A ‘To verify that two sets A and # are nor eqpial, written A i, find a€ least one element that is in A but not in #, of find at least one element that is in B bat not in A. ‘One or the other conditions suffices; you need not fand may nt be able to) show both: conditions. To verify that A isa subset of B, written A © B, show that for every x, if.x © A, then x © B. Notice that if A is a subsct of B, it is possible that A = B. ‘To verify that A is nor a subset of B, find at Teast one- clement that is in A but aot in B. To verify that A isa proper subset of B, written ACB, verify that Ais a subset of B as described previously, and that A# A, that is, that there is at least one element thal is in B but not in A To visualize relationships among sets, use a Venn diagram, 8 Venn diagram can sugges whether a statement about sets is troe-or false "A set af elements is determined by its members: order is irrelevant. Oa the other hand, ondered pairs afd a-tuples take aeder into account. Section Review Ex 1. What is aver? 2. What is set nation? 4. Beseribe the set 2, Q.R,Z".Q* Qh" and ROMS, and give Uo examples oF raeimbers of ach st, 4 IX bese, whats 1X? How do we denote. dram element wf ie set X? EO genes, How do we denote. Ira a efemerat of he set 8 How do we denote the empry ser? "Eyereiee mumers im color indicate that into solution appears atthe Back ofthe bo i the seston falowins te Retonenses12° Chapter 1 ® Sets and Logic A. Define ser Xi: equal mo net ¥. How do we denote X ii equal pY? 9. Explain method of verifying that sets ¥ and ¥ ore equal 10. Explain a method of verifying thar sets W and ane mor equal J. Define Xi a subset of T. How do we denote 3° ire subset fv? 12. Explain a method of verifying that X isa subset of ¥. 13. Explain a method of verifying that N isnot a sbset af 14. Define ¥ is a praper subset of ¥. Hew da we enote X is proper sibsct of V 15, Esplain a melbiod of verifying that X isa proper subset of ¥ 16. Whats the poner set of 1 How is it denoted” 17. Deine X aniow ¥, How is the union of X and ¥ denoted? 1S, IFS i family of ets, how do wedetinc the uniod of S Few isthe ution denote? 19, Define A muerseer ¥. How is the incersestion of X anal ¥ enated? 20. 5 is family of sets, how dos we define the intersection af 57 How is the intersection dented? 2M, Define X and are sine ets, 22. What isa pairwise dist ily of ses? 29. Define we aifermce of sets X unl Y. How is the difference denied? 24, What is universal se? 25, Whar is the complement of the set N°? Haw it denosed? 24, What is 2 Venn diagea? 27, Draw a Venn diggram of thrce seis aoa identify the se eepre= sented by each region 28. State the associative laws for sets 29. State the commutative laws for sets, 3M, State the distributive laws for ts. ‘Sate the Wen ity ws Fr ses B State the complement laws for sets, A. State the ikeipotent laws for sets “M4. State the bound ass fo ses 5, State the sbsoptlon laws for sets ‘My State the avout kaw for srs 237 Stale the laws forse 38, State Be Morgan's lnws For sets, 39, What isa pation ofa set 92 40, Define the Cartesian product of sets X ancl ¥. Flaw is this ‘Cartesian product dented? 4, Deine the Cartesiam product ot the sets X), Xi {5 this Cantesian product denoted? i How pee In Brercises 1-10. ler the woiverse be the ser) = |1,2,3, .., Wh Let A= 14, 1D), B= 23,4, Sh wa C = (24,6, 8 Laer ake elements of each ser Laue Ene Rank ae) a auc 1 a Aue ane Mw AuE Bow Banu 13, Bic =a) 14. (ABYC 16. AN Buc 16. (AU B}—4C= By 17. Whats the cardinality of 2? 1B, What i the cardinality of (22)? 19, What asthe cardinality of fa, a, €) What isthe cardinality of ffaf, fa, fa. c}-a, 8)" In Exercises 20-24, show, et in Evamptes 1.2.2 and 112, rat A=a, 2, ASR B= (23h 2 C= (123, D= (23.4), A= 12,3). # DL AR(L2M B= (ule Zt anda? < 10) Mo Ae [eft dep de fe = 13) bn Brercises 25-28, shot: asf Burple 114, thar A 8 A=[L 2a B=e 2 ARM, Baie Bee DO} 2 A= (LAS B= (wIne Zt anda? — 1 <0) W. Be (LLM CHIRSGSR AR BNC In Evercives 20-32, determine whether each pair of vet is equal 29.42.2511 21 MSU Mitte 32 dele RandO< 6 <2). (02)Te Bvercines 32-3, show; as i Examples 11.5 and 1.6, dae ACB BAST 2h #= B21 MoASUL 2, Bair | 60 + te =5} MoASUPR (A B= 123 MAS [i] ne Zt B= ila By In Exercbses $70, shows as iw Bnamaple FA shad Abs ot a subse of 8. BAS (L2H, # AIL Masts |c?- 2 rt 2=o}, =.) W. A=(12, 24), C1567), B= |n)me danda tm arsenite m © C} Wh a= Tre Evercises 41-45, drawat ion sage cd thaate the given set an an® 47-8 AB BU ap 48 AUB as. aN (ET A) 46. (RU BNE = Ay 9. Gen ay TTC BATU = DOCU BY) 49. A television commercial for « popular beverage showed the following Venn diagram ay Filling, ‘What does shaded area represent? Great Th Excenines SOS refer aca gma of 1H stents, af orice Flare faking Frewel, inadness, and mmsie; £9 are taking Fremchanal busi fest: hare rokiag French wd music: 18 are aking businers and sie? 8S are taking Feeney 6 ave taking Business: ai 63 are aking msi. 80, How-tmany. ate taikiog Preach and anise but rat business * $1, How-many are taking basiness and neither French nor masie? 82, How many are taking Freagh or business far boot? 1 How many are tiking music or Freneh (ee oth) but not buniness? $4, Hoo many are taking none of the tires subjects? S38. A television poll of 151 pessoas foond that 68 wotched "Law and Disorder"; 61 yutchatt “29°; 52 watched “The Tenars”: 16 watched bah “Law aod Disorder” wad "25"; 25 ached both “Law and Disorder” nd "The Tenars”; 19 watched bat "25" and ~The Tenors”; and 26 watctvednone oF these shows, How smany persons watcbe all theee shows? 6. In a group of stMlents, each suadest is takhng a satbemat- es course oF 2 computer selence course of Both. One-ffia of thas taking 8 mathematics course are alsa taking a computer seieaoe course, and ame-cighth wf tase taking & computer 1.1 @ Sets 13 science coarse aralvo taking 9 mathematics course, Are lone on ne-thid of the stodests taking: muthemstis course? 4 Exercises 37-00, ler X= (1, 2h and ¥ = fo, bye}. Lis the elements dea Se, BNE SRY EX mre dn Buercises 6-64, fet X= (Le 2 ¥ = Ja} and 2 = [a 8. bist he efemaenes of each set. BL Nek eZ 6 Vahey OYE Oh Ys dR E Re Jv Exeevines 68-72, give o geametric description of euch et iv words. (Comsider ike elements of the sets ta be coordinates.) os RXR 662K ORD 48 Rox Zee hat TRE RER TL RaRAZ Rated tn Exerctes 73-70, se al partons of the set m0 74. (1.2) TS. (aaboe} Fo. [asic «nr Exercises 77-42, answer rue ar false, ela [she (a) ae) 80, 1S betel HB, (IES PUA 2) BL be Pub 2h) 8%, Lis tbe member. of P (fo, bf Which ae proper subsets nF (a8)? 44, Lit the members of Pa, B. cd), Whish are proper subeet= of fa, bed]? BS. ICX bas 10 members, how many members does P| have t How many proper subsets does X have? Rb ILN has. members, haw many proper subsets dacs N have? “dre daveretses 87-04) wher relation must hatd between sete A ard BF Jin onder fo the given ecmaition we tran? SL ADRSA AURA w. Touse 0, ATSB ‘Thesymenetric difference af nea sete A amd As the set AA BS(AUB-1ANB) OM, (A= [eB a and B= 123.45] find AB, 92. Describe the symmetric difference af sols sk and Bin wos, Copyrighted material14 chapter 1 # Sets and Logie 99. Givenauniverse U7 describe AD A,ALT,U AA eZ OA, 498, Let P denote the eet of imagers greater than 1. For > 2, 9H, Lett bewcitcle and let D be the setof all diameters of C. What seine isn DP Here hy “dlameter” we mean a lie segment Uurcagh x afieieerh the center of the elle with its endipoiots on the cirswrmierence of theeirele Describe # — Up", Xie 1.2 > Propositions Which of sentences (a)=tf) are either rue oF false hat nox feoth) (a) The only positive integers that divide! 7 are I and 7 itself, (b) Alfred Hitchcock won an Academy Award in 1540 for directing Rebecca, (©) Forevery positive integer n, there is « prime member? larger than, (a) Earth is the only planet in the universe that contains life. (@) Buy ovo tickets to the “Unhinged Universe" rock conoers for Friday, Wrtd=b ‘Sentence fa), which is anouer way wo say that 7 is prime, is tru, Semence (b) i fale. Although Rebeecer wor the Academy Award for best picture {in 1940, Joh Forel won the dinecting award foe The Grapes of Wrap, isa suapelsing fuct that Alfred Fltchcock never won an Academy Award foe directing. Senience (€}, which is another way to say that the number of primes is infinite, is tc. Sentence (dis time. ‘Sentence (c) is neither true nor false [sentence te} is a command]. ‘The truth of equation (f) depends on the value of the variable x. _Asentence that is cither tracor filse, bul not both, iscalled a propasition. Sentences {a)-(d) are propositions, whereas sentences (c} and (Fyare not propositions. A prapasitian is typically expressed as a declarative sentence (as opposed to a question,command, ec}. Propositions. are the basic building blacks af any theary of logic. We will use variables, sich as pg, aid r, To represent propositions, ruch as we ‘se letters it algebra to represent numbers, We will 80 use the notation Zaher true wt False (but not both), Bat no one Knows which at eitied todefine p tebe the proposition It | 3. Inerdinary spsech and writing, we cocebine propositioncuting Conpectives such as cond id or. Po example, the propositions “IL 8 ting” arid “Mix cold” cain be eoatbines to Fone the single proposition “Tis nity and itis Cold.” The fora etnies OF andl sand or Fen, “tamed excrete Incaes 0 problem of ubowe-average dificult “Divides” means ives evenly” More tommy we kay ata meen integer dries an niger nf thee is loge gutta mr = dg. We cll g tho gues. We will expe the wep in deta n Chapher “Am intogern > 1 is are if the aly positive intagers tiv ware Band tel. Foc exemple. 23. and {arene number.1.2 © Propositions 15 ‘Let pr and g be propositions. The cowjniction of and ¢.deaoted p A. q. isthe peopasition poand qe The digiunetion of p and q, denoted yx q, is the peopesition pou ag 4 EEE « Definition 1.2.3 > Lis rani, a: Ieiscold, then the conjunction of p aad g is PA is raining and it is cold. “The disjunetion of p and g is Yq) Mis raining ae it is cold. 4 ‘The ireth value of the conjunction p Ag is determined. by the tuth values of and y and the definition is based upon the usual interpretation of “and.” Consider the Proposition, pq: Is raining and it is cold, of Example 122 1f tis raining (1, p is truch and itis alse cold (Le. g is also true), then we Would consider the proposition, fq: Mis mang and itis cold, ‘to be trae, However, if itis not raining tie. pis false) oF is not Cold is false) or ‘both, then we would consider the proposition, Pq) Wis maining and itis cold, 1a be false, ‘The truth values of propositions such as conjunctions and disjunctions can be slescrihed by truth tables, The truth tableof a proposition P mad up of ts inclividoal propesitions prs... pe lists all possible combinations of truth values {4e py +. ses “F denoting wae and F-denwxing false, and foe each such comnbinatiom lists the ramh value: ‘of P, Weuse a rath table to formally detive he truth value of ps g, ‘The truth value of the proposition p 1. q is defined by the wuth table Poa | pase tT 8 TRE FT & POF) F < naterial16 Chapter 1 ® Sets and L Se nee es Definition 1.2.6 » Notice that, inthe truth table in Definition 1.2.3, all Four possible combinations of truth assignments for je und.q are given Definition 1.2.3 states that the-copjunction p Aq is tre provided that p and g are both true; p Aq is false otherwise. p: A decade is 10 years, aa sanium is 100 years, then p is true, q is false (a milleanium is L000 years), and the conjun; pq: Adecade is 10 years and a millennium is 100 years, is false, « Most programming: languapes define “and” exactly as in De! in the Java programming language, (logical) “and is jon 1.2.3, Forenamp sdonoted 4. and the expression eS IRR y >a true precisely when the value of the variable x is less than 10¢i2.,% < 19s rue) and the value of the variable y is preaterthan 4 (ie.,y > 4 is also true). 4 ‘The truth value of the disjunction pv g is ulso determined by the truth values of .p and.q, and the definition is based upon the “inclusive” interpretation of “er” Consider the proposition, pv gs Wis raining or itis cold, of Example 1.2.3. [Fit is raining ti, then we would consider the proposi pis true) or it is cold tie, is abso true) or both, ms pv q: Wis raining or itis eld, jorbe true fie., pg is tue), I its not raining Ge. pis false) and i is mot cold (i, alyo false), then we would consider the proposition, pv g: Mis raining or itis col tebe false (i.e, pv q is false), The imelusive-oF of propasitions p and. is tue i por q.or both, is true, and false otherwise. There is also an exelusive-or (see Exercise 66) that defines p exer g ve be true if peor gy, but nor bork, is irwe, andl false otherwise, ‘The tmth value of the proper by the truth table npg, called the Inefusive-or-of p und g, is defined1.2 © Propositions 17 ea fr: Avmillennium is 100 years q2 Amillennium is L000 years, then pis false, g is true, and the disjunction. Pq: A millenciium is 100 years of a millenaium is 1000 years, 4 LN Most programming tingwages detine Ginclsive) “or” exactly as in Deliition 1.2.4 For example, inthe Java programming langage, elogical) “or” is demoted, aul the expression ret lly>4 is ruc precisely when the value of the variable x is less than W (ic... < 10s true) of the wulue of the variable 7 is greuter than 4 (i.e. 7 > 4 8 true) both 4 ‘In ordinary language, prpositians being combined (e.g.. pant q combined 1% ative the praposition pq) are normally related but i logic, these prapositians are txt required to refer to the same subject matte. For example, in logic, we permit propasitions such as 3 © Sar Paris is the capital of England, ‘Logic is concerned with the form of propositions und the relation of propositions-to each ‘other and not with the subject mater itself, (The given propasition is tue because 3 < 5 is true.) “The final operatoron a proposition p that we discuss in this section is the negation ofp, “The aegation of p. denoted ~p. isthe proposition not p. “The truth value of the proposition “is defined by the tut table Pt |e P « In En Lis no he case thal p.” For example, if 1 ke sometime trike Tp as p> Parisi the capital of England, {he negation of p could be written sp: ls aot the cise that Pars the capital of England, ‘or more simply as apr: Paris is not the cupit18 Chapter 1 ® Sets and L Se ee in 1954, pt or was culculated to: 1,000,000 decimal digit: the negation of p is the proposition spi a was not caleulated 10 1,000,000 decimal di twas not until 1973 that 1,000,000 decimal digits of were computed: 0, pi false ie then over one trillion devirnal digits of 27 have been computed.) Since pis False, rue 4 “P TET LEIE Most programming languages define “not” exactly as in Definition 1.29. Forexample, in the Java progeamening language, “not” is denoted #, and the expression Ma < 40) is ue precisely when the value of the variable «is not less than 10 (i.e., x is greater than ‘or equal 10 10). < Inexpressions involving some all of the operators -, sand. inthe absence of parentheses, we first evaluate ~.then and then v. We call such a convention operator Precedence, [n algebra, aperator precedence tells us to evaluate and / betire + and — ee Given thar proposition pis fase, proposition q is tue, and proposition + is false, dete zine whether the proposition spvaar is true or false, ‘We first evaluate —p, which is tue, We next evaluate q A r, which is false, Finally, we evaluate ape gan Example [Searching the Webs A variety of Web search engines are available (eg... Google, Yahoo, AltiVista) thal allow the user ko enter keywords that the search engine then tries to mitch with Web pages. For example. entering wrathematics produces a (huge’? list of pages that contain the woed “mathematics.” Some search cagites allow the used to use ard, a, ahd st operators to-combine key wards (soe Figure 1.2.1), thus allowing nore complex searches. lis the Google search engine. caf is the default opetateg so that, for example, enter discrete mathematics peoduces a list of pages comtainiag hoth of the words “discrete and “mathematics” The oF operator is OR, and the wor operator is the minus sign — Furthermore, enclosing a phrase. typically with embedded spaces, in double quotation marks causes the phrase to be treated as a single word. For example, to search for pages containing the keywords “Alfred Hischeock™ and (Herrmana or Wiewman) and (nt 1 right1.2 © Propositions 19° Figure 1.2.4 "The Google wearch engine, which allows the user 10 use and (space ar OR. aod stat (—) operators to combine keywords. As shawn, Gaogle found about 91,000 Web pages containing “Alfred Mtelieoek™ and (erromarm or Waxman 308 na ah she user could enter "Alfred Hitchcock" Hermann OR Waxman -tv zap [Fie those who have not studied discrete rhithematies, clicking a Advanced an the Google home page yields a page in Which the usee can fill in boxes to achieve the same sesuilt 5 1.2.11] 4 Problem-Solving Tips ‘Although there may be a shorter way ta determine the truth values of a proposition P formed by combining propositions py... py using operators such as —~ and 'y, a truth table will always supply all possible truth values of P foe various truth values. of the ‘constituent propositions jy. Emad Ea 1. What sa proposition? 5. What isthe disjunction af pam? Hon is it denoted? 2. What ith table? 6, Gives ina ble for the disjmcsion of p aod 9. 4. Wha iesthe conjunction of p and How is i dened” 7. What isthe negation ofp How i demoed? 4. Give the rch tale forthe conjunction of pad. 4% Give the th able for the negation af Copyrighted material20 Chapter 1 © Sets and Logic ee Determine whether evel vemtence fn Exeveivex I-11 fe. propa ian. M7 the seience és a presi. wee dns negesio. Mina are 1904 Deing asked for ake tra wales of the seneences dharare pnp sitions L 245219 2OEI=IS Rartoe IS, 4 Waites, will you serve the mute mean, woul you serve the ‘guests the muta” 5. Far some positive integer n, 19340 = 17, 6. Audrey Meadows was the criginal “Alice” in “The Honeys 1. ool me a grape A. The line “Play again. Sm" aces i Use 9, Bvsey even integer peeater than 4s the sm of eo prions. 10, The ditlersace of nse primes, Ti Bxercses 12-15 refer nea coin tat ds Ryne 10 times. Wee dhe ‘nearion af the prpaiion 12, Ten beads were obained 13. Some beads were bine 14, Same hess and sore tails were bain. Casublanes. statement is Fale. SA least one head was obtained ‘Given tha prqposition p infalse, proposition ir tric, and papas tin is flse, determine whether each propre ie Exerses 16 2 ic irae file 16. pvag 17. ape ng 18 pve 20. “Up y gn oer Lipman tig 1. apy tq ne Fetes pi Write the rth table each peoposirian in Exeroines 22-2 pane Bepyspyp 2. (pvainap 25. tpn gi aap 2h (Agana) 2 sin varv irs sp) 2A (pv gh adap yg) a tpy ag) siapy ag) DW aipagdvingve) Jn Exercises 30-52, represent the given proposition symbolically ty foting Bi em 92% ri $27, Determine wheter ceach proposition i teue fle M0, $= 9andg = ‘Me It is moc the case that (3 = Gund 9 < 7 32, $< Bocit is not the case that (9 < Tand $= Tp Iv Exerciner 32-28, formulate the symbol: expoetsion ja seords slag Ps Lee tates eompuoer setence. 9 Lee takes mathematics Bp Me py I Exercier 39-43, formulas sig Mepag Mopane neg Bmpnng the symbolic espeessiom fn words > Yow play foal 1: Fo miss the muiicran exsm, Pi Yo pass the course, pag AR Ap eghyr WO. agar MB (pAghetagact Me puger In Exerciser 44-48, formulate the symbolic expeetsion in words sing pre Taday is Monday, a: Jide ring Fisher peg AB, sprig yes pe ghar 4. (Agnaniry py Lp nigwediatevig vp fn Eveveises 49-54, cepeesent the peopasition symbolically by tering 2 There iva fuericame. a: (1a runing. 49. "There is no-hurrieane: $0, There is hurricane and iti raining, 51, There ca hurricane, but it is not in, 52, There is no hurricane and itis oot raining jer there iss hurricane ori is raining (ae both her there is a, hurricane oF raining, bat there hurricane Jn Exereives 55-59, cepeesent the propanition symbolically by tesring 1 Ya ra 10 fae dais 1 Yiu ove hear 1 Yow take nut -tansins 55, You run [0/taps daily, but you are not healt. 36. You rus 10 hap daily, you take rl beat. 57, You run (Ota daily ae you aXe mult-vitmn healthy, jeans, and you re una you are1.3. © Conditional Propositions and Logical Equivalence 88, You donor eam 1 lps eal aid you are ot heal, 9, ither you are healthy or you do not run 10 Laps daily, and yo do net take mulci-viansins yoo der wot tke ro I Exeriues 60-85, meres the proposition symbolically by dering 2: Tins heard he “Flying Pigs” rk cancer Fi he the “W2K" rock concer 1 Kaa have sore card. tl, You beard the “Flying: Pigs rock concest, anid you have sare cardrums. 61, Youlheard the “Flying Pigs” rack concent, bat yenada not have sore caedrums, ‘Youbesndthe "Flying Pigs” rock concert, you hear the “Y2K° rock cancer, and you have sate eardrums. ‘You hcur ether the “Flying Pigs” ok concest oe the "¥2K! rock cone, but you do not have sone eardrums ‘You did no har the “Flying Pigs" rock concert and you did fot hear the "2K" roek covet, bat you have soee ears, Inispotthe ease that You heard the “Flying Pigs” ckooncert ‘or yor heard the "Y2K™ rack concert ar-you Bo moe have sare curdrums, Give the truth table forthe exctusive-or of andl gin vehich |p etn q is ive if either por a. na bo, ts rue 21 Jn Bvercives 67-79, stare the meaning of euch sentence if "or" is Iterpeeted asthe inetusive-or: thei slate the mean of eae Se fence if “or I interpreted as he exclusive-or (sew Exercize 06) reach cave, which meaning do ya think fe imenuded? (67, Tosater Utopia you must show a divers sense or passport 68, To: corer Uropia, you mow possess a drivers license or a Passpon. The prerequisite to data structures is a course in Java ne C+ The car comeciith a cupholder that heats oe cooke your drink: We offer $1000 cash ox O percent interest far two years Do ya wat fries or a salad with yar burger? ‘The meeting willl canceled if Fewer han I persuns sige op ca lesat 3 inches of sie alls, AL ane time, the following wndinance was in effect Naperville, Uliaois: “it shall be unlawful for any person to beep more thie theee [3} dogs and three [3] eals upon bis propenry withthe ity" Was Charles Marke, who one tee dogs and no cats, in violation of the ordinance? Explain \Weite commana to search the Web foe national parks in North of South Dakota, 76, Write a command to search the Web fer isease other than cance, 77, Site «commana! to search the Web for mins league baseball teams in Ibinois tot are not in the Midwest League. oa, 7. nn nm mm 18 vormation-on lang 1.3_ Conditional Propositions and Logical Equivalence The den fas announced that tthe Mathematies Department gets an add then it will hire one new faculty membe nal $60,000, ap ‘Statement (1.3.1) states that on the condition that the Mathematics Department gets an addi na! $60,000, then the Mathematics Department mn ire one new faculty member. A proposition such as ¢|.3.1) is culled a conditional proposition, IC p and q are propositions, the proposition if p then g 32) is called a conditional proposition and is denoted poa “The propasition is called the Aypathests (orantecedtenthand the proposition 4 ts alle the conelusian (or conteguent. 4 It we define p: The Mathematics Depuriment gets an additional $600,000, (q2 The Mathematics Department w hire one new faculty member, igh220 chapter 1 @ Sets and Logie then proposition (1.3.1) assumes the form {1.3.21. The hypothesis ithe statement "The “Mathematics Department gets an additional S60,{0" and the conctusion isthe statement “The Mathematics Depariment will hire one new Faculty member” 4 ‘What is the inth value of the dean's statement (1.3.1)? First, suppose that te ‘Mathematics Depariment gets an additional $60,000. I the Mathematics Department docs hire an additional faculty member, surely the dean's statement is tre. (Using the notation of Example 1.3.2, if p and g are both tm, then p> q is true. } On the offer Jhand, if the Mathematics Depariment gets am odditional $60,000 andl does not hire an additional faculty member, the dean is wrong—statcment (1.3.1) is false.AIfp is troc and @ is false, thon p=» q is falsc.) Now, suppose that the Mathematics Department docs ‘ro! get an additional $60,010. In this cane, the: Mathematics Depariment might sac might 1n6t hire an adltional focally member. (Perhaps 2 member of the department retires and someone is hited to replace the retieee. On the other hand, the department might not hire anyone.) Surely we would not consider the desn’s statement to be false. Thus, ifthe “Mathematics Depastment does anit get an additional $60,000, the dean's statement wast be tue, regardless of whethee the department hires an additional faculty member or aot. Af pis false, thee yo + ¢ is true whether g is true or false.) This discussion motivates the following definition. Definition 1.3.3 & | The tuth value of the conditional proposition p — g is defined by the following truth table; poole tt) Tt TROOP FT|? FR 4 FFor those who need) additional evidence that we shoul define pq to be tue when p is false, we offer further justification, Most people would agree that tie proposition, For all real numbers x, iF > 0, then x” > 0, 33) is te. (In Section 1.5, we will discuss such “for all” statements formally and in detail.) Tn the following discussion, we let P(x) denote x > Oand O(a} denote x? = 0. That proposition (1.3.3) is tue means that ne matter whieh real number we replace x with, the proposition if Pe) thea Q¢x) 3a) that sesutis is true. For example, f= 3, chen (3) and Q(3) sre both true (3 > and 3 > 0 are both true), and, hy Detinition 1.3.3, (I-34) i true. Now let ux consider the ‘situation when P(x) icfalee, Ix = —2, then P{ —2) is False(—2 >is false) and @{—2) is ruc [(—2)" > Ois true]. In order for peoposition (1.3.4) ta be true in this case, we must define p — 4 tw be tc when pis false and q is tue. This is exactly what accurs in the thied line ofthe ruth table of Definition 1.3.3. If =0, then P(O) and (209 ane bo false (> 0 und 0? >0 are both false}. In order for proposition {1.3.4 to be truc in this cease, we must define pp — 4 tobetruc when both p and g ate false. This is exactly what , the oo ‘operatne — is evaluated last. For example, pyq-or in interpreted as (ry gh > (0). Assuming that p is tm, q is false, and r is true, find the truth value-of each proposition, () pagar th) pg ar pagan Gd) poe tg rd (a) Werirst evaluate p.A g because — is evaluated last. Since p is ruc and g is false, (pqs false, Therefore, py =» r is true (regardless of whether ¢ is true oF false) (b} We First evaluate 7, Since + is truc, ar is false, We next evaluate pv g. Since pistruc and q is false, pV q is true. Theretiore, pv gq —» ar is false. Weg is false, g > ris true (regardless of whether is true oF Tae). Since p isteue, pos tg + r) is true, ince q is false. q —r Fis tee (rogusdless of whether + is rue o¢ false). Thus, f(g + e)is tine (regardless of wikether pis tras oF False) « re) (a A conditional proposition that is truc because the hypothesis is false is suid to be true by defaull or vacuausly true, Forexample, if the proposition, Ifthe Mathematics Department gets un additional $60,000, then it will hire one new facully member, is true because the Mathematics Department id not get an additional $60,000, we woukel ‘say thal the proposition is true hy default or that it is vacuously true. ‘Some statements not of the form (1.3.2) may be rephrased as condi Hoos, as the neXt example illustrates. ‘Restate cach proposition in the form 41.3.2) of « conditional proposition, (a) Mary will be 2 good student if she studies bard (b} John takes calculus oaly if he bus sophomore, junior, ae senior standing. (c) When you sing, my ears burt (a) A necessary condition for the Cubs to win the World Serics is that they sign a right-handed relief piteber, (€} A suificient condition far Maria to vi cape that she goes to the Eifel ower righted material24 chapter 1 @ Sets and Logic (a) The hypothesis is the clause following if; thus an equivalent formulation is It Mary studies hard, then she will be a good student. (h) ‘The statement means that in order far John i take calculus, he must have soph more, junior, or sentiat stating. In particular, if bes a freshman, he may wor tke calculus. Thus, we ean conchae that if he takes calculs, then he has saphomore, Jjuniar, oF senior standing. Therefore an equivalent farmulation is Wt Joha takes ealeulus, then he has saphamore, junior, or senior standing. Natice that 11 Jota his sophomore, jor, ar Senior standing. then he takes caleuls, is nor.an equivalent faemolation, bf Folia has sophomore, junioe of sear standing, he may o miay not ake calculus. (Alshoogh eligible to take calculus, he may have decided not to.) The “if p then g” formulation emphasizes the hypothesis, whercas the “p only if q” formulation emphasizes the conclusion; the difference is only stylistic. (©) When means the same as if Hhus an equivalent Foerulation is Ieyou sing, them my ears hunt, (ud) A necessary condition is just that: x condition that is necessary for a particular outeome 1 be achieved. The: condition does mot gusnintee the autearie: bul. if the condition does ne bole, the: outcome will not be achieved, Mere, the given ‘talément ress tht if the Cubs win the Woeld Series, we eam be sure thal they Signed right-handed relief piteber since, without such a signing, they would not have Woo the World Series. Thus. an equivalent formulation of the given statement is Whe Cubs win the World Series, then they signed 3 rig pitcher. ‘The conclusion expresses a nevesssry condition, ‘Notice that the Cubs sign a right-handed relief pitcher, then they win the Workd Series, is nor an equivalent formulation, Signing a right-handed relief pitcher does not ‘Euarantee a World Series wiv, However, aor signing a right-handed relief pitcher ‘Euarantees that they will not win the World Series, (©) Similerly, «sufficient condition js 9 condition that.ssfices to guarantee » partic vlar outcome, I¥'the condition does nie hold, tke outcome might be aclieved in other ways or i might not be achieved at all: but ifthe condition does hold, the outcome is guaranteed. Here, to be sure tha! Maria visits France, it suffices forhes to govt the Biflel Tower. (There are surely other waycte ensure that Maria visits France; for example, she could go ta Lyon.) Thus, an equivalent formulation of the given statement ic IW Maria goes to the Eiffel Tower, then she visits France. ‘The hypothesis expresses a sufficieat condition ‘Notice that If Maria visits France, then she gows tothe Eifel Tosver, isnot an equivalent formulation. As we have already noted, there are ways other than going to the Estfel Tawer to ensure that Maria visits France. 4 Copyrigh' naterial [-haauled celiet1.3. © Conditional Propositions and Logical Equivalence 25, Example 1.3.4 shows that the proposition p —» q canbe truc while the proposition 4 pris false, We call the proposition q — p the converse of the proposition p> ¢. ‘Thus a conditional proposition can he true while its converse is false. ‘Write the conditional praposition, Ir Jerry receives a scholarship, taen he I go tocollege, and its converse symbolically and in words. Also, assuming that Jerry does not receive a scholarship, but wins the lotiery and goes to college anyway, find the truth value of the ‘original proposition and its converse. Let p Jerry receives a scholarchip, q: leny goss to-college. ‘The given propasition can be written symbolically as p > ¢- Since the hypothesis pis false, the conditional proposition is true. The comerse of the proposition is Ar Jerry goes tw college, then he receives » scholarship, ‘The converse can he wrtica symbolically as q — p. Since the hypothesis is true and the conclusion p is fale, the covers is False. 4 Anether useful proposition is pifondonly it, whic is considered to be rue precisely when p azul g have the same truth valves (Le. pa ane bh rae pn ae Bost fils, tp ad ane prapusitions, the proposition prifand onty i g is called @ dicancfitienal prreypensiticat and bs denoted pow ‘The truth value of the proposition p<» g is defined by the follwing truth table: * peg T nasa aaas FE FE T 1 js ditional in mathematical definitions to use “if” « mean *F and only Consider, fue example, the definition of xet equality: If sete N and V have the same elements, then X and ¥ are equal, The meaning of this definition is that sets X and ¥ Ihave the wame elements and oofy if X and ¥ are equal. ‘An altcenative way to sate "p if und only iq” is “p ix a necessary snd suficient ‘condition for.” The proposition “pif and only ify" is sometimes written *p iff.” aterial26 Chapter 1 © Sets and L ert Ree) ‘The propas 1 « 5if'and only if < 8 135) can be written symbolically as pag if we define prlsS gidek Since hoth pe and are ime, the proposition p++ «is true. 4 An altemutive way to state (1.3.5) is: A necessary and sufficient condition for |< Sista? = & In some cases, nwo different propositions have the same truth values no mat ‘what truth values their constituent propositions have. Such propositions are ssid wo be logically equivalent, fon 1.3.10 ® | Suppose thatthe propositions P and (ase anade up-of the propositions ja... yay. We Say that P and Q ace logically equivalent and write rao, provided that, given any inh wwlues of j,..45 pas either P ant Gane bath trae, we P and Q are hott false, < Se) De Morgan's Law: Logic We will verify the first of De Mangan’ laws MPV QEnpimgy, pag enpy—y, and leave the second as an exercise (see Exercise 76). By writing the truth tables for # = —iprv gy and (= =p aq, we cun verify that, piven any uth values of pand q, either P and Q ne both true or P and ane bath false eee) TT F F Tr F F etl PF F T 1 “Thus P and @ are logically equivalent “ Example Show that, in Java, the expressions x10 I] x > 20 andee ee ee Example 1 Eas » 1.3. © Conditional Propositions and Logical Equivalence 27 Awe let p denote the expression x >= 10 und g denote the expression x <= 20, the expression (x >= 10 kik x <= 20) becomes =p q). By De Morgan's second Inw, (jx qh isequivalent to =p'g, Since >prtranslales.asx € 10und—g translates as x > 20, sp V—q translates us x ¢ 10 1] x > 20, Therefore, the expressions x < 10 I] x > Q0and (x >= 10 Bk x <= 20) are equivalent a ‘Our mest example gives logically equi ent form of the negation of p—* gs ‘Show that the negation of p —+ q is logically equivalent to py ‘We must show that Ap gs pane. By writing the truth tables for P= sip —> g) and @ = p.0=g, we san verify that, given any truth values off p and q, either P and @ are both tree or F and Q are both pg | poae TT) F& F ver| 1 pT] PF FP FF F F ‘Thus P and Q are logically equivalent, 4 “Use the logical equivalence af [p> gb und p A —y (sce Example 1.3.13) to write the negation of I Jemny receives a scholarshi he goes to college, symbolically and in words, We let pe leny receives a scholarship, 9: Ferry goes to college. ven proposition can be written symbolivully us + . Its negation is legieally lent op 4 —q. In words, this last expnession is. 8 a scholars! Jemy re and he does not go to college. 4 ‘We now show that, according to our definitions, p ++ ¢ is logically equivalent to Pp qand g = p. In words, prifand only if g is logically equivalent to it p then g and if q then p. ‘The truth table shows that pega aig pl aterialChapter 1 Sets and Logie Poti wea pe ap (np ainig ph vt)? T T T TR OF F T F RFT OF T F F FORT T T T a Consider again the definition of setequality:lfseis X-and F have the same elements, then X and J are equal, We noted that the meaning of this definition is that sets X and ¥ have the same elements ifand only if X and ¥ are equal. Example 1.3.15 shows that an equivalent formalatinn is: If sets ¥ and ¥ have the same elements, then X and Y are equal, and if X and ¥ are-equal, then X and ¥ have the sume elements. ‘We conclude this section by defining she comtrapasitive of « conditional praposi- tion. We will see {ia Theocem 1.3.18) that the contrapositive is an altemative, logically equivalent form of the conditional proposition. Exercise T7 gives another logically equiv= alent form of the conditional proposition. Definition 1.3.16 > | The cantapasitive (or ransparition} af the conditional proposition pt —> 4 isthe prope sition q+ =p. 4 Notice the difference between the contrapesitive and the converse. Theconverse of conditional proposition merely reversesthe roles of p andy, whereas the contrapositive reverses the roles of p and g and negates each of them. If the network is down, then Dale cannot access the Internet, symbolically. Write the contrapositive and the converse symbolically and in words. Also, assuming thal dhe network is nat down and Dale can access the Intemes, find the truth value of the-original proposition, its contrapasitive, and its converse, Let p: The network is down, 4g) Dale cannot access the Internet. ‘The given propasition can be written symbol false, the conditional peopesition ic ime. ‘The contrapositive can be weitten symbolically as —y —+ “yp aad, ia words, If Dale ean access the Intemnet, then the network is not down. lly ws» > g. Since the ypouhesis pis Since the hypothesis +y and conclusion +p are both tue, the contrapasitive is true. (Theorem 1.3.18 will show that the conditional peopesition and its contrapositive are logically equivalent, that is, that they always have the same truth value.) ‘The converse of the given proposition can be written symbolically as q > j* anc, in words, FD camnot secess the Internet, them the network is shown. Since the hypothesis g is false, the converse is ue, « ‘An ievportant fact Js that « conditional proposition and its contrapesitive are logically equivalent, aterial‘Theorem 1.3.1 1.3. © Conditional Propositions and Logical Equivalence = 29 Jn ondinary language, “if” is often used 19 mean “if and only if." Consider the statement you fix my computer, then Fl pay you $30. ‘The intended meaning is you fix my computer. then I'M pay you $50, and if you do not fix ray computer, then L will not pay you $50, lngically equivalent to (soe Theorems 1.3.18} Ityou fix my computer, then FM pay you $80, and fT pay you $80, then you fix my computer, ‘whieh, in rum, is logically equivalent we (see Example 1.313), ‘Yor fis my computer if and only if pay you $30, ‘Inordinary discourse, the intended mening of statements involving logical aperstors ean ‘often (but, not always!) be inferred. However, in mathematics and science, precision is requited, Only by carefully defining what we mean by terms such as “if” und “if and only. if” can we obwain unambiguous and precise statements, In particular, logic eanefully dis ‘inguishes among conditional, biconditional, sonverse, and contrupositive propositions. ‘In formal logic, “if” and *i'and only if” are quite different, The conditional proposition (p+ @ (itp then g) is tue except when pis true and q is false. On the other hund, the biconditional proposition p ++ g (pif and onl true precisely when p and ¢ are both true or both False, ‘Todetermine whether propositions P and @, made up of the propasitions 21, .... ‘Pav ate logically equivalent, write the rath tables for P and Q. IF all ofthe entries for P and Q are always both true or bth false, shen P and Q are equivalent. If some entry is seve for one of Por Q aad false forthe ether, then P and Q are nor equivalent, ‘De Morgan's laws for logie SUV Ep Ang AQ Epy -zive formulas For negating “or” (+) and negating “and! (4), Roughly speaking, megaling, “or” results in “and,” and negating “and” results in “os.” Example 1.3.13 slates x very important equivalence Apo gis pany, : Copyrighted material30 Chapter 1 © Sets and Logic which we will mect throughout this book. This equivalence shows thal the negation of the conditional proposition can be written using the “and” (4)operatos. Notice that there is no conditional operator on the right-hand side of the equation, Section Review Exercises What is conditional proposition Hw Es it lenoted? 2 Give the truth able forthe conditional prapesitian. In.a conditional proposition. wht is the hypothesis? Ina conitional proposition, what i the conclusiaa? ‘What is unecessary condition? ‘What is sufficient carlton?” Gees dn Exercises 1-0 resware enh prypasition inthe form (13.2 hae. contin pepsin, 1 Aosy will passthediserete matbe matics exam ihe studies hard, 2 Rosa may grodusie-if she bas. 1641 quurtes-hours af credits, 3. A necessary condition for Femands to buy a computer isthat he abesin $3000, 4. sufficient condition for Katrinatetake the algorithms course is that she pas discrete mathematics 3. Getting: that job requires Knawing someone who knoves the boss (6. Youcan got the Super Bowlusless youcas't afford the ticket, 1. You may inspect the aircraft only if you have the proper secs sity clearance, ‘% When beer ears are bunt, Buick wall build wbem, 9. The avaience will go wo sleep if tbe chairperson gives the lecture 10. The program is readable only if tis well strucsured. | Write the converse of each proposition in Exercises 1-10, 12, Write the connrapasitive of each proposition inExercises 10, Assuring Hoty adr are false and thar q ands are ere, fine he ‘ats ele of eack proposition in Exencies 13-20 Hsp mw Kapaa 1 woe IS sips g) pagar 1. G+ RA ALR + OAS) BW (lp Aa) by rh ise) Wp igon) Exercises 20-30 refer to the propositions p,q. nde: pas tre, 4 fase, ana r'y status fx unkown at ti time, Tell whether exh proposition Fe.one, Fe fate. oF hax watonn status a this the. 2 par BW pae 1. What 6 the amverse of p> What lowoaiiansl proposition? How is it denoeed? 2, Give the truth table foe tbe Bicoodtional propesition 10, Wht does it cum Foe to be Iogically emuivslest wo QF LL, State De Margus’s laws far logic. 12, What isthe comtmapositive af p> g? gar De tpanee Brop Bh (pvr) eee Mog srl Beseravon the rath value af cack paspasttion in Exercsves 31-39 31 W348 <2,men +3 2 W343 <2 4824, BLW345> %then lL b3 BL DSS > Botham + 34 AS 445 1Wandomlyit] + 1=4 36. 345 <2ifandonlyif] + 3=4 37 S452 Qifandomlyitl +344 [3M M the ean has six macs, den |< 3 39, 11 = 3 then the earth has six moons Jn Exercises 40-43. represent the aivea proposition mbolically by letting Ter: pda g bea 40, 14 2 then 7 « 10, ALL (4 < Pond 6 6), then 7 10, {10% is no Use ease that 4 6 amd 7 8 mo Tess tha 10), then Bb 43. 7 IM ifand ooly Uf (4 = 2 aa 6 is not Less 6 In Exercises 44-#9, represent the ghven propasnion somsbolically by tering p+ Yow 10 fap das 15 Hine are healthy, 1 Rau nike nalts, 44. Ur you rn 10 laps daly, Chen yo will Be best. 45, 1 you do not rus 10-1aps daily oF do nm. take mul-vatamins then you will na be bealthy46, Taking owltivitamins is sufficbent For being healthy. 4, Youu will be Realy Uf ai oaly Hf you aan 10 Laps daily and take olivia, ARIF you are healthy. then you mun 10 laps dally ce you take ‘wli-vitarains, 49, Hf you ane ealthy and rue £0 Japs ity, dem you dhe 9 wake suli-vitarains Ia Eerctues 50-55, formutate the yabatiec expression in words sing p> Peay Mado, a: dis raining, 1 Irion poy Sh ys tes pl 82 7p ervey Bevan BA Cp ndg ri) ev tp PD) 85. (A VINP ATI > pee @)) In Evercties 56-30, write eawh comdtonal proposition symbol cally, Write rhe Comverse and comirapaitve of each proposition ‘boca anal fa words, Asa id the drat value of eae co -dvionol propesivo, is converse, wad kis canmropositive, $6 We then > FST. IPL 6. thom 12, SH [| 23-3512 SB Ml ca ede For ach pair of propwccinns P ana! Qin Exereives 60-69, rune velar avait Pe Qe Pene=pve Papa Qanee Papal vA Qe pv lg nme Pa pager @=ipvarnteyn Papo Gay op Papo apeg Pecpaainig ah O=por Pipa gn = pogo Ps Pe UP 5D = BN OL P=poe Garang PUSGLaSS 1.4 © Arguments and Rules of Inference 341 Using fhe Merges laws for logic, write he negation af each props the it Bene ises 70-73. 70, Pur will use the redonl ik weighs, ‘71. Dale ts smart and tray. “7, Shirley will either tae the bas oF cateh a ride ta Sebo. "7%, Red pepper and onions ae required to ake ci, Exercives 74 ond 25 provide futher movivarian for dln p —> 4 to he trae when p(s Yalse, Werosider changin the tute able for Pm phen p isflve, Fore free olaomge, we eal he resulng ‘eperaior imp (Exercise 74), anc, For the second chamge, we call the resulting operaior imp? (Rcercise 75%, tn Bath eases. we see shat peuholoie ara "74, Define the trth table foe fap by ea | pimpta tt] tr trl F et] F eri] ot Piap2a aoas wand sass fa) Show that Cp irmp2g) 6 (g io? ph st poe g by Shay (hat €1.3.6) cemains trve if we change the third wow ‘of smp's ttt be to FTP, "76. Verify the scoond of Die Morgan's laws i pg) = ap v9. 77, Show tha (7+ gh = (BY gh. 38 1.4 + Arguments and Rules of Inference ‘Consider the following sequence of propesitions. ‘The bug is either in module 17 or ia mele 81, ‘The bug is a numerical error, ‘Modole 81 has 00 numerical era, ay Assuming that Hise statements are tue, i is reasonable to cnpelude “The bug isin rondule 17. 142) Copyrighted material320 chapter 1 @ Sets and Logie Definition 1.4.1 eed ‘This pracess of drawing a conclusion from a sequence of propositions iscalled deductive ‘reasoning, The given propositions, such as {1.4.1}, are called Inypotheses or premises, and the proposition that follows from the hypotheses, such as (1.4.2), is called the conclusion. A( deductive) argument consisisof hypotheses together with a conclusion. ‘Many proofs in mathematics and computer seience-are deductive arguments. ‘iy argue has the form HE py and py andl + and py, then. 143) Argumcat (1 4.3) is suid to be wilid if the conclusion Fallows from the hypotheses; that is if pi and py and +++ and py aretruc, then must also hetruc, Thisliscussion mativatcs the following definition. ‘An argumentis a sequence of propositions writen By Pls Prva Pa ‘The symbol .. is read “therefore” ‘The propasitions py. p2,--., py ane called the Ieypotheses (oF premises), snd dhe proposition g is called the comctusion. The anguanent is walle provided that if py and py ands and py, are all irue, then oy must also be tewe: ciherwise, the argument is bevalid (ora folacyt. 4 Ina valid argument, we sometimes say that the conclusion follews from the hy- potheses, Notice that we are oot saying that the conclusion i true: we are oaly saying that if you grant the hypotheses, you must also grant the conclusinn. An argument is valid because of its form, not hecause of iis content, Fach step of an extended argument involves drawing Intermediate conclusions. Forthe argument.as a whole to be valid, cach step ofthe argument must result in a valid, inicrmediate conclusion. Rules of inference, brict, valid arguments, are used within a Determine whether #he argument eg a © is wali, [First solution] We construct a trath table forall the propanitions invotved: rialere re calor ore TR) PF TR er} or ort a1.4 © Arguments and Rules of Inference 33 ‘We observe that whenever the hypotheses p + q ancl p are true, the conclusion 4 is also true; therefore, the argument is valid, [Second solution] "We can avoid writing the truth table by directly verifying. that ‘whenever the hypotheses are true, the conclusion is also true ‘Suppose that p — q and p arc tre. Then q must be tric, for otherwise p> g ‘would te false. Therefore, the argument is vali 4 ‘The argument in Example 1.2 is used extensively and is known as the modus Pponens rule of inference or law of detachment. Several useful rules of inference for Propositions, which may be verified using truth tables (see Exercises 24-29), are listed jm Figure 1.4.1 Rule-of Inference | Name Rule oflinference | Name poe * a Mosk ponens | pag Conjunction aod pa ~ aor oP Modus tatless | por Hypothetical» ogi vg 2 wee Aton Disjunetive 5 gin nag oe Simplification Figure 1.4.1 Rules of inference for propositions, Which mule of inference is used in the following argument? 1 the computer has one gigabyte of memory, then it can ron “Blast “em.” Ifthe ‘computer can run “Blast "em" then the sonics will Be impressive, Therefor. ifthe ‘computer as one gigabyte of memory. thea the sonics will Be impressive ‘Let p denote the proposition “the computer has-one gia of memory" ft ge note the proposition “the computer can run “Blast “em.” and ltr denote the propenition “the sonics will be impressive." The argument gan be written symbolically as pod eee por “Therefore, the argument uses the hypothetical syllogism rule of inference. 4 eee Represent the argument 1 ate my hat symbolically and determine whether the argument is valid aterial right34 Chapter 1 ® Sets and L Tewe let 4) Lave my bat, the argument may be written I the argument valid, then whenever p —> q and gf ze botls true. f+ must also be true. Suppose that p —> g and ¢ are true, This is passible if pis false anda is tus. tn this case, not tue: thus the argument is invalid, This fallacy i know a the fallacy of affirming the conclusion < We ean also determine whether the arguaweat in Example 1.4.4 is valid of not by examining the uth table of Example 14.2. In the third row of the table. the hypotheses ‘are tue and the conclusion is false: thus the argument is Ewald. Represent the argument ‘The bug is either in module 17 or in module BI The bog ia numerical envr Mode RI has mo numerical errr: The bug is in module 17- given at the beginning of this section symboligally and show that itis valid, Wve lot pe: The bug is in module 17. 4g: The bug is in module 81 r The bug is a numerical error, the argument may be written From r + ag andr, we may use medus panges to conclude 9g. Fron py q ated 4g, ‘We niay use the disjunctive syllogism te conclude yp. Thus the conclusion pr Follows frau the hypotheses and the argument is valid « We are given the following hypothesee: IF the Chargers get a good linchacker, then the (Chargers can beat the Broncos. Ifthe Chargers can beat the Broncos, then the Chargers can beat the Jets, If the Chargers can beat the Broncos, then the Chargers ean beat the Dolphins. The Chargers get a good linchucker. Show by using the rules of inference (see Figure 1.4.1) that the conclusion, the Changers can beat the Jets and the Chargers can ‘heul the Dolphins, fallows from the hypotheses.1.4 © Arguments and Rules of Inference 35 Let p denote the proposition “the Chargers get a good linebacker” let q denote the proposition "the Chargers can beat the Broncas,” let r denote the propasition "the ‘Chargers can beat the Jets,” and let § denote the proposition "the Chargers can beat the Dolphins.” Then the hypotheses are poa gor qos Frit p —> ain gy rr, We iy se the hyporherieal syogisil wo conclude pr. From p + and p. we may usé modus ponens toconclude . Fram p —> and —° 5. ‘we may use the hypothetical syllogism to conclude p+ 3. From p —+ sand p. we may uusémodus ponens to concludes. From F and swe may use conjunction ta conclude FA. Sincer ‘x represents the propasition “the Chargersean beat the Jts and the Chargers can beat the Dolphins.” we conclude that the conclusion does follow fromthe hypotheses. Problem-Solving Tips The validity of a very short argument ar proof might be w Practice, arguments and proofs use rales of inference, SSeS using a truth table, In |, What ix deductive reasoning? S. State the modus tollens mle af inference 2. What isu bypothests in an argument? 9, State the addition rule of inference |). What fe premise faa argent? 10, State the simplification rule of inference 4. What fe conclusion in an argument? 1. State the conjunction rile of inference. 5, What isa wali argument? State the hypodhetical syllogism rule of inference. 6. What isa wall argument? 1A, State the disjunctive syllopiem rule of inference 7. Sune the modus ponens rale-of inference. Formmadere the arguments of Exvectses 1-5 symabalicalty and deter mine whether ec fk valle, Let 4. IFT study hard of I get rich, then T get pet Are eal Lent study an ten Tet ih 1. Wh study ard, then H get As [sud a Wt Lasugy nard,then | get A's or pet te, don't get a's and [don't get th Hgts, Taowt study ba 2. WT stody hard, chen Ege A's, LEH doo's get ich then Idom't get A's os Eger ih 3. Lesudy hand if and only Hf Lg rch dn Exercises 6-10, write the given argument inwonts and determine whether each argument és valid, Let pF mexaiptes i beter iam a mens a a pet rich, 91 Me ll by amore memory 1 Tesuy ar 1: Mi wif beg new computer36 Chapter 1 # Sets and Logie Oo por Topairve & por poe roe ro Spotrxgy Spar na 9 aap Mopor . roe - P o Determine wheter each argament in Exercises 1-5 és vatla. pag pg TA pane aa vat aa noe 1 pon Bipogire es fon pur Sipe gore ave 16, Show that if PP ad By Poe ah are valid arguments, the argument Pls Poe Pah inalso valid. 17. Comment on the following argument: Floppy disk storage i beter thon aching. [Nesting is betes Us and disk. dive 1 Ploppy disk storage is better tn 3 hard disk dese. 15 > Quantifiers Ror cach argument bx Exeseises 18-20, reff owhich rule of inference Bese. 18, Fishing is popular sport. Therefore, hing is popelarsport fr lacrosse [8 wiklly popu in Califoraia. 19, If fishing isa popular spor, thea Laceasse is wildly popular ia California, Fishing is a popular spon, Therefore, laceasse is ‘wildly popular in California. 20, Fishing isa popular sport or Jacrosse és wildly popular ia California, Lacrosse isnot wildly popularin California, There- fore, ishing is a popolar sport. in Eeertses 21-25, give an argument wning nates of inference “show that the comctasion follows fray the kyporhesex. 2L. Hypotheses: 1fuhere isi the ca, Ubo wll Bo tothe be. 120 10 the store, then 1 will get soca, There > gus in the eat, Conelasioa: [will ger a soda 22, Hypotheses: If there is gas inthe car: Ubon [will zo tothe sone. IFT go ve the store, chee 1 will gec aso, {ao nec get a wad ‘Comelusion: There bs not gas inthe car, o€ the ear eruneaissioe i Ju suo slag o¢ Dweezle ean play, then Fl boy the campact dive, Jill can sing, UW bay the compact dive player, Conclusion: Nauy the compact iss and the compat ise per, 24. Shon that ms oles sec Figure 141) is wali 25, Shoe that abit {sce Figure (4.1) fs wach 26. Shou shat ximplification (see Figure (4.1) i wali 27. Shaw thst conunsti (sce Figure Ll vale 28, Show tat hypothetical syogis (see Figure 14.116 vali, 29 bow that disjunctive splloisen (see Figure 4.1) is valid = ‘statement ‘The logic in Sections 1.2 and 1.3 thal deals with propositions is incapable of describing, ‘mos! uf the slatements in mathematics and compuxer science. Consider, far example, Re is an odd integer, A propositionisa statementthat seithec rue or false, Thestatenweot pis pot a prapesition, because whether jis cue or false depends on dhe value of x. Ror example, p is trae iP 03 and face if m=8. Since most of the statements in mathematics and compates sclenge use variables, we uct extend the ayster of logic to include such statements. Definition 1.5.1 Let P(x} be a statement involving the variable x and let D be a set. We call Pa propositional function or predicate (with respect wo Db if for each x = D, Pix) is a Proposition, We call D the domain of discourse of P. 4 In Definition 1.5.1, the domain of discourse specifies the allowable: valves for x. Copyrighted material