REMOTE SENSING

CHAPTER —2

REMOTE SENSING

In recent decades Remote sensing technique has been used exten­

sively In many advanced countries as a successful tool to provide Informa­
tion about the existing natural resources. Remote sensing In combination
with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are being used as a complementa­
ry tool to the earth scientists ( Chagarlamudl et al 1992, Lin Xlnhang and Zuo
Hua 1992 and Manchun LI 1992). In various geological studies, this tech­
nique has proven its applicability especially In preparation of small scale
reconnaissance maps of unmapped Inaccessible areas, updating of the exist­
ing geological maps and Identification of features favorable for mineral
localization. Short and Lowman (1973) emphasized the Importance of satel­
lite imageries in capturing the structural features.In the past the LANDSAT
Imageries have been used with considerable success In various studies.
One of the first experiments carried out using Landsat-1 data was Crop
Identification Technology Assessment of Remote sensing (CITARS). The Large
Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) in major wheat growing areas of
the world, carried out during 1975-78 was a major International study.
The Landsat Images were also used to solve problems of geological nature
(Rowan 1975, Slegal and Abrams 1976, Rothery 1985). The regional geology
of approximately 10,800 km2 of terrain at the south east margin of the Arche-

an Yllgarn Block In Western Australia was studied by Spray and Burgess

(1985). Their study Identified geological features like faults, which were
previously unrecognized at ground levels. More precise lithological boundaries
were also delineated.

15
 Considering the Importance of the remote sensing technique, an attempt

has been made In the present chapter to describe the basic principles of

remote sensing and status of remote sensing in India.

In remote sensing based studies the choice of appropriate clas­

sification and methodology are the two Important criterlas to be considered.

The generation of remotely sensed data or Image by various types of sen­

sors flown abroad, different platforms at varying heights above the

terrain, and at different times do not lead to simple classification. Many

researchers believe that no single classification could be used with all

types of Imagery and scales (Nunnally, 1974). Since It Is necessary to

formulate suitable classification scheme prior to any remote sensing based

studies, the classification system adopted, methodology and image Interpreta­

tion keys developed, which aid In the image interpretation are also described

In the present chapter.

2.1 SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing can be referred to as a technique to Identify and de­

lineate various objects from a distance. Primarily this technique Is largely

concerned with the measurement of electromagnetic energy from the Sun

which Is reflected, scattered or emitted by the objects. It is well known that

the electromagnetic spectrum commonly ranges from cosmic rays to

radio waves (Figure 2.1).

16
 Frequently used range of electromagnetic wavelengths In remote

sensing are the optical wavelengths, which extend from 0.30 to 1S.0

micrometers. The Important regions are the visible (0.4 to 0.7 pm)* the re­

flected Infrared (0.7 to 3.0 pm), the thermal Infrared (3.0 to 6.0 pm and 8.0

to 14.0 pm). The Sun’s radiation covers ultraviolet, visible and radio

frequency regions and among these, maximum radiation occurs In the vis­

ible region (0.55 pm). However, the solar radiations reaching the surface

of Earth will be modified by the atmospheric effects. All bodies above

zero degrees absolute emit electromagnetic radiation at different wave­

lengths as per Plank’s Law. At the earth’s surface because of the great

distance between the sun and the earth, the energy In the 7.0 to 15

pm wavelength region is predominantly due to thermal emission of the

earth (Deekshatalu and Joseph, 1991).

2.1.1 IMAGE INTERPRETATION:-

Image Interpretation Is an art of examining Images for the purpose

of Identifying objects or surface feature and judging their significance.

The technique of image Interpretation can be divided Into 2 categories.

1. Visual Interpretation

2. Computer aided Interpretation

Generally in visual Interpretation, the standard False Color Compo­

sites (FCC) are used. These are the composites of bands 2,3 and 4. The

fundamentals of satellite Image which aid in the visual Interpretation are:

17
 1) Tone or color 2) Size 3) Shape 4) Texture 5) Pattern and associa­

tion. The tone or color depends on the reflectance or emlttence of objects as

a function of wavelengths. In other words It Is a manifestation of spectral

variation of reflectance In the visible region. The shape, size and texture of

objects lead to Identification of features and can also be termed as

spatial variations. In addition to these, temporal variations also play an Im­

portant role. When the electromagnetic radiation passes through the at­

mosphere, the radiation will be scattered and absorbed by gases and partic­

ulates. The strongest absorption occurs at wavelengths shorter than 0.3 pm,

primarily due to ozone. On the other hand, certain spectral regions of the

electromagnetic radiations pass through the atmosphere without much attenua­

tion (Figure 2.2). These are called atmospheric windows (Sabins, 1978).

The spectral reflectance of vegetation, soli, and water Is presented In

figure 2.3. Plant pigment, leaf structure and total water contents are the

three Important factors which Influence the spectrum In the visible, near

Infra Red (IR) and middle IR regions respectively. A6 vegetation becomes

stressed or senescent, chlorophyll absorption decreases and red

reflectance Increases, accompanied by decrease In Intercellular air

spaces. This results In decreased reflectance In the near IR. In the

middle IR, reflectance peak occurs at 1.6 to 2.2 urn. It has been shown

that the total Incident solar radiation absorbed in this region Is directly

proportional to the total leaf water content (Tucker, 1977). The

soil reflectance curve shows Increasing trend with the wavelength In

the visible and near Infrared regions.

18
 The parameters which Influence the soli reflectance are mois­

ture content, organic matter, Iron oxide, percentage of clay, silt and sand.

Generally, the delineation of water bodies Is very easy because water

absorbs most of the radiation In the near Infra red and middle IR region.

Turbidity In water generally leads to Increase In Its reflectance and re­

flectance peak shifts towards larger wavelengths (Deekshatulu and Joseph,

1991).

2.2 STATUS OF REMOTE SENSING IN INDIA

After firmly convinced about the potential of space remote sensing for

achieving rapid development, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO),

Department of Space (DOS) Initiated efforts with aerial survey In the

late 60’s. With the establishment of the LANDSAT receiving station at

National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad In 1979, Indian scien­

tists got an opportunity to use satellite based remotely sensed data. The

first Indian experimental satellite for remote sensing designed and devel­

oped by DOS was Bhaskar - I, launched In 1979.

The second satellite Bhaskar - II was launched In 1981. They were

placed at an altitude of 525 Kms with circular orbiting characteristics,

carrying sensors composed of 2 television cameras and 3 microwave radiome­

ters. The Rohlnl series satellites were launched during 1981 and 1983.

The experience gained with the launching of these satellites gave con­

fidence to design and develop Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS).

The successful launch of IRS 1A In 1988 and recently IRS 1B, the

operational availability of these data and other contemporary satellites

19
viz Landsat, SPOT etc. widened the scope of various scientific studies and

resource surveys.
The component of IRS system Is a 3 axis stabilised polar sun-syn­

chronous space craft with multi spectral sensors. There are two push

broom cameras LISS-1 of 72.5 meter resolution and LISS -II of 36.25 meter

resolution. Each camera system Images In four spectral bands In the visible

and near IR region (0.45 - 0.86 micrometer). The ground swath width for

the image obtained by the LISS-I camera Is 148.48 Kms, where as the LISS-II

camera Images adjacent swaths of 74.24 Km width, each with an overlap of

1.5 Kms. The French satellite (SPOT) data Is also available In India.

The SPOT " LA Probatolre De Observation De La Terra " Is designed

to carry High Resolution Visible (HYV) cameras which use charge couple device

(CCD) array as a sensing element and collect data on continuous basis every

26 days. Each of these cameras can operate either In multi spectral or panch­

romatic mode. The data in multi spectral mode are collected In three

spectral bands namely, 0.5 to 0.59 urn, 0.61 to 0.69 urn and 0.79 to 0.90 urn

with a ground resolution of 20 meters. The data on panchromatic mode are

collected In black and white In the spectral range of 0.51 to 0.73 urn with a

ground resolution of 10 meters. The swath width of the camera Is 60 km.

The data gathered from all such satellites will be telemetered to the

earth. The signals are recorded at the ground receiving stations capable of

accepting the very rapid data flow generated by the satellite sensors. Once

the signals have been recorded on a magnetic tape, they can be recorded In

a computer compatible format for further use.

The spectral definitions and details of these satellites and spectral defini­

tion and utility of spectral bands In the remote sensing satellites are pre-

20
sented In Tables 2.1 and 2.2 respectively. From these tables It Is evident that

all the satellites provide multi spectral, multi spatial and multi temporal

data from high platform covering areas In one scene. Hence the

satellite data have been and are being used In various scientific studies.

Using LANDSAT Imageries of Karnataka Srlnlvasan and Sreenvas (1977)

described new geological structures, mineral locations, ground water occur­

rence and engineering conditions. The study on soil mapping using remote

sensing techniques by Karale et al (1983) reveals that remotely sensed data

offer great accuracy, economy and efficiency than the conventional methods at

reconnaissance level of mapping. This technique has also proved its appli­

cability in various studies like, Forest mapping, Soil erosion assessment and

Mapping of urban land use and monitoring changes of Metropolitan areas

(Sharma 1980).

Recently, " Ground water targeting" by Baldev Sahal et.all (1991), "Waste

land mapping” by Rao et.al 1991, "Coastal and marine resources" by Desai et.al

(1991), " Geology and mineral resources" by Bhan (1991) and " In­

frastructures In India for analysis of Remotely sensed data" by Radhak-

rlshna (1991) have appeared In the special publication of the Journal of

Current Science.

After setting up the state level Remote Sensing Centers In Karnataka,

studies on "Crop Acreage and Production Estimation" by Ranganath et.al,

(1991), "Agriculture drought monitoring" by Basappa Reddy and Chari

(1991), "Hydro geo-morphological mapping of Bangalore City" by Llngara-

Ju (1991), "Characterisation of water sheds ’* by Prabhakar et al

(.1991), "Application of Remote sensing techniques In detection of morpho­

logical changes" by Bannur et al (1991) were successfully attempted. A

21
very detailed study on Gujarat coast using remote sensing data were

attempted by Nayak et al ( 1984 and 1988). It Is observed that the studies

related to coastal environment are very few.

In general, remote sensing Is a technique of Identifying the earth’s

features by detecting reflection, emission or scattering of the electro

magnetic radiation which ranges from ultraviolet to Infra red micro waves.

The standard FCC can be used for various applications. The Important

Image characteristics which help In identifying the various features

are tone, size, shape, texture, pattern and the association. Since the satel­

lite data provides multi spectral, spatial, temporal synoptic view, they

have been used In various scientific studies. With setting up of the state

remote sensing centers, the utility of satellite data has Increased. The

various studies listed In the present chapter clearly demonstrate that

this technology can be used as the most efficient tool to study Geology,

Geomorpholoy, Forestry, Agriculture etc.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION:

Classification Is a process of Identifying and grouping of objects or

features resolved by analysis. It arranges features of recurrence In the same

class or group to which the feature belongs. In developing classification

systems for remote sensing based studies, different levels In various catego­

ries, accuracy, repeatability, applicability, suitability and flexibility are

Important factors. Earlier the most successful attempt In developing a

general purpose classification scheme compatible with remote sensing data

has been described by Anderson et al (1972). The four levels classification

was discussed by Rao et al (1991), providing a frame work to satisfy the

needs of a majority of users. He stated that the minimum interpretation

22
accuracy and reliability In the Identification of land use / land cover catego­

ries from satellite data should be at least 85 to 95 percent. In order to

generate Information on wet lands on a regional level, a classification system

upto LEVEL-III categories was given by SAC Ahmedabad (1991).

In the present study, considering the scale and resolution of the data

and the suitability of different categories which are present In the study

area, the classification given below is used for Land use / Land Cover

mapping and mapping of various Geomorphologlcal features along the

coastal plain of Uttara kannada district.

2.3.1 CLASSIFICATION FOR MAPPING OF GEOMORPHIC FEATURES

1 I
c
1 NON !BEACH RIDGES / STRAND LINES 1
1 1 1
1 W 1 I
1 1
0
1 E 1 1
1 i 1
1 T 1
1
A 1 J LATERITIC HILLOCKS / INSELBERGS |
1 1 1
1 L » 1
1 1 1
S 1 A 1 1
1 1
1 N ICLIFFS 1
1 1 1
T 1 D 1 1
( 1 *
1 S 1
1 1
A 1 JOFF SHORE ISLANDS 1
1 1
1
1 '{SAND.................................... . *
L 1 W Beach |
1 9 1.2
1 E 9 Spit / Bare |
9 9
» T 1 1.3 Shoals |
1 1
t I 1.4 Islands |
1 9 1
P 1 L 1 1
1
1 A |MUD / TIDAL FLATS 1
9 1
L 1 N 1
1 1 91
1 D 9
1 19 1
A 1 S 9 1
1 9 .. ........ .. .................................. . .. ... .. ............................ . 1
1 9 ............ .......... .......... .... 1
1 1
I « 0 91 1
t t
1 T !WATER BODIES................... Bay |
1 9
N 1 H 9 7.2 Estuary |
1 9
1 E 9 7.3 Creek |
1
1 R 1
9 7.4 Lagoon / i
1 9
• S 9 Back water |
t

23
2.3.2 CLASSIFICATION FOR LAND USE/LAND COVER HAPPING:

1. SETTLEMENTS / BUILT UP AREAS

C
2. AGRICULTURE ......................... 2.1 Crop lands
o 2.2 Agricultural plantations
A
S
T 3. FOREST......................................... 3.1 Forest cover
A 3.2 Forest plantations
L
4. WET LANDS................................. 4.1 Mud / tidal flats
4.2 Sand / Beach *
P 4.3 Salt pans
L 4.4 Aqua culture ponds
A 4.6 Mangroves
I
N 5. OTHER FEATURES................ 6.1 Barren lands
5.2 Water bodies
5.3 River or streams

* Note: The "Sand or Beach " can also be included under

waste land category.

2.4 METHODOLOGY:

The maps showing the distribution of land use/ land cover and

various geomorphlc features were prepared by visual Interpretation,

using transparencies of IRS 1A, LISS II data of 1988 and SPOT data of 1989.

Initially the base maps were prepared using Survey of India Toposheets

(1:50,000 Scale). The transparencies were enlarged to 1:50,000 scale using

high magnification enlarger, PROCOM - II. Procom II is an optical enlarger

which enables the user to enlarge and scan one set of data to the required

scale. It Is made up of projector, data carrier, zoom lens, beam deflector

and working surface. The transparencies of data were Inserted In the

data carrier and the base map on the working surface. Then the image was

24
projected and registered to the scale of map. The existing classes based on

the Image Interpretation keys were Identified and demarcated on the

tracing film. The doubtful areas were listed for ground truth verifications.

After collecting ground truth data for doubtful areas, the necessary

corrections and adjustments were made on the preliminary maps. Using

Geographical Information System called Geo Referenced Area Management

System (GRAM), the land use / land cover maps were digitized for analysis

and as part of baseline data base.

Though both Geomorphologlcal and Land use / Land cover maps were

prepared on 1:50,000 Scale, for reason of convenience, they are further re­

duced using Optical Pantograph and are presented In chapter 3.

2.5 IMAGE INTERPRETATION KEYS:

The Image Interpretation keys were developed based on the various

literature survey cited In the present work and are updated after famillri-

satlon with the Image Interpretation and ground truth verifications.

SAND: Tone : White

Shape: Linear /crescentic

BEACH Texture: Smooth.

Location: Along the land and

sea water boundary

Association: Coast

Beach is made up of sand particles,

broken molluscan shells and can be

25
 grouped under non vegetated wetland
category. If the moisture content
is more, the tone will be bluish
green.

Tone: White

Shape: Linear or curved

SPITS/ Texture: Smooth
BARS
Location: River Mouths

Associati : Marshy lands

Tone: White

Shape: Irregular and small

Texture: Smooth

SHOALS Location: Offshore, along the

estuary and within
backwaters or lagoons.

If the shoals are inundated by

water the tone will be bluish. Some
times they are covered by thin
layer of clay exhibiting brownish
tone. If these are stabilised by
vegetation, they can be grouped
under the category "ISLANDS"

MUD / TIDAL FLATS Tone : Brown or Black

Shape: Irregular

Texture: Smooth
Location: Along the coastal

26
 plain, which directly comes under
the influence of tidal action.

Association: Clay or silty

The tone depends on location and

type also. For example,if it is
within the intertidal slopes, dark
brown to grayish black tone exists
and if it is covered by some vege­
tation the tone will be brown
with red tinge and rough texture.

STRAND LINES / BEACH RIDGES

Tone: Red / Cherry red

Shape: Linear

T extu re: Smooth

Location: Well behind backshore,

running parallel to
the shore line.

Association: Agriculture lands

If beach ridges are covered with

Causrina Plantations the tone will
be cherry red.

LATERITIC HILLOCKS / INCELBERGS

Tone: Dark bluish or blue

Shape: Irregular, Isolated

Texture: Smooth

Location: Along the coastal plain

Association: Agriculture lands

27
CLIFFS:
T one : Bluish green and Black

Shape: Varying

Texture: Smooth to medium

Location: Along the coast

Association:: Pocket beaches.

OFFSHORE ISLANDS
Tone: Light blue

Shape: Oval / round

Texture: Smooth to medium de­

pending upon vegeta­
tion cover.

Location: Offshore / near the

shore.

Association:: Barren rocky surround­

ed by vegetation

If the Islands are covered with

vegetation the tone will be red
with smooth texture.

WATER BODIE8:

Tone : Dark blue to light blue

Shape: Semicircular

Texture: Medium to smooth

BAYS Location: Along the coastal plain

Association:Islands, shoals, with

small mud banks

Tone: Dark blue

Shape: Funnel

ESTUARY Texture: Smooth

28
 Location: Connected with the sea
along a shore line.
Association :Islands, shoals and
mud flats

Tone : Blue

Shape: Linear to curvilinear

CREEK Texture: Smooth.

Location: Parallel or transverse

to the shore

Association: Shoals and small mud

banks.

Tone: Deep blue

Shape: Oval or elongated

LAGOON Texture: Smooth

Location: Along the coastal

plain which directly
comes under the in­
fluence of tidal ac­
tion.

Association;; Shoals and small

mud flats with or
without vegetation.
Generally, it is found
near or parallel to
the coast separated
from the sea by bar or
barrier

SETTLEMENTS / BUILT UP LANDS:

Tone : Dark bluish green in

the core and bluish on
the periphery.

Shape: Varying
Texture: Coarse and mottled.

Location: Along the coastal

plain

29
 Association: Surrounded by forest
cover, Agriculture,
lands, net work of
roads, river and rails
etc.

AGRICULTURE:
Tone: Bright red to red

Shape: Regular to Irregular

CROP LANDS Texture: Medium to smooth

Location: Along the coastal

plain.
Association: Proximity to
river/streams

If the crop is not present in the

agriculture land, then the tone
will be white.

Tone: Red

Shape: Regular

AGRICULTURE Texture: Medium

PLANTATIONS
Location: Amidst agricultural
lands along coastal
plain
Associati on: Crop lands, near the
built up areas.

FOREST:
Tone: Bright red to dark red

Shape: Irregular, discontinuous

FOREST Texture: Smooth to medium de­

COVER pending upon crown
density
Location: Light relief / slopes
of the hillocks along
coastal plain

30
 Tone Red to cherry red

Shape: Varying, general 1y

regular
Texture: Smooth.
FOREST
PLANTATIONS : Location: Along the coastal
plain, slopes of the
mountains or hillocks
Association: Scrubs

SALT PANS:
Tone: Pale blue with small
white patches

Shape: Rectangular blocks

Texture: Smooth

Location: Within the area that

will be drained by
tidal water.

Association: Marshy areas.

During harvesting time it exhibit

very bright tone.

AQUA CULTURE PONDS:

Tone : Blue

Shape: Regular

Texture: Smooth

Location: Along back water

Association:

MANGROVES Tone : Red to maroon

Shape : Irregular

Texture : Rough

Location : Along the streams

river or within mud
f lats

31
 t

BARREN LANDS:
Tone: Dark bluish or bluish

Shape Irregular

Texture: Coarse-medium

Location: On hill tops and

slopes of the hillocks
Association: Surrounded by vegeta­
tion

Settlements are the man made constructions covering land as residential

areas, industrial areas, commercial complexes etc. Their shapes, associations

and multi spectral responses differentiate them from other classes.

Agriculture lands comprise areas primarily used for agricultural

purposes. Two classes namely, crop lands and agricultural plantations are

Included In this category. The term forest refers to " all lands bearing

vegetative association dominated by trees of any size, exploited or not cap­

able of producing wood or other forest products and extending an in­

fluence on climatic or water regimes or producing shelter for wild life and

live stock " (Tao, 1981). In the present study the classification Include two

categories (I) forest cover and (II) forest plantations. Forest cover refers

to the areas which are notified as forest with minimum of about 10% of

crown density and the areas which are artificially planted with trees

either In open space or by queering already existing forest of economical­

ly Inferior species are Included In forest plantations.

32
Table 2.1 Spectral definations and relvent details of Reeote sensing satellites

Multi spectral Thematic HRV Linear imaging

Scanner Mapper Scanning Sensor
LANDSAT 1,2,3) (LANDSAT-4,5) (SPOT) (IRS)

ORGANISATION NASA (USA) NASA (USA) CNES(FRANCE) DOS(INDIA)

LAUNCH DATE 1972,75 & 78 1982,84 1986 1987

0.5 - 0.6 pm 0.45 - 0.52 pm Multi spectral 0.45 - 0.52 pm

0.6 - 0.7 pm 0.53 - 0.61 pm 0,50 - 0.59 pm 0.52 - 0.59 pm
SPECTRAL 0.7 - 0.8 pm 0.62 - 0.69 pm 0.61 - 0.68 pm 0.62 - 0.68 pm
BANDS 0.8 - 1.1 pm 0.78 - 0.91 pm 0.79 - 0.89 pm 0.77 - 0.86 pm
LANDSAT -3 only 1.55 - 1.78 pm or Panchromatic
10.4 - 12.6 pm 10.42 -11.66 pm 0.51 - .73 pm

LINEAR 80 M 30 M 20 M 73 M
RESOLUTION 240 M 120 M Multi spectral LISS-I
Thermal Thermal 10 M 36.5 M
(Infrared) (Infrared) Panchromatic LISS-II

ORBIT REPEAT 18 Days 16 Days 26 Days (5 Days 22 Days

PERIOD revisit capability)

MEAN ALTITUDE 919 Km 705 Km 835 Km 909 Km

SWATH WIDTH
(NADIR) 185 Km 185 Km 2*60 Km 148 Km LISS-I
Pointable across 2*74 Km LISS-II
(± 400 Km)

EQUATORIAL 9 H 30 9 H 30 10 H 30 10 H
CROSSING TIME

SOURCE: IRS-DATA USERS HAND BOOK

TABLE 2.2 Spectral definition and Utility of Spectral bands 1n the remote sensing satellites.

LANDSAT MSS THEMATIC MAPPER IRS

Spectral Spectral Spectral Utility

Band Region Utility Band Region UTILITY Band Region

4 0.5-0.6pm Useful in delineating 1 0.45-0.52pm Bathymetry in less turbid 1 0.45-0.52pm Shallow water-
areas of shallow water waters, soi1vegetation mapping, so i 1/
such as shoals, reefs differences deciduous/coni­ vegetation
etc. deternination of ferous differentiation soil differentia-
turbidity in water. type discrimination. tion forest
species diffe­
rentiation,
geological
applications

5 0.6-0.7pm Useful for defining 2 0.53-0.61pm to measure visible green 2 0.52-0.55pm green reflec­
cultural and topographic reflectance peak of vege­ tance of heal­
features. tation for vigour assessment thy vegetation,

6 0.7-0.8pm emphasises vegetation 3 0.62-0.69pm chlorophyll absorption 3 0.62-0.68(j>i Chlorophyll

boundary between land band important for vege­ absorption for
and water 4 landforms tation discrimination. plant speciet-
differentiation,

7 0.8-1.1pm provides the best pene- 4 0.78-0.91pm useful for determining bio­ 4 0.77-0.86nm sensitivity to
tration of atmosphere mass content and for deli­ green biomass of
haze, effective for land neation of water bodies. moisture in
and water delineation vegetation 4
water body
delineation
5 1.57-1.75pm indicative of vegetation
moisture, useful for diff­
erentiation of snow from
clouds.

6 10.42-11.66pm useful in vegetation stress

analysis'soil moisture, discri­
mination thermal mapping

7 2.08-2.35pm useful for hydrothermal mapping

and for discriminating rock
types.

SOURCE:IR3-DATA USERS HAND BOOK

WAVE LENGTH SPECTRAL BAND
0-003 nm-
0-030 nm
0-300 nm Gamma ray

3-000 nm X -R ay
30- 000 nm

U ltra violet
F ig . 2.2 Atm ospheric windows & gases responsible .
fo r absorption
0-300pm •
Visstble Photographic band
0-4-07 p m
3-000 pm -
Infrared Thermal IR Green vegetation
30-000 pm Dark toned soil
300-000 pm
Radar oor
0-300 cm k band
Microwave
3 000cm x band
L band
30-000 cm geo
Radio & T-V
3-000 m
broadcast *20
30-000m oz
0-4 08 1-2 16 2-0 2-4
Wavelength (p m )
Fig.2.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
A fte r George and NavaIgund 1991

Fig. 2.3 Reflectance spectra of a few land

covers