DIRECTING

DIRECTING is a process in which the managers instruct, guide & manage the performance of
the workers to achieve predetermined goals. It is the heart of management process. In field of
management, direction is all those activities which are designed to encourage the subordinates to
work effectively &efficiently. Directing is the function of guiding, inspiring, & instructing people
towards achievement of organizational goals.

According to Human, “Directing consists of process or technique by which instruction can be

issued and operations can be carried out as originally planned”

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Pervasive Function - Directing is required at all levels of organization. Every manager

provides guidance and inspiration to his subordinates.
2. Continuous Activity - Direction is a continuous activity as it continuous throughout the life of
organization.
3. Human Factor - Directing function is related to subordinates and it is related to human factor.
Since human factor is complex and behaviour is irregular, direction function becomes important.
4. Creative Activity - Direction function helps in converting plans into performance. Without
this function, people become inactive and physical resources are meaningless.
5. Executive Function - Direction is carried out by all managers & executives at all levels
throughout the working of an enterprise; a subordinate receives instructions from his superior.
6. Delegate Function - Direction is supposed to be a function dealing with human beings.
Human behaviour is unpredictable by nature and conditioning the people’s behaviour towards
the goals of the enterprise is what the executive does in this function.

IMPORTANCE

1. It Initiates Actions - Directions is the function which is the starting point of the work
performance of subordinates. It is from this function the action takes placed; subordinates
understand their jobs and do according to the instructions laid. Whatever are plans laid, can be
implemented only once the actual work starts. It is there that direction becomes beneficial.
2. It Ingrates Efforts - Through direction, the superiors are able to guide, inspire and instruct the
subordinates to work. For this, efforts of every individual towards accomplishment of goals are
required. This can be done through persuasive leadership and effective communication.
3. Means of Motivation - Direction function helps in achievement of goals. A manager makes use
of the element of motivation here to improve the performances of subordinates. This can be
done by providing incentives or compensation, whether monetary or non – monetary.
4. It Provides Stability - Stability and balance in concern becomes very important for long term
sun survival in the market. This can be brought upon by the managers with the help of four tools
or elements of direction function - careful combine of winning leadership, effective
communication, strict supervision and efficient motivation.
5. Efficient Utilization of Resources - Direction helps in clarifying the role of every subordinate
towards his work. The resources can be utilized properly only when less of wastages,
duplication of efforts, etc. don’t take place. This helps in maximum utilization of resources of
men, machine, materials & money which helps in reducing costs & increasing profits.

PRINCIPLES

1. Principle of Maximum Individual Contribution: According to this principle, management

should adopt that directing policy through which the employees get motivated and give their
maximum individual contribution for the achievement of organizational objective.
2. Principle of Harmony of Objectives: According to this principle, there must be full
coordination between organizational and individual objectives. Employees work in an
organization with an objective to get better remuneration, promotion, etc. organizational goal
can be to earn more profits and to increase market share. Management must establish
coordination between the objectives of both the parties by adopting suitable method of direction.
3. Principle of Unity of Command: According to this principle, a subordinate should get
directions from one officer at a time. If the subordinate gets directions from more than one
officer, the subordinate will be unable to priorities his work.
4. Principle of Use of Informal Organisation: According to this principle, there must be a free
flow of information between the seniors and the subordinates. The success of direction depends
upon effective exchange of information to a great extent. Information should be given both
through formal and informal mediums.
5. Principle of Leadership: According to this principle, while giving directions to the
subordinates a good leadership must be provided by the managers. By this, subordinates get
influenced by the managers. In this situation, subordinates act according to the wish of the
managers.
 LEADERSHIP

Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behavior and
work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership is the
ability of a manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence and passion. Leadership
is the potential to influence behaviour of others.

According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to influence others to defined objectives
willingly it is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals.”

Characteristics of Leadership

1. It is an inter-personal process in which a manager is influencing and guiding workers

towards attainment of goals.
2. It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person include intelligence, maturity and
personality.
3. It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with each other.
4. A leader is involved in shaping and moulding the behaviour of the group towards
accomplishment of organizational goals.
5. Leadership is situation bound. There is no best style of leadership.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and
plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working. He
motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards.
3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the
subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates to perform their work
effectively and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through
expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving
them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively.
5. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with
organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective co-
ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

QUALITIES OF LEADER

1. Physical appearance- A leader must have a pleasing appearance. Physique and health are
very important for a good leader.
2. Vision and foresight- A leader cannot maintain influence unless he exhibits that he is forward
looking. He has to visualize situations and thereby has to frame logical programmes.
3. Intelligence- A leader should be intelligent enough to examine problems and difficult
situations. He should be analytical who weighs pros and cons and then summarizes the situation.
Therefore, a positive bent of mind and mature outlook is very important.
4. Communicative skills- A leader must be able to communicate the policies and procedures
clearly, precisely and effectively. This can be helpful in persuasion and stimulation.
5. Knowledge of work- A leader should be very precisely knowing the nature of work of his
subordinates because it is then he can win the trust and confidence of his subordinates.
6. Self-confidence and will-power- Confidence in him is important to earn the confidence of the
subordinates. He should be trustworthy and should handle the situations with full will power.
7. Empathy- This is very important because fair judgments and objectivity comes only then. A
leader should understand the problems and complaints of employees and should also have a
complete view of the needs and aspirations of the employees. This helps in improving human
relations and personal contacts with the employees.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

1. Autocratic leadership style:

 In this style, a leader has complete command and hold over their employees/team.
 They cannot question the leader’s way of getting things done. The leader himself gets the
things done.
 The advantage of this style is that it leads to speedy decision-making and greater productivity
 Drawbacks of this style are that it leads to greater employee absenteeism and turnover.
2. The Laissez Faire Leadership Style:
 Here, the leader totally trusts their employees/team to perform the job themselves.
  He just concentrates on the intellectual/rational aspect of his work and does not focus on the
management aspect of his work.
 The team/employees are welcomed to share their views and provide suggestions which are
best for organizational interests.
 This style works only when the employees are skilled, loyal, experienced and intellectual.
3. Democrative leadership style:
 The leaders invite and encourage the team members to play an important role in decision-
making process, though the ultimate decision-making power rests with the leader.
 The leader guides the employees on what to perform and how to perform.
 The advantages of this style are that it leads to satisfied, motivated and skilled employees.
 This leadership style has the only drawback that it is time-consuming.
4. Bureaucratic leadership:
 Here the leaders strictly adhere to the organizational rules and policies.
 Also, they make sure that the employees/team also strictly follows the rules and procedures.
 But this leadership style discourages creativity and does not make employees self-contented.

Leaders and Managers can be compared on the following basis:

Basis Manager Leader

A person becomes a manager by A person becomes a leader on basis

Origin
virtue of his position. of his personal qualities.

Formal Manager has got formal rights in an

Rights are not available to a leader.
Rights organization because of his status.

The subordinates are the followers The group of employees whom the
Followers
of managers. leaders leads are his followers.

A manager performs all five Leader influences people to work

Functions
functions of management. willingly for group objectives.

Stability It is more stable. Leadership is temporary.

Mutual All managers are leaders. All leaders are not managers.
 Relationship

Path Goal Theory

The theory was developed by Robert House and has its roots in the expectancy theory of
motivation. The theory is based on the premise that an employee’s perception of expectancies
between his effort and performance is greatly affected by a leader’s behavior. The leaders help
group members in attaining rewards by clarifying the paths to goals and removing obstacles to
performance. They do so by providing the information, support, and other resources which are
required by employees to complete the task.

Transformational leadership: Transformational leadership may be found at all levels of the

organization: teams, departments, divisions, and organization as a whole. Such leaders are
visionary, inspiring, daring, risk-takers, and thoughtful thinkers. They have a charismatic appeal.
For bringing major changes, transformational leaders must exhibit the following four factors:

1) Inspirational Motivation: The foundation of transformational leadership is the promotion of

consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the members. Their vision is so compelling that
they know what they want from every interaction. They work actively and positively to advance
the spirit of teamwork and commitment.
2) Intellectual Stimulation: Such leaders encourage their followers to be innovative and creative.
They encourage new ideas from their followers and never criticize them publicly for the
mistakes committed by them. The leaders focus on the “what” in problems and do not focus on
the blaming part of it.

3) Idealized Influence: They believe in the philosophy that a leader can influence followers only
when he practices what he preaches. Such leaders always win the trust and respect of their
followers through their action. The use of power by such leaders is aimed at influencing them to
strive for the common goals of the organization.

4) Individualized Consideration: Leaders act as mentors to their followers and reward them for
creativity and innovation. The followers are treated differently according to their talents and
knowledge. They are empowered to make decisions and are always provided with the needed
support to implement their decisions.

Criticisms of Transformational Leadership Theory

a) It makes use of impression management and lends itself to a moral self promotion by leaders
b) The theory is very difficult to train because it is a combination of many leadership theories.

TRANSACTIONAL STYLE

The transactional style of leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and then by
Bernard Bass in 1981. This style is most often used by the managers. It focuses on the basic
management process of controlling, organizing, and short-term planning. The power of
transactional leaders comes from their formal authority and responsibility in the organization.
Here, the exchange between leader and follower takes place to achieve routine performance goals.

a) Contingent Rewards: Transactional leaders link the goal to rewards, clarify expectations,
provide necessary resources, set mutually agreed upon goals, and provide various kinds of
rewards for successful performance. They set SMART (specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic, and timely) goals for their subordinates.

b) Active Management by Exception: Transactional leaders actively monitor the work of their
subordinates, watch for deviations from rules and standards and taking corrective action to
prevent mistakes.
c) Passive Management by Exception: Transactional leaders happen only when standards are not
met or when the performance is not as per the expectations. They may even use punishment as a
response to unacceptable performance.

d) Laissez-faire: The leader provides an environment where the subordinates get many
opportunities to make decisions. The leader himself abdicates responsibilities and avoids making
decisions and therefore the group often lacks direction.

Assumptions of Transactional Theory

 Employees are motivated by reward and punishment.

 The subordinates have to obey the orders of the superior.
 The subordinates are not self-motivated. They have to be closely monitored and controlled to
get the work done from them.

Likert’s Management System

Rensis Likert and his associates studied the patterns and styles of managers for three decades at
the University of Michigan, USA, and identified a four-fold model of management systems. The
four systems of management system or the four leadership styles identified by Likert are:

Exploitative Authoritative: Responsibility lies in the hands of the people at the upper level of the
hierarchy. The superior has no trust and confidence in subordinates. The decisions are imposed on
subordinates and they do not feel free at all to discuss things about the job with their superior. The
teamwork or communication is very little and the motivation is based on threats.

Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility lies at the managerial levels but not at the lower
levels of the organizational hierarchy. The superior has confidence and trust in subordinates
(master-servant relationship). The subordinates do not feel free to discuss things about the job
with their superior. The teamwork is very little and motivation is based on a system of rewards.

Consultative: Responsibility is spread widely through the organizational hierarchy. The superior
has substantial but not complete confidence in subordinates. There is a fair amount of teamwork,
and communication takes place vertically and horizontally. The motivation is based on rewards
and involvement in the job.
 Participative: Responsibility for achieving the organizational goals is widespread throughout the
organizational hierarchy. There is a high level of confidence that the superior has in his
subordinates. There is a high level of teamwork, communication, and participation.

MOTIVATION

Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or
drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the
goals. In the goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behaviour can be -
Desire for money, success, recognition, job-satisfaction team work, etc. One of the most important
functions of management is to create willingness amongst the employees to perform in the best of
their abilities.

IMPORTANCE

1. Puts human resources into action: Every concern requires physical, financial and human
resources to accomplish the goals. It is motivation that the human resources can be utilized by
making full use of it. This will help the enterprise in securing best utilization of resources.
2. Improves level of efficiency of employees: The level of a subordinate or a employee does
not only depend upon his qualifications and abilities. For getting best of his work performance,
the gap between ability and willingness has to be filled which helps in improving the level of
performance of subordinates. This will result into-

a. Increase in productivity,
b. Reducing cost of operations, and
c. Improving overall efficiency.

3. Leads to achievement of organizational goals: The goals of an enterprise can be

achieved only when the following factors take place :-
1. There is best possible utilization of resources,
2. There is a co-operative work environment,
3. Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place
4. Builds friendly relationship: Motivation is an important factor which brings employees
satisfaction. This can be done by keeping into mind and framing an incentive plan for the benefit
of the employees. This could initiate the following things:

a. Monetary and non-monetary incentives,

b. Promotion opportunities for employees,
c. Disincentives for inefficient employees.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory-

Abraham Maslow is well renowned for proposing the Hierarchy of Needs Theory in 1943. This
theory is based on the assumption that there is a hierarchy of five needs within each individual.
1. Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and shelter. In other
words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of life.
2. Safety needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional safety and protection.
For instance- Job security, financial security, family security, health security, etc.
3. Social needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care, and friendship.
4. Esteem needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self- respect, confidence,
achievement and freedom) and external esteem needs (recognition, power, status, attention).
5. Self-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable of becoming /
what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for growth and self-contentment. It
also includes desire for gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity and being aesthetic.

Maslow grouped the five needs into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order
needs. The physiological and the safety needs constituted the lower-order needs. These lower-
order needs are mainly satisfied externally. The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs
constituted the higher-order needs.

Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Managers

 As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give employees
appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life.
 As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the employees job
security, safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement benefits so as to retain them.
  As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage teamwork and
organize social events.
 As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward employees on
accomplishing and exceeding their targets.
 As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the employees
challenging jobs in which the employees’ skills and competencies are fully utilized.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the

motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No
satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of
motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these
factors are absent / if these factors are non-existent at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction.
In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify
the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors describe the job
environment/scenario. Hygiene factors include:

a. Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be equal
and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
b. Company and administrative policies - The company policies should not be too rigid.
They should be fair & clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress code, breaks,
vacation, etc.
c. Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim), benefits
for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
d. Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean and
hygienic. The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.
e. Status - The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and retained.
f. Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors and
subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict.
g. Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees.

Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as

motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to
work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called
satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job. Motivational factors include:

a. Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their accomplishments by the
managers.
b. Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This depends on the
job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
c. Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and advancement opportunities
in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.
d. Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The managers
should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control but retain accountability.
e. Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and challenging
for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job acceptable
despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
4. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of employees
when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work. They will blame
dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure, company policies and peer
relationship.
5. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s Two-Factor
theory is acceptable broadly
Theory X and Theory Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human
behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals one of which is negative,
called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y. According to McGregor, the
perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various assumptions.

Assumptions of Theory X

 An average employee basically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever possible.
 Employees generally dislike responsibilities
 Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned
with punishment so as to achieve organizational goals.
 Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/ ambition.
 Employees resist change.
 An average employee needs formal direction.

Assumptions of Theory Y

 Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical and
mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
 Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work, but they can
use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the
organizational objectives.
 If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty and
commitment to organization.
 An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he can
even learn to obtain responsibility.
 The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully
utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality of the
employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems.
 a. Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’ nature and
behaviour at work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees’ nature and
behaviour at work.
b. If correlate it with Maslow’s theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption that
the employees emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is
based on the assumption that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-actualization needs
dominate the employees.
c. McGregor views Theory Y to be more valid and reasonable than Theory X. Thus, he
encouraged cordial team relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation of all in
decision-making process.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

David McClelland and his associates proposed McClelland’s theory of Needs / Achievement
Motivation Theory. This theory states that human behaviour is affected by three needs - Need for
Power, Achievement and Affiliation.

a. Need for achievement is the urge to excel, to accomplish in relation to a set of standards, to
struggle to achieve success.

b. Need for power is the desire to influence other individual’s behaviour as per your wish. In
other words, it is the desire to have control over others and to be influential.

c. Need for affiliation is a need for open and sociable interpersonal relationships. In other words,
it is a desire for relationship based on co-operation and mutual understanding.

i. The individuals with high achievement needs are highly motivated by competing and challenging
work. They look for promotional opportunities in job.

ii. They have a strong urge for feedback on their achievement. Such individuals try to get satisfaction
in performing things better. High achievement is related to high performance.

iii. Individuals who are better and above average performers are highly motivated. They assume
responsibility for solving the problems at work.
Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that
goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals
along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance. In simple
words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and how
much efforts are required to be put in. The features of goal-setting theory are as follows:

1. The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main source of job motivation. Clear,
particular and difficult goals are greater motivating factors than easy, general and vague goals.

2. Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance. Unambiguous,
measurable and clear goals accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids misunderstanding.

3. Employees’ participation in goal is not always desirable.

4. Participation of setting goal, however, makes goal more acceptable and leads to more
involvement

5. Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a feeling of pride and
victory when he attains them, and sets him up for attainment of next goal. The more challenging
the goal, the greater is the reward generally and the more is the passion for achieving it.

6. |Goal setting theory has certain eventualities such as:

a. Self-efficiency- Self-efficiency is the individual’s self-confidence and faith that he has

potential of performing the task. Higher the level of self-efficiency, greater will be the efforts
put in by the individual when they face challenging tasks. Lower the level of self-efficiency
less will be the efforts put in by the individual or he might even quit while meeting challenges.
b. Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is committed to the
goal and will not leave the goal. The goal commitment is dependent on the following factors:
i. Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.
ii. Individual’s set goals should be consistent with the organizational goals and vision.

Advantages of Goal Setting Theory

  Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete work
quickly and effectively.
 Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also
through increasing and improving the feedback quality.

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states that
individual’s behaviour is a function of its consequences. Reinforcement theory of motivation
overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are
ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes
some action. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for individual’s
behaviour. However, it does not focus on the causes of individual’s behaviour.

Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows
positive and required behaviour. For example - Immediately praising an employee for coming
early for job. This will increase probability of outstanding behaviour occurring again. Reward is a
positive reinforce, but not necessarily. If and only if the employees’ behaviour improves, reward
can said to be a positive reinforce. Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behaviour.

Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative /

undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing
desirable / required behaviour

Punishment- It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of

repeating undesirable behaviour in future. In other words, punishment means applying undesirable
consequence for showing undesirable behaviour. For instance - Suspending an employee for
breaking the organizational rules. Punishment can be equalized by positive reinforcement from
alternative source.]

Implications of Reinforcement Theory

1. Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns behaviour.

2. Managers who are making attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that they do not
reward all employees simultaneously.
3. They must tell the employees what they are not doing correct.
4. They must tell the employees how they can achieve positive reinforcement.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom of Yale School of Management in 1964.
Vroom stresses and focuses on outcomes, and not on needs unlike Maslow and Herzberg.
Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an outcome of how much an individual
wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected
performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to reward
(Instrumentality). In short, Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the
expected outcome. It is an expected and not the actual satisfaction that an employee expects to
receive after achieving the goals. Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better
performance. Expectancy is influenced by factors such as possession of appropriate skills for
performing the job, availability of right resources, availability of crucial information and getting
the required support for completing the job.

Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be there.
Instrumentality is affected by factors such as believe in the people who decide who receives what
outcome, the simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and clarity of relationship
between performance and outcomes.

 Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the individual’s effort be

recognized in his performance appraisal?
 Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which the employee believes
that getting a good performance appraisal leads to organizational rewards.
 Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the
potential reward to the individual.

Advantages of the Expectancy Theory

  It is based on self-interest individual who want to achieve maximum satisfaction and who
wants to minimize dissatisfaction.
 This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception; what is real and actual is
immaterial.
 It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs.

Limitations of the Expectancy Theory

 The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals perceive high
degree correlation between performance and rewards.
 The application of this theory is limited as reward is not directly correlated with
performance in many organizations. It is related to other parameters also such as position,
effort, responsibility, education, etc.

Implications of the Expectancy Theory

 The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the aimed performance levels.

 The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance levels.

 The reward system must be fair and just in an organization Organizations must design
interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs.

 The employee’s motivation level should be continually assessed through various

techniques such as questionnaire, personal interviews, etc.

SUPERVISION

Supervisor has got an important role to play in factory management. Supervision means
overseeing the subordinates at work at the factory level. The supervisor is a part of the
management team and he holds the designation of first line managers. He is a person who has to
perform many functions which helps in achieving productivity. Therefore, supervisor can be
called as the only manager who has an important role at execution level. There are certain
philosophers who call supervisors as workers. But actually he should be called as a manager or
operative manager. His primary job is to manage the workers at operative level of management.
1. As a Planner - A supervisor has to plan the daily work schedules in the factory. At the
same time he has to divide the work to various workers according to their abilities.
2. As a Manager - It is righty said that a supervisor is a part of the management team of an
enterprise. He is, in fact, an operative manager.
3. As a Guide and Leader - A factory supervisor leads the workers by guiding them the way
of perform their daily tasks. In fact, he plays a role of an inspirer by telling them.
4. As a Mediator - A Supervisor is called a linking pin between management and workers.
He is the spokesperson of management as well as worker.
5. As an Inspector - An important role of supervisor is to enforce discipline in the factory.
For this, the work includes checking progress of work against the time schedule, recording the
work performances at regular intervals and reporting the deviations if any from those. He can
also frame rules and regulations which have to be followed by workers during their work.
6. As a Counselor - A supervisor plays the role of a counselor to the worker’s problem. He
has to perform this role in order to build relations & co-operation from workers. This can be
done not only by listening to the grievances but also handling the grievances and satisfying the
workers.

FUNCTIONS -

1. Planning and Organizing - Supervisor’s basic role is to plan the daily work schedule of
the workers by guiding them the nature of their work and also dividing the work amongst the
workers according to their interests, aptitudes, skills and interests.
2. Provision of working conditions - A supervisor plays an important role in the physical
setting of the factory and in arranging the physical resources at right place. This involves
providing proper sitting place, ventilation, lighting, water facilities etc. to workers. His main
responsibility is here to provide healthy and hygienic condition to the workers.
3. Leadership and Guidance - A supervisor is the leader of workers under him. He leads the
workers and influences them to work their best. He also guides the workers by fixing production
targets and by providing them instruction and guidelines to achieve those targets.
4. Motivation - A supervisor plays an important role by providing different incentives to
workers to perform better. There are different monetary and non-monetary incentives which can
inspire the workers to work better.
5. Controlling - Controlling is an important function performed by supervisor. This will
involve
 i. Recording the actual performance against the time schedule.
ii. Checking of progress of work.
iii. Finding out deviations if any and making solutions
iv. If not independently solved, reporting it to top management.
6. Grievance Handling - The supervisor can handle the grievances of the workers effectively
for this he has to do the following things :-
i. He can be in direct touch with workers.
ii. By winning the confidence of the workers by solving their problems.
iii. By taking worker problems on humanitarian grounds.
iv. If he cannot tackle it independently, he can take the help and advice of management
to solve it.
7. Reporting - A supervisor has got an important role to report about the cost, quality and any
such output which can be responsible for increasing productivity. Factors like cost, output,
performance, quality, etc can be reported continually to the management.
8. Introducing new work methods - The supervisor here has to be conscious about the
environment of market and competition present. Therefore he can innovate the techniques of
production. He can shift the workers into fresh schedules whenever possible. He can also try this
best to keep on changing and improving to the physical environment around the workers. This
will result in
i. Higher productivity,
ii. High Morale of Workers,
iii. Satisfying working condition,
iv. Improving human relations,
v. Higher Profits, and
vi. High Stability