CHEMICAL BONDS

 Atoms or ions are held together in molecules or

compounds by chemical bonds.
 The type and number of electrons in the outer
electronic shells of atoms or ions are instrumental
in how atoms react with each other to form stable
chemical bonds.
 Over the last 150 years scientists developed
several theories to explain why and how elements
combine with each other.
 Bonding in Chemistry
• Central theme in chemistry: Why and How atoms
attach together
• This will help us understand how to:
1. Predict the shapes of molecules.
2. Predict properties of substances.
3. Design and build molecules with particular sets of
chemical and physical properties.
 CHEMICAL BONDS
Two of the most common substance on our
dining table are salt and granulated sugar

NaCl C12H22O11

The properties of substances are determined in large part

by the chemical bonds that hold their atoms together
 Chemical Bonds
All chemical reactions involve breaking of some
bonds and formation of new ones which yield
new products with different properties.
 Bonding Theories
• Lewis bond Theory
• Valence Bond Theory
• Molecular Orbital Theory

Gilbert Newton Lewis

 Lewis Bonding Theory
• Atoms ONLY come together to produce a more
stable electron configuration.
• Atoms bond together by either transferring or
sharing electrons.
• Many of atoms like to have 8 electrons in their
outer shell.
– Octet rule.
– There are some exceptions to this rule—the key to
remember is to try to get an electron configuration like
a noble gas. Li and Be try to achieve the He electron
arrangement.
 Lewis Symbols of Atoms
• Uses symbol of element to represent nucleus and
inner electrons.
• Uses dots around the symbol to represent valence
electrons.
– Puts one electron on each side first, then pair.
• Remember that elements in the same group
have the same number of valence electrons;
therefore, their Lewis dot symbols will look
alike.
• •• •• •• ••
Li• Be• •B• •C• •N• •O: :F: :Ne:
• • • • • • ••
Valence electrons
 Practice to write the Lewis symbol
for Arsenic
• As is in group 15 (5), therefore it has 5
valence electrons.


 As 

 Using Lewis Theory to Predict Chemical
Formulas Compounds
Predict the formula of the compound that forms between
calcium and chlorine.
Draw the Lewis dot symbols
∙∙
Ca ∙ Cl ∙∙
of the elements.
Transfer all the valance electrons
from the metal to the nonmetal,
∙ Cl ∙∙ Ca
∙ ∙ ∙ Cl ∙∙
adding more of each atom as you
go, until all electrons are lost Ca2+
from the metal atoms and all
nonmetal atoms have 8 electrons.
CaCl2
Examples for Lewis representation
of some chemical bonds
•• •• •• •• ••
F• •F H• • O •H
••

•O •O

•
••

•
•• •• •• •• ••
•• •• ••
H O H O ••
••
F F •• •• O
••

••
••

•• •• ••
F F O O
Example: Information:
Write the Lewis structure of Given: CO2
Find: Lewis structure
CO2.
Solution Map: formula → skeletal →
electron distribution → Lewis

 Total number of valence electrons = 6 + 4 + 6 = 16

 Actually 24 electrons needed for completing the octet of each atom
 Thus 24 - 16 = 8 electrons are shared.
 Since two electrons make a bond, the molecule should have 4
bonds.
 The remaining 8 electrons are lone pair electrons.
.. ..
O
.. C O
..
 Practice—Draw Lewis Resonance
Structures for CNO−
(C Is Central with N and O Attached)

C=4
N=5
O=6 •• •• • ••
•N •N C O ••
(-) = 1 • C O• •
••
Total = 16 e-
 Example NO3 ─
-
1. Write skeletal structure.
– N is central because it is the
most metallic.

2. Count valence electrons. N=5

O3 = 3 x 6 = 18
(-) = 1
Total = 24 e-
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
• Ionic bonds

• Covalent bonds

• Metallic bonds
The three possible
types of bonds.
Ionic compounds consist of a cation and an anion
• the formula is always the same as the empirical formula
• the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula unit
must equal zero. Lewis bonding theory is able to explain ionic bonds
very well.
The ionic compound NaCl
 Ionic bonding

• Ionic substances are formed when an atom

that loses electrons relatively easily react
with an atom that has a high affinity for
electrons.
ex. metal-nonmetal compound
 Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction of
oppositely charged ions.
 Ionic Bonds
• Metal to nonmetal.
• Metal loses electrons to form cation.
• Nonmetal gains electrons to form anion.
• The electronegativity between the metal and the
nonmetal must be > than 2.
• Ionic bond results from + to − attraction.
– Larger charge = stronger attraction.
– Smaller ion = stronger attraction.
• Lewis theory allows us to predict the correct
formulas of ionic compounds.
Ions that pack as spheres in a very regular
pattern form crystalline substances .
 Formation of an Ionic Solid
• 1. Sublimation of the solid metal
M(s) → M(g) [endothermic]
• 2. Ionization of the metal atoms
M(g) →M+(g) + e- [endothermic]
• 3. Dissociation of the nonmetal
1/2X2(g) → X(g) [endothermic]
 Electron affinity
Dissociation of F2 of F

Ionization of Li

Formation
of solid
Sublimation of Li
 Lattice Energy Calculations
Q1Q2
Lattice Energy  k ( )
r
k: a proportionality constant that depends
on the structure of the solid and the
electron configuration of the ions
Q1 and Q2: charges on the ions
r: the shortest distance between the centers
of cations and anions
 More Gains and Losses

• Can elements lose

or gain more than
one electron?

• The element magnesium, Mg, in Group 2

can lose two electron and element oxygen
in Group 6 can gain two electrons to form
stable Nobel gas configurations. The ions
can come together to form a crystal
structure.
Relative sizes of some ions and
their parent atoms.
 Structure of ionic crystals

Different types
of crystals are
formed
depending on
the ionic radii
and the charge
of the ions
involved.
 How about the bonds between
atoms that have the same
electronegativity (as in H-H
molecule) or when the
electonegativuty difference is <
1.0 (as in C-H)?
 Convalent Bonds—Sharing
• Some atoms are unlikely to lose or gain
electrons because the number of electrons
in their outer levels makes this difficult.
• Consider the Lewis dot structure of carbon
.
. C.
. C+4 + 4e-
• The alternative is sharing electrons.
 Covalent Bonds
• Often found between two nonmetals.
• Typical of molecular species.
• Atoms bonded together to form molecules.
– Strong attraction.
• Atoms share pairs of electrons to attain octets.
• Molecules generally weakly attracted to each
other.
– Observed physical properties of molecular substance
due to these attractions.
 Covalent Bonding
• Electron are shared by nuclei
 The Convalent Bond
• Shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei
of both atoms.
• They move back and forth between the
outer energy levels of each atom in the
covalent bond.
• So, each atom has a stable outer energy
level some of the time.
The formation of a bond between
two atoms.
An electron density plot for the H2
molecule shows that the shared electrons
occupy a volume equally distributed over
BOTH Hydrogen atoms.

Electron Density for the H2 molecule

 Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonds form when atoms share 2 or
more valence electrons.

Covalent bond strength depends on the

number of electron pairs shared by the
atoms.
single double < triple
<
bond bond bond
 Examples of Convalent Bond
• The neutral particle is formed when atoms
share electrons is called a molecule
 Single Covalent Bonds
• Two atoms share one pair of electrons.
– 2 electrons.
• One atom may have more than one single bond.
•• •• ••
F • • F H• •O •H
••

••

•
•• •• ••
•• •• ••
F F H O H
••

••
••

••
••
•• •• ••
F F
 Double Covalent Bond
• Two atoms sharing two pairs of electrons.
– 4 electrons.
• Shorter and stronger than single bond.

•• ••
•O •O
•

•
•• ••
O ••
•• O
O O
Chemical Bonds
 Bond Polarity
• Bonding between unlike atoms results in unequal
sharing of the electrons.
– One atom pulls the electrons in the bond closer to its
side.
– One end of the bond has larger electron density than the
other.
• The result is bond polarity.
– The end with the larger electron density gets a partial
negative charge and the end that is electron deficient
gets a partial positive charge.
d+ H •• Cl d-
Nonpolar and polar covalent bonds
Probability representations of the
electron sharing in HF.
Trends in electronegativity across
a period and down a group
Nature of bonds and electronegativity

Electronegativity Bond
difference (∆)
∆>2 Ionic
0.4 < ∆ < 2 Polar covalent
∆ < 0.4 Covalent
In practice no bond is totally ionic. There will
always be a small amount of electron sharing.
Percent ionic character of chemical bonds as a
function of electronegativity difference
 Bond Polarity and Dipole
Moments
Dipole Moment
μ=QR
Q: center of charge of
magnitude
R: distance
 Dipole Moment of HF

1D=3.336×10-30 coulomb meter

μ=(1.6×10-19 C)(9.17×10-11 m)=1.47×10-29
=4.4 D for fully ionic
Measured dipole moment=1.83 D
1.83×3.336×10-30=δ(9.17×10-11)
δ=6.66×10-20
Ionic character=1.83/4.4=41.6%
 Bond Polarity
3.0-3.0 4.0-2.1 3.0-0.9
= 0.0 = 1.9 = 2.1

Covalent Ionic
Pure Polar
0 0.4 2.0 4.0
Electronegativity difference
Polar Molecules and Electric Field
Polarized electron of HCl bond
 Molecular Geometry
• Molecules are three-dimensional objects.
• We often describe the shape of a molecule
with terms that relate to geometric figures.
• These geometric figures have characteristic
“corners” that indicate the positions of the
surrounding atoms with the central atom in
the center of the figure.
• The geometric figures also have characteristic
angles that we call bond angles.
 Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR Model)
• It is used to predict the geometries of molecules
formed from nonmetals.
• Postulate: the structure around a given atom is
determined principally by minimizing electron pair
repulsion.
• The bonding and nonbonding pairs should be
positioned as far apart as possible.
 Predicting a VSEPR Structure
• Draw Lewis structure.
• Put pairs as far apart as possible.
• Determine positions of atoms from the
way electron pairs are shared.
• Determine the name of molecular
structure from positions of the atoms.
For non-metals compounds, four pairs of
electrons around a given atom prefer prior
to form a tetrahedral geometry to minimize
the electron repulsions.
• Draw the Lewis structure
• Count the pairs of electrons and arrange them
to minimize repulsions
• Determine the positions of the atoms
• Name the molecular structure
• Lone pairs require more space than
bonding pair.
• The bonding pairs are increasingly
squeezed together as the number of lone
pairs increases.
• The bonding pair is shared between two nuclei;
and the electrons can be close to either nucleus.
• A lone pair is localized on only one nucleus, so
both electrons are close to that nucleus only.
Molecular Geometries
Molecular Geometries
 Electron Pairs

Practice drawing these shapes below

Linear TP Tetra TBP Octa

COMPOUND is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

A poly molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
 Polarity of Molecules
• In order for a molecule to be polar it must:
1. Have polar bonds.
• Electronegativity difference—theory.
• Bond dipole moments—measured.
2. Have an unsymmetrical shape.
• Vector addition.
• Polarity effects the intermolecular forces
of attraction.
 Molecule Polarity

The O—C bond is polar. The bonding

electrons are pulled equally toward both O
ends of the molecule. The net result is a
nonpolar molecule.
 Molecule Polarity

The H—O bond is polar. Both sets

of bonding electrons are pulled
toward the O end of the molecule.
The net result is a polar molecule.
Water molecule behaves as if it
had a positive and negative end.
The Covalent Chemical Bond
 Bond Energies

• Bond breaking requires energy (endothermic).

• Bond formation releases energy (exothermic).

• DH = SD(bonds broken) - SD(bonds formed)

energy required energy released

Bond Energies
 Covalent Bond Energies and
Chemical Reactions
H2+F2→2HF
ΔH=ΣD (bonds broken)-ΣD (bonds formed)
ΔH=DH-H+DF-F-2DH-F=1×432+1×154-
2×565
=-544 kJ
 Bond Energy of CH4

Experimental result : 1652 kJ/mol

C(g)+4H(g) →CH4(g) + 1652 kJ/mol
An average C-H bond energy per mole
of C-H bond: 1652/4=413 (kJ/mol)
 Metallic Bonding
• The model of metallic bonding
can be used to explain the
properties of metals.
• The luster, malleability, ductility,
and electrical and thermal
conductivity are all related to the
mobility of the electrons in the
solid.
• The strength of the metallic bond
varies, depending on the charge
and size of the cations, so the
melting points and DHfusion of
metals vary as well.
 Types of Atomic Solids:
Metallic
• Metallic solids are held together by
metallic bonds.
• Metal atoms release some of their
electrons to be shared by all the
other atoms in the crystal.
• The metallic bond is the attraction of
the metal cations for the mobile
electrons.
– Often described as islands of
cations in a sea of electrons.
IONIC COMPOUNDS vs METALS
BREAKING INORGANIC MATERIAL
SLIP PLANES
ALLOY vs PURE METAL