ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE

ORGANS AND THEIR

FUNCTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT
Drosophila melanogaster
 Females Males
Body shape Pointed abdomen with a Rounded abdomen
“spike” on dorsal surface
at rear
Color Each abdominal segment Rearmost abdominal
carries a narrow dark band segments almost uniformly
dark
Genitalia Few structures visible Complex structures visible
on ventral surface
Sex combs None A short row of thick,
closely spaced bristles
appearing as a dark mass
on the fourth segment of
the front legs (often seen
best with fly lying on its
back)
Life cycle of Drosophila melanogaster
Life cycle of Drosophila melanogaster
• Fruit flies are holometabolous insects (undergo complete
metamorphosis)
• The life cycle consist of four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult
• The rate of development is dependent on temperature, being more
rapid at higher temperatures. For instance, at 20oC, the life cycle is
completed in 14 or 15 days, but at 25oC, the cycle lasts about 10
days.
Life cycle of Drosophila melanogaster
The length of developing time (an egg maturing into an adult) varies with respect to the
prevailing temperature, which is a characteristic of all cold-blooded insects. When kept at
room temperature (77° F), a Drosophila egg requires 8.5 days to develop into an adult;
whereas in temperatures higher than this, development time is more because of heat stress.

Egg: It is about 0.5 mm. A female may lay as many as 400 eggs in a favorable laying ground
(for example, a decaying mushroom or a fruit). Within 24 hours of laying, the eggs hatch into
the 1st star instar larvae. In room temperature conditions, this hatching time is as short as
15 hours.
Life cycle of Drosophila melanogaster
Larva: The larval stage of this insect consists of three instars. Within 24 hours of hatching,
the larva molts to develop into 2nd instar larva. Again after 24 hours (i.e., 48 hours after egg
hatching), this larva molts, and matures to 3rd instar larva. During these stages, the larva
loses its spiracles, mouth, and hooks.

Pupa: After 4 days of voracious feeding, the 3rd instar larva encapsulates itself inside a hard
and dark-colored puparium. It is in this pupal stage, where the metamorphosis of D.
melanogaster takes place, giving rise to wings and legs. At room temperature conditions, the
duration of metamorphosis lasts for 4 days.
Life cycle of Drosophila melanogaster
Adult: The adult D. melanogaster emerges through the operculum of the puparium.Within 8 -
12 hours of emergence, the female fly is receptive.Then, it mates with the male Drosophila for
about 30 minutes, during which the male inseminates hundreds of sperms inside the female fly.
The female stores the sperms, and uses them latter for laying eggs.

Since the maturation time of fruit flies differs with temperature fluctuation, it is obvious that
their life span or longevity also varies with the surrounding environmental conditions. In general,
the lifespan of Drosophila lasts for several weeks. And, considering the ease of breeding and
caring, scientists all over the world agree that fruit flies will remain to be the most versatile
model organism in biological science.
 Development- involves formation of sex cells, zygote
formation, subsequent stages in one’s life span. Development is
terminated by death.
Life cycle- is defined as the development stages that occurs
during an organism’s lifetime. A life cycle ends when an organism
dies.
STAGES OF ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

A. Gametogenesis - stage of development that yield haploid gametes.

i. Meiosis - the process that the process that produces haploid gametes in
diploid organisms
❑Four daughter cells result from these divisions, in contrast to the two
daughter cells that result from mitotic cell division
❑As a result, each of the four daughter cells resulting from meiosis has only
half as many chromosomes as the starting cell- a single haploid set of
chromosomes
• The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of
chromosomes (reduction division). In most cases the division is
accompanied by cytokinesis
• The second meiotic division is essentially the same as mitosis.
The important difference is that meiosis II starts with a haploid
cell
MEIOSIS

• occurs in the gonads (testes and ovaries) to produce gametes (sperms and egg)
which are haploid (n)
• when the sperm fertilizes the egg, a zygote (diploid or 2n) is produced
• used in sexual reproduction in animals (produces the egg and sperm) and plants
• Importance: to keep the chromosome number constant generation after
generation
ensure the next generation has a different genetic makeup
OVERVIEW OF MEIOSIS

I. In meiosis, a cell undergoes two consecutive divisions, called Meiosis I (reductional)

and Meiosis II (equational) resulting in 4 haploid daughter cells. Each daughter cell will
have one half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
II. Homologous chromosomes, each duplicated, resulting in 4 chromatids (tetrads)
III. Crossing-over occurs between non-sister chromatids but homologous chromosomes
during synapsis. This allows genetic exchange between chromosomes to provide new
combination of gene that are different from either of the parent.
IV. During Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate
V. During Meiosis II, sister chromatids separate
• Haploid (n) condition- When a cell has only half the
chromosome number or only one set of chromosomes
• Diploid (2n) condition- When a cell has the full chromosome
number or two sets of chromosomes
 INTERPHASE

❑At the end of this interphase, each chromosome

consists of two genetically identical sister
chromatids, attached together
❑The chromosomes are not yet visible under the
microscope except as a mass of chromatin
❑The cell’s centrosome has also duplicated by the
end of this interphase
 PROPHASE I

❑Is the most complex phase of

meiosis
❑Typically occupies 90% of the time
required for meiotic cell division
❑Early in this phase, the chromatin
coils up
 PROPHASE I

❑In a process called synapsis, homologous

chromosomes, each composed of two
sister chromatids, come together as pairs
❑The resulting structure, consisting of four
chromatids, is called a tetrad
❑During synapsis, chromatids of
homologous chromosomes exchange
segments in a process called crossing
over
PROPHASE I

➢ has been subdivided into five substages: leptonema, zygonema, pachynema,

diplonema, and diakinesis.
✓ Leptonema- replicated chromosomes have coiled and already visible. The
number of chromosomes present is the same as the number in diploid cell.
✓ Zygonema - homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around each
other in a highly specific manner. The pairing is called synapsis. And because the
pair consists of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent tetrad
PROPHASE I

✓Pachynema- chromosomes become much shorter and thicker.

✓A form of physical exchange between homologues takes place at
specific regions.
✓ The process of physical exchange of a chromosome region is called
crossing-over.
✓ Through the mechanism of crossing over, the parts of the
homologous chromosomes are recombined (genetic recombination)
PROPHASE I

• Diplonema- the two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate

from each other.
• It is at this point, where crossing-over is shown to have taken place.
• The area of contact between non-sister chromatids, called chiasma,
become evident.
 PROPHASE I

✓Diakenesis- the four chromatids of each tetrad are even more

condensed and the chiasma often terminalize or move down the
chromatids to the ends.
✓ This delays the separation of homologous chromosomes.
 METAPHASE I

❑The chromosome tetrads are aligned on the

metaphase plate, midway between the two poles of
the spindle
❑Each chromosome is condensed and thick with its
sister chromatids still attached at their centromeres
❑Spindle microtubules are attached to kinetochores at
the centromeres
❑In each tetrad, the homologous chromosomes are
held together at sites of crossing over
 METAPHASE I

❑For each tetrad, the spindle microtubules attached to

one of the homologous chromosomes come from
one pole of the cell, and the microtubules attached to
the other homologous chromosomes come from the
opposite pole
❑With this arrangement, the homologous chromosomes
of each tetrad are poised to move toward opposite
poles of the cell
METAPHASE I

➢ The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the

microtubules are attached to the centromere regions of the
homologues.
➢ The synapsed tetrads are aligned at the metaphase plate ( the
equatorial plane of the cell ) instead of only replicated
chromosomes.
 ANAPHASE I

❑is marked by the migration of chromosomes

toward the two poles of the cell
❑In contrast to mitosis, the sister chromatids
making up each doubled chromosome remain
attached at their centromeres.
❑Only the tetrads (pair of homologous
chromosomes ) split up
ANAPHASE I

➢ Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the

opposite poles.
➢ The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached at their
respective centromere regions.
 TELOPHASE I AND CYTOKINESIS

❑The chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell

❑Each pole of the cell has a haploid chromosome
set, although each chromosome is still in
duplicate form at this point
❑In other words, each chromosome consists of
two sister chromatids
❑Usually cytokinesis occurs along with Telophase I
and two haploid daughter cells are formed
 TELOPHASE I AND CYTOKINESIS

❑In some organisms, the chromosomes uncoil and

the nuclear envelope re-forms and there is an
interphase before Meiosis II begins
❑In other species, daughter cells produced in the
first meiotic division immediately begin
preparation for the second meiotic division
❑In either case, no chromosome duplication
occurs between telophase I and the onset of
Meiosis II
TELOPHASE I

➢ The dyads complete their migration to the poles.

➢ New nuclear membranes may form.

➢ In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter cells.
➢ Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid
level) in a replicated form
SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

➢ The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to

mitotic divison
➢ The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes
that each daughter cell receives.
➢ While the original chromosome number is maintained in
mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.
 MEIOSIS II
Is essentially the same as mitosis. The important
difference is that meiosis II starts with a haploid cell
 PROPHASE II

❑In organisms having an interphase after

meiosis I
❑The chromosomes condense again
❑The nuclear envelope breaks down
❑A spindle forms and moves toward the
middle of the cell
 METAPHASE II

❑The chromosomes are aligned on the

metaphase plate with the kinetochores
of the sister chromatids of each
chromosome pointing toward opposite
poles.
 ANAPHASE II

❑The centromeres of sister chromatids

finally separate
❑The sister chromatids of each pair,now
individual daughter chromosomes,
move toward opposite poles of the cell
 TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINESIS

❑Nuclei form at the cell poles

❑Cytokinesis occurs
❑There are now four daughter cells,
each with the haploid number of
(single) chromosomes
• Prophase II – The dyads contract
• Metaphase II- The centromeres are directed to the equatorial plate and
then divide.
• Anaphase II – The sister chromatids (monads) move away from each
other and migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle fiber.
• Telophase II- The monads are at the poles, forming two groups of
chromosomes. A nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes.
CYTOKINESIS

➢ The two nuclei are compartmentalized into separate

daughter cells and complete the mitotic cell division process.
➢ In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of the
constriction in the middle of the cell until two daughter cells
are formed. The constriction is often called cleavage, or cell
furrow.
CYTOKINESIS

➢ However, in most, plant cells, this constriction is not evident.

Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are assembled
between the two nuclei to form a cell plate
➢ Each side of the cell plate is coated with a cell wall that
eventually forms the two progeny cells.
 DIFFERENTIATE MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
1. Requires two nuclear division
2. Chromosomes synapse and cross over
3. Centromeres survive Anaphase I
4. Halves chromosomes number
5. Produces four daughter nuclei
6. Produces daughter cells genetically
different from parent and each other
7. Used only for sexual reproduction
MITOSIS
1. Requires one nuclear division
2. Chromosomes do not synapse nor
cross over
3. Centromeres dissolve in Mitotic phase
4. Preserves chromosome number
5. Produces two daughter nuclei
6. Produces daughter cells genetically
identical to parent and to each other
7 Used for asexual reproduction and
growth
 Meiosis I compared to Mitosis Meiosis II compared to Mitosis
Meiosis I Mitosis Meiosis II Mitosis
Prophase I Prophase Prophase II Prophase
Pairing of homologous No pairing of homologous No pairing of No pairing of
chromosmes chromosomes chromosomes chromosomes
Metaphase I Metaphase Metaphase II Metaphase
Bivalents at metaphase Duplicated chromosomes Haploid number of Diploid number of
plate at metaphase plate duplicated chromosomes chromosomes at
at metaphase plate metaphase plate
Anaphase I Anaphase Anaphase II Anaphase
Homologues of each Sister chromatids Sister chromatids Sister chromatids
bivalent separate and separate, becoming separate, becoming separate, becoming
duplicated chromosomes daughter chromosomes daughter chromosomes daughter chromosomes
move to poles that moves to the poles that moves to the poles that moves to the poles

Telophase I Telophase Telophase II Telophase

Two haploid daugher cells Two diploid cells identical Four haploid daughter Two diploid, daughter cells
not identical to the parent to the parent cell cells not genetically genetically identical to the
cell identical parent cell
FERTILIZATION

• Embryonic development begins with fertilization

• Fertilization is the union of a sperm and an egg to form a
diploid zygote.
• It introduces the sperm’s haploid set of chromosomes into the
egg and also activates the egg by triggering metabolic changes
that start embryonic development.
THE PROPERTIES OF SPERM CELLS

• It is a micrograph of an unfertilized human

egg covered by sperms
• Of all these sperm, only a single one will
enter and fertilize the egg
• All the other sperms and millions more
will die.
• The sperm penetrates the egg gains a
chance to have its unique set of genes
combine with those of the egg and
contribute to the next generation.
THE STRUCTURE OF A HUMAN SPERM CELL

• The sperm streamlined shape is an

adaptation for swimming through fluids in
the vagina, uterus, oviduct of the female
• The sperm cell’s thick head contains a
haploid nucleus and is tipped with a
membrane-enclosed sac, the acrosome
• Acrosome lies inside the plasma
membrane and contains enzyme that help
sperm penetrate the egg.
THE STRUCTURE OF A HUMAN SPERM CELL

• The neck and middle piece of sperm

contain a long, spiral mitochondrion
• The sperm absorbs high-energy
nutrients, especially the sugar fructose,
from the semen.
• Thus fueled, its mitochondrion to
provide ATP for movement of the tail
(flagellum)
THE STRUCTURE OF A HUMAN SPERM CELL

• By the time a sperm has reached the egg,

it has consumed much of the energy
available to it.
• But a successful sperm will have enough
energy left to enter the egg and deposit
its nucleus in the egg’s cytoplasm.
THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION

• This diagram is based on fertilization in sea

urchins which similar processes occur in other
animals, including humans.
• The diagram traces one sperm through
successive activities in fertilization.
• Notice that to reach the egg nucleus, the sperm
nucleus must pass through three barriers: the
eggs jelly coat (yellow), a middle region of
glycoprotein called vitelline layer (pink), and the
egg cell’s plasma membrane (black line)
THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION

1. The sperm approaches the egg

2. Then contacts the jelly coat of the egg,
the acrosome in the sperm head
releases a cloud of enzyme molecules
that digest a cavity in the jelly.
3. When the sperm head reaches the
vitelline layer, species-specific protein
molecules on its surface bind with
specific receptor proteins in the vitelline
layer
THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION

The specific binding between the proteins of the

sperm and egg ensures that sperm of other
species cannot fertilize the egg.
4. The sperm’s plasma membrane fuses with that of
the egg.
5. The sperm nucleus to enter the egg
6. The vitelline layer hardens and separates
from the plasma membrane.The space
quickly fills with water and the vitelline layer
becomes the fertilization envelope
THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION

• Fertilization envelope is another

barrier impenetrable to sperm.
• If these events did not occur and an egg
were fertilized by more than one sperm,
the resulting zygote nucleus would
contain too many chromosomes, and the
zygote could not develop normally.
THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION

• Membrane fusion also triggers a burst of

metabolic activity in the egg. In
preparation for the enormous growth
and development that will follow
fertilization.
7. The egg and sperm nuclei fuse, producing
the diploid nucleus of the zygote .
CLEAVAGE PRODUCES A BALL OF CELLS FROM
ZYGOTE
• Cleavage- is a rapid succession of cell divisions
that produces a ball of cells ( a multicellular
embryo) from the zygote
• DNA replication, mitosis and cytokinesis occur
rapidly but gene transcription is virtually shut
down and few new proteins are synthesized.
• As a result, the embryo of most animals does
not grow larger during cleavage. Nutrients
stored in the egg nourish the dividing cells and
the cell divisions partition the zygote into many
smaller cells
CLEAVAGE PRODUCES A BALL OF CELLS FROM
ZYGOTE
• As the first three steps show, the number
of cell doubles with each cleavage division.
• In sea urchin, a doubling occurs every 20
minutes and the whole cleavage process
takes about 3 hours to produce a solid ball
of cells.
• As cleavage continues, a fluid-filled cavity
called the blastocoel forms in the center
of the embryo
CLEAVAGE PRODUCES A BALL OF CELLS FROM
ZYGOTE
• At the completion of cleavage, there is a large
cavity surrounded by one or more layers of
cells. This hollow ball of cells is called blastula.
• Cleavage makes two very important
contributions to early development. It creates a
multicellular embryo, the blastula, from a single-
celled zygote.
• Cleavage is also an organizing process,
partitioning the multicellular embryo into
developmental regions.
CLEAVAGE PRODUCES A BALL OF CELLS FROM
ZYGOTE
• During cleavage, regulatory chemicals
become localized in particular group of
cells where they activate the genes that
direct the formation of specific parts of
the genes that direct the formation of
specific parts of the animal.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
• Gastrulation- the second major phase
of embryonic development. It adds more
cells to the embryo and more
importantly, it sorts all the cells into
distinct cell layers.
• In this process, the embryo is
transformed from a hollow ball of cells
(the blastula) into a three-layered stage
called gastrula.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
• The three layers found in gastrulation are
embryonic tissues called ectoderm,
endoderm and mesoderm.
• The ectoderm forms the outer layer
(skin) of the gastrula.
• The endoderm forms an embryonic
digestive tract.
• And the mesoderm partly fills the space
between the ectoderm and the endoderm.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
• Eventually, these three cell layers develop
into all parts of the adult animal.
• For instance, our nervous system and the
outer layer (epidermis) of our skin cone
from ectoderm.
• The innermost lining of our digestive tract
arises from endoderm and most other
organs and tissues such as the kidney,
heart, muscles, and the inner layer of our
skin (dermis) develop from mesoderm.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
• The mechanics of
gastrulation vary somewhat,
depending on the species.
• In many frogs, cleavage and
gastrulation together take
about 15-20 hours.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
1. The blastula- formed by cleavage, the frog
blastula is a partially hollow ball of unequally,
sized cells.
• As the cross section shows, the cells toward
one end, called the animal pole are smaller than
those near the opposite end, the vegetal pole.
• The cells near the vegetal pole are larger
because they contain yolk granules which make
them divide at a slower rate than those at the
animal pole.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
• The three layers on the blastula indicate
regions of cells that will give rise to the
primary cell layers: ectoderm (blue),
endoderm (yellow) and mesoderm
(pink).
• A glance ahead at parts 2-4 shows that
the cells will form endoderm move from
the surface to the inside of the embryo.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
2. Blastopore formation- Gastrulation begins
when a small groove, called the blastopore
appears on one side of the blastula.
• The blastopore is the place where cells of the
future endoderm move inward from the surface
( the dashed part of the arrow indicate inward
movement).
• Meanwhile, the cells that will form ectoderm
spread over more of the surface of the embryo
and the cells that will form the mesoderm begin
to spread outside.
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
3. Cell migration to form layers. The beginning
of the three layers can now be seen in the cross
section. Migrating endodermal cells (yellow) have
produced a simple digestive tract called the
archenteron.
• The advancing endoderm and the archenteron
have filled some of the space formerly occupied
by the blastocoel.
• Cells that will form the mesoderm (pink) are
located between the endoderm and ectoderm
(blue)
GASTRULATION PRODUCES A THREE-LAYERED
EMBRYO
4. Completion of gastrulation. Gastrulation is
completed when the embryo is three-layered.
• Ectoderm covers the surface except for a
cluster of endodermal cells called the yolk plug
• The yolk plug marks the site of the blastopore
and of the future anus. At this stage, the
endoderm and its archenteron have replaced
the blastocoel.
• Mesoderm forms a layer between the
ectoderm and the endoderm.
• Gastrulation forms a new cavity, the _________________
which is lined by __________________ and which
develops into the animal’s _____________ tract.

……….archenteron……..endoderm……digestive..
DERIVATIVES OF THE THREE EMBRYONIC TISSUE
LAYERS
Embryonic Layer Organs and Tissues in the Adult
Ectoderm Epidermis of skin and its derivatives;
epithelial lining of mouth and rectum;
sense receptors in epidermis; cornea and
lens of eye, nervous system; adrenal
medulla; tooth enamel
Endoderm Epithelial lining of digestive tract (except
mouth and rectum); epithelial lining of
respiratory system; liver; pancreas;
thyroid; parathyroid; thymus; lining of
urethra, urinary bladder, and
reproductive system.
Mesoderm Notochord (in animals retaining it as
adults); skeletal system; muscular system;
circulatory system; excretory system;
reproductive system (except germ cells,
which differentiate during cleavage);
ORGANS START TO FORM AFTER GASTRULATION

• An organ called notochord has

developed in mesoderm and a structure
that will become a hollow nerve cord
is beginning to form in the ectoderm.
• Notochord and hollow nerve cord
are hallmarks of the chordates.
• The notochord forms from mesoderm
just above the archenteron.
ORGANS START TO FORM AFTER GASTRULATION

• It is made of a cartilage-like substance

which extends for most of the embryo’s
length and provides support for other
developing tissues.
• Later in development, the notochord,
will function as a core around which
mesodermal cells gather and form the
frog’s backbone.
ORGANS START TO FORM AFTER GASTRULATION

• The beginnings of the frog’s hollow

nerve cord formed from a portion of
the ectoderm.
• The green area is a thickened region of
ectoderm called the neural plate.
• From it arises a pair of pronounced
ectodermal ridges called neural folds.
• The neural plate rolls up and
forms the neural tube which then
sinks beneath the surface of
embryo and is covered by an
outer layer of ectoderm.
• The neural tube is destined to
become the brain and spinal cord.
• The neural tube lies directly above the
notochord. The relative position of the
neural tube, notochord and digestive tract
provide the basic body plan of a frog.
• The spinal cord will lie extensions of the
dorsal surface of the backbone (which will
replace the notochord) and the digestive
tract will be ventral to the backbone.
• This is the arrangement of organs in all
vertebrates
• In the micrograph, the embryo is elongated
and the eye and tail (tail bud) starts to
form.
• Part of the ectoderm has been removed to
reveal a series of internal ridges called
somites.
• The somites are blocks of mesoderm that
will give rise to segmental structures such
as the vertebrae and associated muscles
of the backbone.
• In the cross sectional
drawing, the mesoderm next
to the somites is developing
a hollow space- the body
cavity or coelom.
• The key phases in embryonic development are cleavage
(which creates a multicellular animal from a zygote)
gastrulation (which organizes the embryo in three discrete
layers), and organ formation (which generates embryonic
organs from the three embryonic tissue layers) These same
three phases occur in nearly all animals.
• A long tail and fin would grow form tail
bud. The timing of the later stages in frog
development varies enormously but in
many species, by 5-8 days after
development begins, all the body tissues
and organs of a tadpole emerge from
cells of the ectoderm, and endoderm will
be visible.
CHANGES IN CELL SHAPE, CELL MIGRATION AND PROGRAMMED
CELL DEATH GIVE FORM TO DEVELOPING ANIMAL.

• It shows how two

changes in cell shape
bring about the
formation of the neural
tube.
CHANGES IN CELL SHAPE, CELL MIGRATION AND PROGRAMMED
CELL DEATH GIVE FORM TO DEVELOPING ANIMAL.

• Cells of the ectoderm fold inward by first

elongating and then becoming wedge-
shaped.
• The result is tube of ectoderm- the start
of the brain and spinal cord.
• Cell migration is also essential in
development. For instance, during
gastrulation, ectodermal cells use finger
like extensions (pseudopodia) to “crawl” to
the embryo’s surface.
CHANGES IN CELL SHAPE, CELL MIGRATION AND PROGRAMMED
CELL DEATH GIVE FORM TO DEVELOPING ANIMAL.

• Cells of the ectoderm fold inward by first elongating and then becoming wedge-shaped.
• The result is tube of ectoderm- the start of the brain and spinal cord.
• Cell migration is also essential in development. For instance, during gastrulation, ectodermal
cells use finger like extensions (pseudopodia) to “crawl” to the embryo’s surface.
• Migrating cells may follow chemical trails secreted by cells near their specific destination.
Once a migrating cell reaches its destination, surface proteins enable it to recognize similar
cells.The cells join together and secrete glycoproteins that glue them in place.
• Finally, they differentiate, taking on the characteristics of a particular tissue
CHANGES IN CELL SHAPE, CELL MIGRATION AND PROGRAMMED
CELL DEATH GIVE FORM TO DEVELOPING ANIMAL.

• Another key developmental process is

programmed cell death or apoptosis.
• The timely and tidy suicide of cells
• Animals have suicide genes coding for
proteins that kill the cell that produces
them.
• In humans, the timely death of specific cells
in developing arms and legs creates the
spaces between fingers and toes.
CHANGES IN CELL SHAPE, CELL MIGRATION AND PROGRAMMED
CELL DEATH GIVE FORM TO DEVELOPING ANIMAL.

• Cell death is also essential for the normal

development of our nervous and immune
systems.
• The cell on the left shrinks and dies
because a suicide gene has been turned on.
• Meanwhile, signals from the dying cell make
an adjacent cell phagocytic.This cell engulfs
and digests the dead cell, keeping the
embryo free of harmful debris.
EMBRYONIC INDUCTION INITIATES ORGAN
FORMATION
• All developmental processes depend on
signals passed between neighboring cells
and cell layers, telling embryonic cells
precisely what to do when.
• The mechanism by which one group of
cells influences the development of an
adjacent group of cells is called
induction.
EMBRYONIC INDUCTION INITIATES ORGAN
FORMATION
• Induction plays a major role in the early
development of tissues and organs from
ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.
• Its effect is to switch on a set of genes
whose expression makes the receiving
cells differentiate into a specific tissue.
• A sequence of inductive signals leads to
increasingly greater specialization of cells
as organs begin to take shape.
EMBRYONIC INDUCTION INITIATES ORGAN
FORMATION
• It illustrates the differentiation of cells that
from the vertebrate eye and two of the
inductions that occur during the process.
• Cells destined to give rise to the eye
actually begin during gastrulation.
1. The eye begins to take shape from an
outgrowth of the developing brain (the optic
vesicle) and an adjacent cluster of cells on
the body surface (the lens ectoderm)
EMBRYONIC INDUCTION INITIATES ORGAN
FORMATION
2. As a result of earlier inductions, some
of the cell of the cells of the optic
vesicle and lens ectoderm undergo
shape changes that cause them to fold
inward.
optic vesicle- transforms into the optic
cup which will become
the retina, and the optic
stalk.
EMBRYONIC INDUCTION INITIATES ORGAN
FORMATION
3. Cells of the optic cup induce the lens
ectoderm to start forming the lens of the
eye (these inductive signals from the optic
cup are shown as black arrows.)
4. Finally, cells of developing lens induce the
development of the cornea, the eye’s
transparent outer covering.
Induction plays a role in the early
development of virtually all organs and
tissues.
PATTERN FORMATION ORGANIZES THE BODY

• The shaping of an animal’s major parts

involves pattern formation.
• Pattern formation- the emergence of
a body form with specialized organs and
tissues all in the right places.
• Research indicates that master control
genes respond to chemical signals that
tell a cell where it is relative to other
cells in the embryo.
PATTERN FORMATION ORGANIZES THE BODY

• These positional signals determine which

master control genes will be expressed
and consequently, which body parts will
form.
• It indicates how positional signals affect
the development of the limbs of
vertebrates. Vertebrate limbs develop
from embryonic structures called limb
buds.
PATTERN FORMATION ORGANIZES THE BODY

• Bird wings, for example, develop from the

two anterior limb buds.
• For a wing to form properly, each
embryonic wing cell must receive signals
specifying its position in three dimensions.
• How close is it to the embryo’s main axis,
to the anterior or posterior edge of the
developing wing, and to the dorsal or
ventral surface of the embryo?
• Experiments have revealed that
vertebrate limbs have zones of cells that
provide positional information to other
cells via chemical signals.
• Researchers have located one of such
pattern-forming zone on the posterior
surface of the wing-forming limb buds of
birds.
• Cells nearest the zone- presumably those
exposed to the highest concentration of
chemical signals from it.- develop into
posterior wing structures; cells farthest
from the zone form anterior structures.
• If a block of cells from this zone is
removed from one bird embryo (the
donor) and grafted onto the anterior part
of the limb bud of another embryo (the
host) the host will develop additional wing
structures- almost a double wing.