the first to give the

hed from the counting

vention, and made possible

matics. To Pythagoras also

quare on the hypotenuse of

squares on the other two

one wishes to know the

n an a-c circuit. Engineers

athematically by use of the

\/R2 + X2, where

ce.

eceived from Egyp-

a scientific viewpoint. He

of identical material and

the perfect harmony of the oc-

e ratios of 1 to 2,2 to 3 or 3

science of musical tone.

t that Thales of Miletus,

called the "father of elec-

stone we know as amber

straw and hair. To Thales

as "elektron" and from

ctronics. Aside from this

arned of the properties or

ect measurement was

sciences with the Egyptian

ght of a pyramid. Thales

ermined its length. Next he

k as well as the length of

ments and a familiar theorem

yramid.

tio of a pair of sides

orresponding sides in the

icted a date for the sun's

ates were at war and when

involved knew of Thales'

nsel. He persuaded the

the battle.

communications and
iple of

Systeme

derstood,

anciscan

unds for

entation.

magic by

ntific en-

imental

e con-

and men-

ed to

task in 1263.

ollege,

ld of

astronomer,

e, "perhaps

impact of

cience and

list given

arm clock,

camera

nning-

ope tube,

overies, and

isa.

Da

to life the

ng the

an Artist)
 attracting properties

was lifted by Gilbert. With

proper places in the world

an to Queen Elizabeth,

een, appreciating genius, set

ime he needed to carry on

e information then

he results of his own experi-

idence from which to con-

attraction from a lodestone

mass.

made of lodestone,

d position when it was moved

magnetic dip. A magnetic

not to the geographic. The

from the geographic north

uth magnetic pole is at 72-73°

of a bipolar distribution of

hat the earth may be consid-

is the second landmark

by Peregrinus in 1269 with

ion)

the first of the moderns.

investigators of physical

motions of a lamp swing-

lied the principle of its

ent of time.

n was the founding of

xperimentally and mathe-

bodies as well as the forces

ent which may be con-

It was fundamentally

ges of temperature.

r analysis of the mo-

anuary 7, 1610, looking

made the first observation

vement from east to west

occurred, if possible,
xperi-

served.

s by Galileo

943

lation)

ng tele-

90, gave

ewtonian

work to be

rol of

n on cen-

ons that

n ever

es spread

ed the

zation of

uld offer

rations

e the value

motion.

d trib-

ssed since

of universal

eceived

mial theorem

he not

ncouraged

profound

develop-

of
he opening statement of the

n in this book is not to

to prepare and prove them

discovered and set up

d, "I don't know what I

o have been only as a boy

nd then finding a smoother

great ocean of truth lay

l Philosophy

, Vol. 150, Dec. 19,1942

is Age," Nature, Vol. 150,

ure, Vol. 150, Dec. 19,1942

ature, Vol. 150, Dec. 19,1942

Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton

tific Monthly, p. 491, June 1943

ments of the Differential and

n and philosopher, has

ders in philosophical history.

uld add, subtract, multiply,

y.

he fundamental idea

to algebra. This particular

s before G. Cramer gained

t theory.

the calculus, a branch

e of change of a quantity.

manifestation of continu-

onted with the rate of change

hemical reaction. The cal-

egral calculus, expresses

be manipulated in a precise

l Blazer to Radionics," for

ce would be lacking proper

ted to

n news-

ember of

m.

ature

s place him

us

that

Dr. Spence"

nd that

in spent

for

ed his kite,

ed into a

y good con-

n held

key that

y with the

he labora-

. Further

the jar was

ntific history.

called

k)

ricity,"

a large

became

ook part

earch.

ater's

well.
 measurements of the

numerical value of K, called

—W^- Here m1 and m2

etween them, and F a measure

usual method of measur-

o have weighed the earth.

Cavendish

he French Engineer-

o Paris where he spent

1779 upon receiving

ed a law of torsion and the

nce by which one can

sm.

pon his Fundamental

ween two bodies charged

e of the distance between

of the charges.

f this illustrious French-

y 6,280,000,000,000,000,000

s Relatifs a La Physique,

ni left off, by develop-

his may be considered the

small discs of zinc and

r moistened with salt water

s—zinc and silver—sepa-

se gave a rather large

omes our modern battery.

the Institute of France he

n honored Volta by con-

discovery of the organic

which must not be over-

ment whose value as a labora-

1927

1816)
ause

eans' of

uting

e perpen-

ced

ad been

en a beam

two beams

x of refrac-

land spar,

th the

as a plane

na

appara-

ng new

ues,

at a

me his

Theorie des

ence. Un-

pere's

to a degree

eeding years

o designate

evalent

om the

m the

experi-

he long

f those
 class, he observed that

nt flowed through a wire

edle was behaving very

d but assumed a position

was a new phenomenon

amely, that forces, between

onnecting them. Oersted's

theory. Recognition fol-

m the Copley Medal, and the

ribution to electricity.

entific Papers, Vol. 3,1820)

tary Contributions

hip. In those days, a

presentation and accept-

y as a subject with pos-

even wire, had to be

did not daunt him. Ohm's

trade which now proved

as not common knowledge,

omparing the current con-

d materials.

ng the famous law which

= y, where E = voltage,

ce called the ohm is the

of current to flow at a

y awaited the honors

the German Minister of

resign his position as

h became known in scien-

rom abroad ultimately

ountry.

the coveted professor-

e happy years, Ohm died,

ating force to him.

ematically

n grinding lenses. He

es, and was the first to

 He also

pe, and the

of very

rum. Lo

a) he found

h an

equipped

n, planets,

e, but

nes

ements

thod of sun

rsuing

heir

ctrum

ofer)

and

n, profound

he Royal

ar 1813

ma

stry, atomic

cuit, or two

duced in

ther. With-

have been

r present

be

ght had

electro-

to some

araday, the

rad.

n of his

all patents.

ey.
klin to make a major

attention on electromag-

egraph to students at Prince-

r this invention, did not

ation and help from Henry,

e first Morse telegraph

na of mutual inductance,

ority to Faraday, then

estable first in the

ectric circuit which deter-

circuit the electromotive

onian Institution in

wer to develop it as a

munication,"

42

Henry as Viewed in 1940,"

y 1940

Science,"

r. At an early age he

ous papers on this subject.

er 17, 1840, that con-

s evolved his law that heat

rough a conductor is directly

stance.

mson) was fortu-

the science of thermo-

n to the measurement

mination of his memoirs

he f ormulators of the well-

al Society of London,

an

ered the Prussian army

gical optics, his brilliant

uch der

color

of

lid argu-

e an-

Law of

bout

imply

tirely on

not upon

of music

musician

gical Optics

by Shastid)

He was

ng 1892.

gave

eory of

he Theory

as and

cally

by the

he first

Kelvin

o meet the

ding

ship while

pment, is

his
alysis of both light and

d the spectra of flames into

ey observed that such spec-

anging from red to violet,

hout the entire spectral

f the spectrum in which it

pectra" to distinguish them

pectra." Since each chem-

m, Kirchhoff had found,

g unknown chemical

m Theory of Radiation

w of Black Body Radia-

urface of which will absorb

at this body is a good

ctually exists, but a surface

ed condition. For experi-

pblack interior and a hole

ed from every point on the

ations will strike other

ant energy will be

will continue, resulting in

well as of all wave lengths.

re will be an increase in

diation passing out of the

h a spectroscope and its

termine the emissive power

e surface brightness of a

avity.

azer to Radionics"

are important in solving

ts, and are stated thus:

on of an electric circuit

that junction; (2) with due

e current, times the resist-

o the sum of the electro-

sed circuit.

rt to help win the war

entist and his work.

. Ultra High Frequency Techniques

of Atomic Physics

mental Physics

chhoff" (Translation by J.

titution for 1889; p. 527.

adiation and Photon Functions,"

Feb. 1940.

perature," Revue d' Optique

937.
ung

and

made this

com-

he two

n and

phenome-

h Helmholtz,

By this

tromag-

ods.

at

y of electro-

ent of

e scien-

H. Arm-

ng world

ctive

graph

as well as

re

the works

nth

ing mind

"A

of eight

Maxwell

did not

sonally

gs at the

s polari-

Maxwell
 research on polarized light

an a long chain of experi-

Young, and Helmholtz in

electrical subjects was

se on Electricity and

or Illustrations of the

physics is obvious

Magnetism was the fore-

Theory of Gases, a direct

ing indirectly to win

f engineers designing and

tal to victory, because

. Ultra High Frequency Techniques

hysics

axwell

xwell

ght incandescent

aths in the scientific wilder-

perator and at twenty-

er. By the time his sensa-

t office listed some 1,300

hese disclosures dealt with

n-picture equipment, phono-

be, the heart of all

e first electric light, Edison

iously enough, was not

resembled the shadow from

eg which cast the shadow

al circuit. Then, reasoning

minute carbon granules,

from them. Connecting a

ent flow that did not appear

ative side. This was the

r applications and pos-

e phenomenon in radio's

ons
hout the

nounced

through

e. The

e aware of

s experi-

' tube. All

ce through

came fluo-

erunner of

he hand

n a new

many

ms have

ratory Prob-

1873

he Naval

chool of

Clarke

f Physics

death.

mon-

econd) in

erence

physicist

ver,

omething

e transmis-

ented

e; how-

arting point

07, June and July

American Academy
 895 accepted a pro-

of the X-ray, Becquerel

n X-rays and phosphores-

e after the exciting source

phosphorescent. Becquerel

ff X-rays. He went about

graphic plates to see if they

lt was included in the

e plate that was used to

adiations from the crystal.

alled radioactive.

and other investi-

s work that Marie and

isolating a new element,

nnual Report of the Smithsonian

of Atomic Physics

ment of modern physics.

ciety of London and

the Nobel Prize in physics.

and conferred upon him

1896 was an occasion

he university he gave a

Through Gases."

ysics in the Royal

re: Application of Dynam-

er, Thermochemistry, and

est contributors to

ectrical Theory of Inertia

ribner and Sons, 1907)

thirty-seven when

ess in science was rapid,

theoretical predictions of

ved that electromag-

ceiving

n coil with

ed, an

oducing

rectangu-

k gap

moved it

that the

ng up

mploy-

ximum and

rmined

, first

orld. From

Hertz

ent

possessed.

well

couraged

y. Fin-

, he set

lled to

achin-

e Eiche-

nsaction.

atical engi-

ctric.

bniz,

ples that

of twenty-

w of

Com-

ble problem

ng ques-

r Stein-

etz
d to see the day when

aimed the world's greatest

hat she cherished most was

. Marie Curie gave herself

dioactivity in 1896 and

gation. Pierre Curie

arie. After arduous hours

s announced in July, 1898.

new metal some 400 times

he new metal Polonium in

ery, when the Curies

arthed another new ele-

showed that radium was a

dreaded diseases. Conse-

were opened.

first felt in her youth.

ous French physicist,

en, one day Pierre was

ldren to care for, Madam

the research in radio-

together.

er," Smithsonian Institution

ws, Aug. 2, 1903 to Dec. 1903, pp.

3, 235, 247, 259, 271.

en his Professor of

n physics. He thought his

e following summer prepar-

er studied with Pupin and

ff at the University of

e of Technology.

llikan was successful

he quantity of electricity

1.602 x 10-19 coulomb.

o far reaching that a

at interest. By means of

containing two plates

cles drifted slowly down-

etween the plates. These

and could then be seen

re was a scale to determine

plate was made positive

of the droplets fell faster

ops were positively charged,

of the potential on the

 less in the

cribes the

he droplets is

an error in

accuracy.

hen the field

ugh a known

roplet

ed, giving the

ed would

e-

ysteries.

ays

port Smithsonian

Evidence for

les," Proceed-

Rays," Nature,

mers,

oy.

re

loated across

he question-

akes them?"

he went

Electricity

hat dealt

ring arc

s later

atus.

g uni-

e first

World's

n years

yed at the

mitting

ctions.

answers

cs."

artment of Thordarson
mes, but viewed in

o world is recognized.

ess telegraphy, radio

of vacuum tubes.

t placed between the

ed the missing link for con-

is first radio tube the

s and bounds.

rain altimeter, with

ve the ground. He, like other

onal efforts to help win

graphy

ess Telegraphy," American

25, p. 719; Oct. 1906.

Proceedings of the I.R.E.. Vol. 2,

refinement of char-

r of Wireless Communi-

ok full advantage of

r Marconi received inspi-

y years old, happened

agnetic waves. From this

es for communication. He

could be intensified and

essages through space.

ue, when he received

code from Poldhu to

lways advancing to a

hen he passed away in

ess "Trail Blazer of

ectrician, Vol. 69, p. 95; April 26.

p. 219; May 17,1912.

ute, Annual Report, p. 117; 1911.

Very Short Electric Waves,"

in, Vol. 27, Part 4, p. 509; 1933.

110, p. 3; Jan. 6,1933

arried

e; when

eometry.

n then

my, and

lowed

sities

Advanced

ch in

on. His ideas

ec-

p with

ativity

edge will

ers in

nlimited

ee in

ris Ros-

later these

of the tele-

ossible the

iver.

ps of

urgh in

e when

roscope

bout 2,000,

times. The

micro-

f matter

Transmission
 elevision," R.C.A. Review, Vol. 1,

ory and Performance of the

1071; Aug. 1937.

mage Iconoscope," Proceedings of

of the Projection Kinescope,"

7.

ents in the Electron Micro-

April 1941.

n individual, toward the

hael Pupin, he found

passed. He graduated in

served in France during

y, we find him again

detailed description of

al and far reaching.

reased sensitivity of the

was prominent in early

practical applications. This

uperheterodyne circuit,

eivers. A third outstanding

at made possible two way

he announcement of

at last, static-free radio

ad not been heard before.

war, but in the Radionic

t invention, Frequency

of radio performance.

Regenerative Circuits," (Super-

p. 244; Aug. 1922.

nces in Radio Signaling by a

the IJtJS., Vol. 24, No. 5;

ca," Wireless World. Vol. 44, pp.

al of The Franklin Institute, p.

ineering; Dec. 1940.

mic rays are inseparable.

generations to come.
ts were

sophy at

graph stars

phys-

wered,

positions

d him

tion and

ays,

7.

ton

of these

erstellar

ut it is

und to

000 (A)

it (A)

eter.

ratus as

n cham-

not be

crust, and

g radiation.

articles of

from some

he sur-

bout one

ion about

ed down to

e it was

level.

y are

erefore

on of the

ution, p. 215; 1929.

nstitution, p. 287;

th Carolina Press) .

n of Cosmic-

eview of Scientific

gh Altitudes,"

f Scientific Instru-

klin Institute,

. 122; July-Oct. 1939.

ntribution in design

ducated at University

stant to the Professor of

orologist-in-Charge at a

om 1917 until 1921, when

rtment of Scientific and

nt. He remained there until

the Radio Department,

ntendent of the Bawdsey

or of Communication De-

ted Vice Controller of Com-

roduction, and at the

viser in Telecommunica-

rection finding and

ch on which he and his

d military secret. When

ut their findings, the place it

d during World War II.

d Application of the Cathode Ray

" In order to evaluate

structure.

atoms called molecules.

ents of an atom—the elec-

cter of the atoms of the

nes" to create matter in

ble and indestructible.

y to refutation of such

positive in charge) sur-

ng in orbits something like

ansformed into oxygen,

he original element with

atom smashing. His

netic resonance accelerator,

s to impart very high

helium nucleus. These

ndrical box separated into

esemblance to the letter

ight edges. A high-fre-

uency of 15,000,000 cycles

and applied to the dees,

en the straight edges. A

ghing nearly 100 tons, is

c field of

d to move

sted so

e electric

ss the gap.

er increas-

oduc-

mma ray

ce then

m with

smashing,

ing search

hsonian Institu-

nal Academy of

Radioactivity

my of Science,

ile still

en field

a round-

on appa-

and

1934, Farns-

canning,

camera

nsworth.

hotographed

oto-cathode"

age is pro-

camera is

e cathode

is moved

f 15,750

also pulled

ne "electron

ny element

elivers

aperture

r of

mproving
ture film can be reproduced.

passed through a suitable

y carrier wave sent out

levision, has estab-

canning," Journal of Franklin

" Electronics, Vol. 11, p. 8;

rontiers-

g "The

pments have

its subdivi-

modern mir-

g a com-

e and the

hich com-

ars in the

e of the Latin

s derived

rd ion comes

ple of ienai, to

radionics is

onsisted

re of the pos-

ound in nu-

he positron,

c disintegra-

ut from behind
3
similar

equired to

densers

ubing.

mparing the

es.

ve

the

noticeable

cteristics

cies it

e, is

as as

ion

re-

ting

er. This

radi-

by placing

ared at

field

es

100 M.C.

f selec-

r words,

s than by

use of

s (copper

wave-

ance.

ce.
ductor radius should be

ng with parallel open wire

s about a quarter of the

this is electron transit

electron to travel from

anode transit time, be-

this is that transit

er, as small as it is, be-

d of oscillation. Dividing

nd grid into the distance

ode transit time. Since

he actual expression used is

cycle, the tube will

er of a period of the

ing.

gh frequencies are

ding examples to date

ob tube numbered

ach tube type there is

operation.

at at these higher

y thin layer or "skin"

by using conductors with

s must be as short as

pplication of super-

ain Major Armstrong

cies (say those above 600

e can be certain that

e help bring freedom

activities will be is

n radio.
a
Feb. 1941.
ubes."
-
Striker,

11.
ns-
,

.
e
0.
c
.
agazine, July 1942.
o

-
-

32.
;
.
arnahan and Mr

oject.—E. Kelsey.