Question 1 A single crystal of a metal that has the FCC crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile ‘stress is applied parallel to the [100] direction. If the critical resolved shear stress for this material is 5 MPa, calculate the magnitude of an applied force necessary to cause slip to occur on the (111) plane and in [110] direction. Solution: We know that critical resolved shear stress is given by, Top = cos cOSA Now, ‘The angle between [100] and [111] is, M+ OM +O) _ 1 V¥O@) And, the angle between [100] and [110] is, —- MO) + ME) + MO) cos cosa YO). Therefore, pee Schmid factor is, cos cosA = Ex = 0.408 pas 5Mpa 2.25 Mpa ae cos cosa 0.408 ‘Thus the magnitude of stress necessary to cause slip is 12.25 Mpa. J We know that ¢ = F/A or F = «A. If we know the cross sectional area, we can find the force. Question 2 What are the slip systems in: a) FCC b) Bcc ©) HCP What conclusions can you derive, based on the number of slip systems on the mechanical properties with respect to the motion of dislocations in materials having FCC, BCC, HCP structures. 1 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, GE. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987Solution: a) FOC {111} <110>. It has 12 slip systems. ‘The closely packed family of planes of highest atomic density are {111} and the closely packed direction is <110>. ‘There are four sets of octahedral planes {11} and each plane has 3 directions <110>. ‘Therefore, 12 slip systems. b) BCC {110} <111>, {112} <111>, {123} <111>. It has 48 slip systems. ©) HCP {0001} <1120> or {1100} <1120>. It has 3 slip systems. ‘The plane of highest atomic density is {0001} and the closely packed direction is <1120>. Only one set of family of planes {0001} and 8 directions <1120>. Based on the number of slip systems we can say that, + In FCC, lower shearing stresses are required to cause slip as compared to BCC structures and it has higher ductility as compared to other erystal systems. + In BCC materials higher shearing stresses are required to cause slip, because the planes are not so closely packed. Irregular wavy slip bands are observed as slip occurs ‘on several planes. + In HCP structures, the limited number of slip systems is the reason for extreme orientation dependence and low ductility. v Question 3 Explain why slip occurs on planes that have the highest atom density and on directions that have the most packed atoms. Solution: Close packed planes have highest atomic density and since they are also the most widely spaced planes in the crystal structure, the resistance to slip is generally less for these planes than for any other set of planes. Hence they become the favourable plane for slip to occur. ‘There are favourable directions also. Close packed directions have high atomic density that is the atoms are very close to each other. Thus, effort required to move dislocations on the application of the external stress, which acts as the resolved shear stress, on a close packed direction is comparatively small and hence the dislocation can move relatively easily. The slip plane and slip direction both form a slip system. When the critical stress is maximum for a particular slip system the slip oceurs. Vv 2 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987Question 4 Describe the basic dislocation reactions which are responsible for yielding and strain hardening. Why do polycrystals strain harden faster than single crystals? Solution: ‘The basic dislocation reactions responsible for strain hardening and yielding are as follows; Dislocation interaction: Dislocations interact with each other and with barriers: which impede their motion through the crystal lattice to cause strain hardening, Dislocations pile up (back stress): The dislocations pile up on slip planes at barriers in the crystal, this produces a back stress which opposes the applied stress on. slip plane. The back stress developed by dislocation piling up at the barriers aid dislocation movement when the direction of slip is reversed. This also creates strain in the first slip direction. Lomer-Cottrell barriers (sessile dislocation): These dislocations are caused by low mobility dislocation reactions. The sessile dislocations do not lie on the slip plane of low shear stress and hence act as barrier to dislocation movement. The most important are lomer-cortell barriers that form in fec metals by slip on intersecting {111} planes. Intersection of a forest of dislocations: The dislocations threading through the active slip plane are often called a dislocation forest, and this strain-hardening process is referred to as the intersection of a forest of dislocations. dogs and cross slip: Jogs on a dislocation restrict its motion so that they contribute to strain hardening. Jogs are also formed by a screw dislocation cross slipping from the primary slip plane to another plane which contains the common slip direction. ie 62 Ais el of dtr svi of «poles. Te ‘yl deform st repo {iim my pedues nti. seid Posed (0). Tho (eens ronan et ‘aly meet eating He) {au ow Bt ste Sa ‘tins we show, ar BE ‘ie Ba Mg Bp 3 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987From the above figure, Ashby’s model we can see that, when a single crystal is deformed in tension, it is usually free to deform on a single slip system. However, individual grains in a polyerystalline specimen are not subjected to a single uniaxial stress systom. In a polycrystal, continuity must be maintained, so that the boundaries between the deforming crystals remain intact. Although each grain tries to deform homogeneously in conformity with the deformation of the specimen as a whole, the constraints imposed by continuity cause considerable differences in the deformation between neighbouring grains and within each grain, Since slip systems are usually operative near the grain boundary, the hardness usually will be higher near the boundary. Thus, the polycrystals strain harden faster than single crystals. Question 5 How does dispersion hardening differ from precipitation hardening in relationship to the phase equilibria? Solution: Dispersion Hardening Precipitation Hardening 1. In dispersion hardening various hard] 1. In Precipitation hardening, strength is particles are mixed with matrix powder | achieved by solution treating and and processed metallurgically to] quenching an alloy in which a second strengthen the material. phase is in solid solution at the elevated 2, The second phase in dispersion] temperature but precipitates upon | hardening systems has very little] quenching and aging at a lower solubility in the matrix. temperature. 8. There generally is no coherency between | 2. The second phase must be soluble at an the second-phase particles and the| — elevated temperature but must exhibit matrix. decreasing solubility with decreasing 4. It is possible to produce an almost| — temperature. infinite number of dispersion-hardened | 3. ‘There is atomic matching, or coherency, systems by mixing finely divided| — between the lattices of the precipitate metallic powders and second-phase| and the matrix. particles. 4. These are not thermally stable at very 5. The particles resist growth or overaging | __ high temperatures toa much greater extent. 5. The second-phase particles. in a precipitation-hardening system have less resistance to overaging, 4 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, GE. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987Question 6 What are the mechanisms of strengthening in quenched and tempered steels? Describe the processing briefly and relate to phase changes. What is the effect of increased C content, alloying additions and tempering temperature? Solution: ‘The mechanisms of strengthening in quenched and tempered steels are as follows; + Transformation of austenite to martensite in quenching of stec! is the most common strengthening processes. The high strength of martensite implies that there are many. strong barriers to dislocation motion in the structure. Fine twin structure or the high dislocation density form effective barriers to slip that provide high strength. ‘+The second important contribution to the strength of martensitic steels comes from the carbon atoms. On rapidly transforming from austenite to ferrite in the quench, the solubility of carbon in iron is greatly reduced, a strong binding is set up between dislocations and the carbon atoms this restricts the motion of dislocations. Also the strengthening due to carbon atom clustering and dislocation interaction increases approximately linearly with carbon content, «The formation of austenite, without transformation to pearlite or bainite, also results in very high strengths in tempered steels. Thus, it is necessary to work with an alloy steel which has a stable austenite region in its time-temperature-transformation (TTT) curve. Highest strengths are achieved by the greatest possible deformation at the lowest temperature at which transformation does not occur. This can be seen in the following figure. | Austenitzing temp Pearite Temperature Y Quench ee ey Oem Cem CTO C5 Time sec ‘The effect of increased carbon content; + The strength increases and ductility decreases with increasing carbon content. From the following figure we can see that, hardness is a function of carbon content, and the hardness increases with increasing carbon content. 5 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E, Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 987 Jv19 od : XE so 3 A ~ 99.3% mortensite_| Fa 335% martnate ; Br bom morteaie 280% martensite _| 250% martensite a [4 oA 0508 OF a8 OF OR arbor tontents wht ‘The effect of tempering temperature; + From the following figure we can see that, the tensile strength and yield strength decrease with increasing tempering temperatures and elongation increases with increasing tempering temperature. é |. 1500] eo : 50 © 000 Ra ' 30% E seo e 4 08 : o : e108 oe o ayn 080 Tenering temperature, K ‘The effect of alloying additions, Basically there is a large similarity in mechanical properties of low alloy steels. Two alloy atecls given the same tempering treatment will have the same tensile properties, if different tempering temperatures were used to bring two different alloy steels to the same tensile strength. But all low: or notch sensitivity, alloy steels do not have the same fracture toughness 6 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, GE. Dieter, 3d edition, MeGraw-Hil, 987 JQuestion 7 With respect to precipitation hardening discuss how the cutting through the particles and by-passing the particles affect the yield stress and the rate of strain hardening. $4 Figure: A dislocation cutting a particle Solution: te) ‘The second-phase particles in precipitation hardening act in two distinct ways to retard the motion of dislocations. 'The particles either may be cut by the dislocations or the particles resist cutting and the dislocations are forced to bypass them. The figure above shows how a dislocation cuts a particle. ‘The yield stress and the rate of strain hardening are affected by the aging of the erystals, as well as cutting through and by-passing of dislocations; + When the crystal is aged to form coherent GP zones, the yield stress is relatively high and rate of strain hardening is low. The slip lines are distinguishable and yield drops, this suggests that the dislocations cut through particles. + In crystals aged to peak hardness, the yield stress is slightly low and rate of strain hardening increases. The slip lines are short and indistinguishable, this suggests that the dislocations are by passing the particles * In overaged crystals, the yield strength is low and strain hardening is very high. Dislocations accumulate in tangles around the particles in the process of passing between them Question 8 Discuss strain aging of steels: causes, practical effects, yield effects. 7 [ Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987Solution: In strain aging the strength of the material is increased and the ductility is decreased. This is achieved by heating at a relatively low temperature after cold working. We can see this in steels as illustrated in the following figure. Stress = Strain > Here, is the stress strain curve for a low carbon steel. And it can be seen that, it is strained plastically through yield point elongation to a point x. when the specimen is unloaded and retested, the yield point doesn’t occur. Cause: This is due to the fact that the dislocations have been torn away from the atmosphere of carbon and nitrogen atoms. Again if the specimen is strained to point Y, unloaded and reloaded after aging for several days at room temperature. The yield point reappears. Also the yield point will increase to appoint z, hence the strength of material increases due to strain aging. Cause: This is due to the diffusion of carbon and nitrogen atoms to the dislocations during the aging period to form new atmospheres of interstitials anchoring the dislocations, ‘There are some effects on the material in strain aging, in addition to increase in yield stress there is a decrease in ductility and a low value of strain rate sensitivity. Practical effects: One of the effects that shows dynamic strain aging behaviour is the Portevin-LeChatelier effect. This is shown by the occurrence of serrations in the stress-strain curve. The solute atoms catch and lock the dislocations at a rate faster than the speed of dislocations. This causes serrations as load increases and drops several times. Yield effects: Discontinuous yielding is another effect which occurs in the temperature region of 500 to 650 K. This is known as the blue brittle region. There is a decreased tensile ductility and decreased notched-impact resistance in this zone. :