American University of Beirut

6/1/2020
American University of Beirut

Department of Geology
Planetary Geology (GEOL 206)
Course Notes
Textbook: Introduction to Planetary Science: The Geological Perspective
Authors: Gunter Faure, Teresa M. Mensing
Publisher: Springer; Year: 2007
Mohamed Salah
Associate Professor
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2 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System
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The Planets of the Solar System
Where we are?. The solar system is dominated by the Sun.

 Hundreds of billions of stars make up the Milky Way galaxy. Our galaxy
is one of billions of galaxies and star clusters in the Universe.
 Therefore, the solar system is a very small part of the Milky Way galaxy
which itself, relative to the universe, is like a grain of sand on a
long/wide beach. The Earth and all of us are a part of the Universe.
 The Sun is a radiant disk that rises every morning across the eastern
horizon, moves in an arc across the sky, and sets in the evening by
appearing to sink below the western horizon.
The Milky Way Galaxy. The arrow points to the location of the solar system.
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What Is the Sun?
 Our Sun is a normal star; one of

more than 100 billion stars in the
Milky Way galaxy.
 The Sun’s Profile:
- diameter: 1,390,000 km
- mass: 1.989 * 1030 kg
- temperature: 5800° K (surface), and
15,600,000 ° K (core)
 The Sun is the largest object in the solar system. It contains more
than 99.8% of its mass (with Jupiter containing most of the rest).
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 The old mistaken impression regarding motions between the sun and the
Earth: The Geocentric Model of the Solar System. The familiar daily motions of
the Sun across the sky are caused by the rotation of the Earth about a virtual
axis.
 Common misconceptions about the volume of the Earth: we consider the Earth
as a large planet, but its volume is more than one million times smaller than
the volume of the Sun.
 The average distance between the Sun and the Earth is 149.6 x 106 km (1 AU),
which sounds like a long distance, but it actually places the Earth very close to
the Sun within the solar system which extends to more than 50AU from the Sun.
 The Astronomical Unit (AU): is the average distance between the center of the
Earth and the center of the Sun: 1AU = 149.6×106 km.
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 A time of one century is an insignificant length of time compared to the age of

the solar system which is 46 million centuries old (i.e., 4.6 billion years).
 The last 20 centuries of the most recent human history represent only a tiny
fraction of time in the history of the solar system. In this short period of time, we
have explored the Earth and are now exploring the solar system. Humans have
certainly accomplished a lot in the past 2000 years!
 It is expected that humans will not only explore and occupy the solar system, but
will colonize other planets that orbit “nearby” stars located several lightyears
(lys) from the Sun.
 What is a lightyear (1 ly)?

Positions and names of planets (with their relative size) in the Solar System.
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What is the blue planet?

What is the red planet?
The inner (rocky) planets: from left to right Earth, Mars, Venus,
and Mercury (sizes to scale).
 The outer (gaseous)

planets: from top to
bottom: Neptune, Uranus,
Saturn, and Jupiter
(montage with
approximate color and
relative size).
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The eight planets of the Solar System (by decreasing size) are:
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury.
1. The Sun and the Planets of the Solar System

 The celestial bodies that populate the solar system, and orbit the Sun, have been
classified into Three Categories that were defined on August 24, 2006, by the
International Astronomical Union (IAU) at an assembly in Prague:
1. Planets: celestial bodies that orbit the Sun, have sufficient mass so that they
assume a spherical shape, and they have “cleared the neighborhood around
their orbits”.
2. Dwarf Planets: less massive than planets although they do have spherical
shapes, they have not “cleared the neighborhood around their orbits”, and
they are not satellites.
3. Small Solar-System Bodies: orbit the Sun but do not have sufficient mass to
achieve spherical shapes and they have not “cleared the neighborhood around
their orbits”.
 As a consequence, the solar system has only eight planets: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto is a dwarf planet!
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 Definitions adopted by the IAU exclude objects that orbit the planets
from the category of dwarf planets (as they do not orbit the Sun).
 Several satellites of Jupiter and Saturn have larger diameters and are
more massive than planet Mercury. Therefore, the term “satellite” is
used to describe celestial bodies of any size and shape that orbit any of
the eight regular planets of the solar system but not the sun.
 The term “Moon” is reserved for the satellite of the Earth.
 The orbits of the planets and asteroids are confined to a narrow region
of space aligned with the equator of the Sun and with the plane of the
orbit of the Earth.
 Mercury and Venus are the only two planets that do not have any satellite. The
number of known satellites: increased from 59 in 1991 to more than 120 in
2007. As of October 2008, there were 181 known satellites orbiting planets in
our Solar System.
 That number increased now to 194. 185 satellites orbit the "full-size" planets,
while 9 satellites orbit the smaller "dwarf planets" (Pluto, Haumea, etc.).
Summary – number of moons (Jan., 2019)

Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Number of
0 0 1 2 79 62 27 14
moons
Dwarf planet Ceres Pluto Haumea Makemake Eris

Number of moons 0 5 2 1 1
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 The newly discovered satellites have small diameters, are far removed
from their home planets, and have irregular orbits.
 A good way to describe the solar system is by examining certain

physical properties (Table 1) that characterize each planet.
 Although the Earth is the most massive terrestrial planet (5.974 × 1024
kg), its mass is only a tiny fraction of the mass of the Sun (i.e.,
0.0003%).
 Even Jupiter, the largest of all the planets in the solar system with a
mass of 1898×1024 kg, pales by comparison with the Sun (i.e., 0.0954%).
Table 1. Physical properties of the planets.
 The mass of all of the planets of the solar system is 2667.5×1024 kg, which
represents only 0.134 % of the mass of the Sun.
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Figure 1. Comparison between the diameter of the Sun and those of the planets of
the solar system (including Pluto) drawn to scale. Diameters (in km) are: Me =
Mercury (4880); V = Venus (12,104); E = Earth (12,756); Ma = Mars (6792); J =
Jupiter (142,984); S = Saturn (120,536); U = Uranus (51,118); N = Neptune (49,532);
P = Pluto (2,300). The diameter of the Sun is 1,391,020 km.
Size comparison of the Sun and the eight planets (the solar system).
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How big is the solar system?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MK5E_7hOi-k
 What are the physical differences between stars and planets?

- Stars and planets are differentiated based on two properties:
1. Whether or not they undergo nuclear reactions that burn hydrogen in
their cores. Stars do this; planets don't. In order to have high enough
temperatures in the core to burn hydrogen, an object needs to have a mass of
at least 75 or so times that of Jupiter. Anything more massive than that is
automatically considered a star.
2. The way they form. Stars form when a cloud of gas, out in a nebula or other
region of interstellar space, collapses under the influence of gravity. Planets
form when material in the disk around a pre-existing star begins to condense
around rock/ice cores.
 There may be situations where the entire planet is almost completely
rock/ice/water (such as the Earth), or situations where a large amount of gas is
subsequently attracted to the rock/ice core (such as Jupiter, Saturn, etc.).
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2. The Titius-Bode Rule
 The rule generates a series of numbers that appear to match the average
distances of the planets from the Sun expressed in AU. It was published
in 1772 by two German astronomers: Johann Titius and Johann Bode.
 The procedure for generating this series of numbers is:

1. Write a string of numbers starting with zero: 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, 384,
768…
2. Add 4 to each number, then divide by 10.
3. The result is: 0.4, 0.7, 1.0, 1.6, 2.8, 5.2, 10.0, 19.6, 38.8, and 77.2.
 The actual distances of the planets are compared to the Titius-Bode
predictions in Table 2 and Figure 2.
Table 2. Average radii of planetary orbits

compared to values predicted by the Titius-Bode
rule published in 1772.
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Figure 2. The observed radii of the orbits of the terrestrial planets (Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, and Ceres) as well as those of Jupiter and Saturn agree with
the distances predicted by the Titius-Bode rule. However, the observed average
radii of the orbits of Uranus, Neptune, and of the dwarf planet Pluto are
progressively shorter than the radii predicted by the Titius-Bode rule.
The Titius-Bode rule confirmed

 The Titius-Bode rule predicted the existence of a planet at a distance of 2.8AU
from the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, which was not known at
that time.
 When the asteroid Ceres was discovered in 1801, at the predicted distance from
the Sun, the Titius-Bode rule appeared to be confirmed.
 The good agreement between the predicted and observed solar distances of the
inner planets in Figure 2 suggests that they were formed by a certain process.
 The discrepancies between the actual and predicted radii of the orbits of Uranus,
Neptune, and Pluto indicate that the orbits of these planets were altered after
their formation.
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3. Average Orbital Velocities
 A planet in a stable circular orbit around the Sun must move with a velocity
which is sufficiently large to generate a centrifugal force ‘inertia’ that is equal
to the force of gravity exerted by the Sun.
 The gravitational force acting on a planet located close to the Sun is greater
than the force acting on a more distant planet (Why?). Therefore, the average
orbital velocity of planets close to the Sun must be higher than the orbital
velocity of more distant planets.
 The average orbital velocity of the Earth (at 1.0 AU) is 29.79 km/s, which is
equivalent to 107,244 km/h.
Much higher than the speed limit of cars!!!!
Me = 47.87 km/s
E = 29.79 km/s
P = 4.75 km/s
Figure 3. The average orbital velocities of the planets decrease with increasing
distance from the Sun.
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 The observed pattern of variation of the average orbital velocities

applies to all objects in stable circular orbits around the Sun.
 The velocity of any object orbiting the Sun depends only on:
1. The average radius of the orbit
2. The mass of the Sun (but not on the mass of the orbiter).
4. Surface Temperatures (STs)

 The ST of a planet depends on:
1. Distance from the Sun.
2. The presence of an atmosphere containing the so-called greenhouse gases such as
CO2, H2O, and CH4.
3. Heat that may originate in the interiors of some planets and brought to
the surface by volcanic activity (e.g., Earth) or by convection of the
atmosphere (e.g., Jupiter).
 The average STs of the terrestrial planets in Table 1 and in Figure 4A decrease
with distance from the Sun as expected and range from +167º C on Mercury to
−33º C on Mars.
 The average ST of Venus (+464º C) is anomalously high because this planet has
a dense atmosphere composed primarily of CO2 which absorbs infrared (IR)
radiation.
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Figure 4. A. The average STs of the terrestrial

planets generally decrease away from the Sun.
B. The temperatures in the atmospheres of the gas
planets likewise decrease with distance from the
Sun and reach very low values.
 Without greenhouse warming, the temperature

of Venus should only be about 75º C.
 Mercury has an extreme range of 625 degrees
(from +452º to −173º C) because Mercury lacks
an atmosphere and rotates slowly on its axis
allowing extreme heating and cooling.
5. Bulk Densities
 The density of a solid object is defined as:
Density = Mass/Volume (kg/m3) or (g/cm3)
 The density of an object is the mass in grams of
one cubic centimeter of the material of which it
is composed. Consequently, the density of a
celestial object depends on its chemical
composition and the minerals of which it is
composed.
 Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
on the Earth are composed of certain minerals
having a wide range of densities depending on
their chemical compositions.
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Table 3. Densities of common terrestrial

minerals and selected metals.
 The minerals listed in Table 3

have densities that range from
0.917 g/cm3 for water ice to 5.26
g/cm3 for hematite (Fe2O3).
 The densities of metals range

even more widely.
 A planet having a bulk density of

3.91 g/cm3 could be composed of a
core of metallic iron (Fe)
surrounded by a rocky mantle of
peridotite rocks.
Density of the Earth

 The density of matter depends also on the Temperature and Pressure to which
it is subjected. How do temperature and pressure affect density?!
 The net increase of the density in the interior of the Earth in Figure 5 is the
result of the increase of both pressure and temperature as well as changes in the
chemical composition of the material.
 In addition, the minerals that make up the rocks of the mantle of the Earth
recrystallize under the influence of pressure to form new minerals that have
smaller volumes and thus greater densities than the minerals that are stable at the
surface of the Earth.
 Figure 5 also demonstrates the abrupt change in density at the CMB. The
pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying mantle and crust causes the
density of iron in the core of the Earth to rise to more than 12.0 g/cm3
compared to only 7.87 g/cm3 at 20º C at the surface of the Earth.
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Why does the density of iron

change from 7.87 g/cm3 at the
surface of the Earth to more than
12.0 g/cm3 at the Earth’s core?!!!!
Figure 5. The high density of the mantle and outer core of the Earth are caused by the increasing
pressure as well as by changes in the chemical composition (e.g., rocky mantle and metallic iron core)
and by pressure-induced recrystallization of minerals in the mantle to form new minerals having lower
volumes and higher densities than the common rock-forming minerals at the surface of the Earth (e.g.,
plagioclase feldspar, olivine, and pyroxene).
 The bulk densities of the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth,

and Mars) and Ceres in Figure 6A decrease in a regular pattern with
increasing distance from the Sun. The differences in the bulk densities of
these planets are caused by corresponding differences in chemical
compositions.
 The bulk density of the Earth is anomalously high, whereas that of the
Moon is anomalously low as are the densities of the satellites of Mars
(Phobos and Deimos).
 The bulk densities of the gas planets are noticeably lower than that of the
terrestrial planets.
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 Figure 6. The bulk

densities of the
terrestrial planets (A) and
of the gas planets (B).
 Planets Earth and Saturn
have the highest and
lowest densities,
respectively. Why?
 The pattern of density variations in Figure 6A reveals three anomalies:
1. The bulk density of the Earth 5.52 g/cm3 is greater than expected for a planet
located at a distance of 1.0AU from the Sun.
2. The bulk density of the Moon 3.34 g/cm3 is less than that of the Earth and
lower than expected for a body that formed in orbit around the Earth.
3. The bulk densities of the satellites of Mars (Phobos, 1.9 g/cm3 and Deimos,
1.8 g/cm3) are less than that of Mars 3.91 g/cm3 and deviate from the pattern
of planetary densities in Figure 6A.
 The anomalously high bulk density of the Earth and the comparatively low
density of the Moon imply a significant difference in their chemical
compositions.
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 The satellites of Mars consist of rocks composed of silicate minerals, have

small masses compared to Mars, and they have irregular shapes. Their low
masses and irregular shapes combined with their low densities imply that they
are asteroids captured by Mars.
 The bulk densities of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune in Figure 6B are all
less than 1.64 g/cm3 and vary only from 0.69 g/cm3 (Saturn) to 1.638 g/cm3
(Neptune).
 These low bulk densities arise from the thick atmospheres composed of
hydrogen (H) and helium (He) that surround the comparatively small rocky
cores of these planets.
 The low densities and thick atmospheres of the gas planets distinguish them
from the terrestrial planets which have high bulk densities characteristic of the
presence of large iron cores.
 Pluto:
 Pluto, located at an average distance of 39.54 AU from the Sun, differs from the
planets of the solar system because it is a solid body composed primarily of
water ice (H2O).
 Its density of about 2.0 g/cm3 (Table 1), indicates that it has a core, which is
presumed to be composed of rocky material having a density of about 3.0 g/cm3.
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 Below are some useful links for documentary videos (40 to 50 mins) that
you may find on YouTube:
1. The Complete Cosmos Secrets of the Solar System:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gNlxqgdvumw
2. Birth of the Universe:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2OpbdMjvni0&t=283s
3. What is Space and Time and How it Works:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eb8c_302lxs
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6/1/2020

American University of Beirut

Planetary Geology (GEOL 206)

2 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

The Planets of the Solar System

Where we are?. The solar system is dominated by the Sun.

4 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

What Is the Sun?

 Our Sun is a normal star; one of

5 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

6 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

7 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

 A time of one century is an insignificant length of time compared to the age of

 What is a lightyear (1 ly)?

11 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

What is the blue planet?

12 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

 The outer (gaseous)

13 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

14 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

1. The Sun and the Planets of the Solar System

 The term “Moon” is reserved for the satellite of the Earth.

Summary – number of moons (Jan., 2019)

Dwarf planet Ceres Pluto Haumea Makemake Eris

17 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

 A good way to describe the solar system is by examining certain

Table 1. Physical properties of the planets.

19 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

21 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

How big is the solar system?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MK5E_7hOi-k

22 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

 What are the physical differences between stars and planets?

23 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

2. The Titius-Bode Rule

 The procedure for generating this series of numbers is:

Table 2. Average radii of planetary orbits

25 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

26 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

The Titius-Bode rule confirmed

27 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

3. Average Orbital Velocities

28 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

29 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

 The observed pattern of variation of the average orbital velocities

1. The average radius of the orbit

30 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

4. Surface Temperatures (STs)

Figure 4. A. The average STs of the terrestrial

 Without greenhouse warming, the temperature

32 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

Table 3. Densities of common terrestrial

 The minerals listed in Table 3

 The densities of metals range

 A planet having a bulk density of

34 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

Density of the Earth

Why does the density of iron

 The bulk densities of the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth,

39 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

 Figure 6. The bulk

40 Geol-206: Planetary Geology - The Planets of the Solar System

 The pattern of density variations in Figure 6A reveals three anomalies:

 The satellites of Mars consist of rocks composed of silicate minerals, have