DRAFT FOR DEVELOPMENT DDENV 1998-4:1999 Eurocode 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures — Part 4: Silos, tanks and pipelines = ar gee. = a “Sars NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW Sa VL BEDD ENV 1998-4:1999 This Draft for Development, having been prepared under the direction of the Sector ‘Commitee for Bulling and Cit “Engmeenng, was pubised under the authority of the Standards ‘Comiee and comes into effect, fon 15 May 1000) © Ds 05-1000 ISBN 0580 52495 1 National foreword ‘This part of DD ENV 1998 has been prepared by Subcomumuttee Bi525/8, and is the English language version of ENV 1998-:1998, published by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) NY 19984:1998 resulis from a prograuue of work sponsored by the Europea Commision to make available a common set of rules for the structural and geotechnical design of buuldings and civil engineenng works. The full range of codes covers the basis of design and actions, the design of structures in concrete, steel composite construction, timber, masonry and aluminium allay, and also geotechnical and seismic design ‘This Draft for Development is nol Wo be regarded ay x British Standard, An ENV of European Prestandard is made available for provisional application, but it does not have the status of a European Standard. The alm is to use the experience gained to modify the ENV so that it can be adopted as a European Standard (EN). ‘There is no existing Bish Standard equivalent to ENV 198-4 and there is no requirement in the building regulations to consider seismic actions on buildings ane civil engineering works in the UK. NY 1096-1-1 states that the provisions of Eurocode 8 may be simplified or not observed in regions of low seismicity. Within the UK, the application of Eurocode 8 should not be necessary, umless the client or user ofthe works assesses thatthe associated seismic risk is, such that it needs to be addressed. Users ofthis document are invited to comment on its technical content, ease of use and any ambiguities or anomalies, both with respect to use in the UK and also in other more actively Seismic areas. These comments will be taken into account when preparing the UK national response to CEN on the question of whether the ENV can be converted into an EN. Comments should be sent in writing to the Secretary to B/S25/8 at BSI, 989 Chiswick High Road, Landon WA 4A, quating the dacument reference, the relevant clause and, if possible, a proposed revision, A list of organizations represented on this subcommittee can be obtained on request to its secretary. Cross-references ‘The British Standards which implement intemational or European publications referred £0 in this document may be found in dhe BSI Standards Catalogue under the section entitled “Intemational Standards Correspondence Inde", or by using the “Find” facility of the BST Standards Electronic Catalogue. Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer i egal obligations. Summary of pages ‘This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, the ENV title page, pages 2 to 65 and a back cover unity from Amendments issued since publication Amd.No. [Date ‘Text affectedCorrected 1998-05-07 EUROPEAN PRESTANDARD ENV 1998-4 PRENORME EUROPEENNE EUROPAISCHE VORNORM Jarnsary 1096 los o1.12025 Descriptors: civil engineering, constructions, etructuree, eile, pipelines, tanks, earthquake resistant structures, earihquake-resistant design, computation English version Eurocode 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures - Part 4: Silos, tanks and pipelines Eurocode 8: Conception et amensionnement des Eurocode 8: Auslegung von Bauwerkan gagen Frdbaban - Jctures pour la résictanco aux eélemes Patio 4: Eilco, Teil 4 Silos, Tankbauwerke und Robvletungen reservoirs et canaisations ‘This Europoan Prestandard (ENV) was approved by CEN on 6 June 1997 as a prospective standard for provisional application ‘Tha pari af valicity cf this ENV is limited inially to three years. After two years the members of CEN willbe requeeted to eubmit their comments, particularly onthe question whether ihe ENV can be converted ino European Standard, CEN membere are required to announce the existence ofthis ENV inthe same way as for an EN and lo make the ENV avalable promptly at national evel in an appropriate fom. It is permissible to keep confiting national standards in force (in parallel to te ENV) until the final 1 is only allowed provided the sources of energy dissipation are explicitly identified and quantified, and the capability of the structure to exploit them through appropriate detailing is demonstrated. (2)P_ For fully elastic design (q=1) the design seismic action is defined by the elastic spectrum. If values of q>1 are adopted, the design spectrum for linear analysis shall be used (3) P_ Even if a value q = 1 is adopted for the overall response, structural elements shall be designed with some local ductility and constructed from ductile materials. 1.4.3 Damping 1.4.3.1 Structural damping (1) If the damping values are not obtained from specific information or by direct means the following damping values should be used in linear analysis: a) Serviceability limit state: reinforced concrete structures: 4% prestressed concrete structures: 2% steel structures: 2% b) Ultimate limit state: reinforced concrete structures: 7% prestressed concrete structures: 5% steel structures: 4% 1.4.3.2 Contents damping (1) The value & = 0,5 % may be adopted for water and other fluids unless otherwise determined. (2) _ For granular materials an appropriate damping value should be used. In the absence of more specific information a value of 10% may be used. 1.4.3.3 Foundation damping (1) Material damping varies with the nature of the soil and the intensity of shaking. When more accurate determinations are not available, the values given in Table 4.1 of ENV 1998-5:1994 should be used.Page 13 ENV 1998-4.1998 (2)P_ Radiation damping depends on the direction of motion (horizontal translation, vertical translation, rocking, etc.), on the geometry of the foundation, on soil layering and soil morphology. The values adopted in the analysis shall be compatible with actual site conditions and shall be justified with reference to acknowledged theoretical and/or experimental results. The values of the radiation damping used in the analysis shall not exceed the value: & = [20 %]. Guidance for the selection and use of damping values associated with different foundation motions is given in Annex B of ENV 1998-3:1996, and in Annex A of this Prestandard. 1.4.4 Interaction with the soil (1) P Soil-structure interaction effects shall be addressed in accordance with 6 of ENV 1998-5:1994. (2) Additional information on procedures for accounting for soil-structure interaction is given in Annex C of ENV 1998-3:1996, and Annex A of this Prestandard. 1.4.5 Weighted damping (1) A_ procedure for accounting of the contributions of the different materials/elements to the global average damping of the whole system is given in Annex B of ENV 1998-3:1996 1.5 Safety verifications 4.5.1 General (1)P Safety verifications shall be carried out for the limit states defined in 1.2, following the specific provisions in 2.4, 3.5 and 4.5. (2) In case plate thickness is increased to account for future corrosion effects the verifications shall be made for both the nonincreased and the increased thickness. 1.5.2 Combinations of seismic action with other actions (1)P Verifications shall be performed using the combination of seismic action effects with the other actions as prescribed in 4.4 (1) of ENV 1998-1-1:1994. UG" WAca"+"P, "+ Day (1.1)Page 14 ENV 1998-4:1998 where: importance factor as defined in 1.2.4 Aca seismic action effects as defined in 1.3 Gj __ permanent loads at their characteristics values. These will include the weight of the structure and in case of partially backfilled or buried tanks, it includes earth cover and permanent external pressures due to the water table P, characteristic value of the prestressing action Qy variable loads at their characteristic values. Among these the effects of the liquid should be considered for various levels of filling Wa combination coefficient for quasi permanent value of variable action i. The yz, values depend on the specific conditions of use and of functioning of the structure. Guidance on these values is given in ENV 1991-1:1994. (2)P. Inthe case of groups of silos and tanks, different likely distributions of full and empty reservoirs shall be considered according to the operation rules of the facility At least, the cases where all reservoirs are either empty or full must be considered. 2 Specific rules for silos 2.1 Dynamic overpressure (1) P_ Under dynamic conditions, the pressure exerted by the material on the walls, the hopper and the bottom, increases over the value relative to the condition at rest. This increased pressure must be considered concurrently with the effects of the inertia forces due to the seismic excitation. (2)P. Design pressures in combination with earthquake load shall be obtained by multiplying the static pressure by the appropriate over-pressure correction factor Cy. Minimum required values of factors C4 are given in Table 2.1. (For values of Hid between 2 and 4 linear interpolation may be used). Table 2.1 Minimum values of over-pressure factor Cy Hids2 Hide4 0,75 = rola) APage 33 ENV 1998-4:1998 The circumferential variation of p, follows the function cos@ Fig. A1(b) shows the radial variation of p, on the tank bottom as a function of the slenderness parameter . For increasing values of y the pressure distribution on the bottom tends to become linear. 10 —— y-0s -- > 710 ro og | . y=30 , = ‘ = " . é we ‘ LS 7 q 00 02 04 06 08 10 00 02 04 06 08 10 Pi(pRag) bark (a) (b) Fig. A1 - Variation of the impulsive pressure for three values of y = H/ R. 4(a) variation along the height; 1(b) radial variation on the tank bottom. (Values normalized to p & ay) Pressure resultants For a number of purposes it is useful to evaluate the horizontal resultant of the pressure at the base of the wall: Q,, as well as the moment of the pressures with respect to an axis orthogonal to the direction of the motion: M,. The total moment M, immediately below the tank bottom includes the contributions of the pressures on the walls and of those on the bottom By making use of eq. (A.1) and (A.2) and performing the appropriate integrals one gets: - impulsive base shear. Q,(t)=m, 4, (t) (A3) where m, indicates the mass of the contained fluid which moves together with the walls, is called impulsive mass, and has the expression: im, = m2y 5 LW!) mn A (y,/) “ePage 34 ENV 1998-4'1998 with m=p xR’ H total contained mass of the fluid. - impulsive base moment. M,(1) =m, h, A,(0) (A5) vet2(™ (ve! 9) Ava!) (As) i 2X. with Wan wy, The two quantities m, and 4, are plotted in Fig. A2 as functions of the ratio y=HIR. 10 3.0 ] ] 4 | in noe 25 | 4 | 20 | 06 4 = x a an 15 : FY = | 04 | | | | 10 4 4 | ot 0s | 4 0.0 1 T 1 00 | 7 | 7 00 10 20 30 00 10 20 30 y=H/R y=HR (a) (b) Fig. A2 - Ratios m,/m and h, / Has functions of the slenderess of the tank It is noted from Fig. A2 that m, increases with y, to become close to the total mass for high values of this parameter, while #, tends to stabilize at about mid height. Values of A, larger than H for squat tanks are due to the predominant contribution of the pressures on the bottom. A.2.1.2 Convective pressure component The spatial-temporal variation of this component is given by the expression: PE58,1)=p , v,cosh (16) (8) e080 44) an)Page 35 ENV 1996-4.1998 with 2R (8-1) 4. Q,) cosh (0,7) (A8) 2, = 18112 dy =5,3314 2, = 8,5363 J, = Bessel function of the first order A,())= response acceleration of a single degree of freedom oscillator having a frequency oy: ody = 222 tanh (ty 7) (ag) and a damping factor value appropriate for the fluid. Eq, (A7) shows that the total pressure is the combination of an infinite number of modal terms, each one corresponding to a wave form of the oscillating liquid. Only the first oscillating, or sloshing, mode and frequency, needs in most cases to be considered for design purposes. The vertical distribution of the sloshing pressures for the first two modes are shown in Fig. A3(a), while Fig. A3(b) gives the values of the first two frequencies, as functions of the ratio H//R 2 Mode 08 os os 02 00 00 02 «04 05 08 10 00 05 19 15 20 25 30 PIPRAQ) YH (a) (b) Fig. A3 - Variation of the first two modes sloshing pressures along the height (Fig. 3(a)), and values of the first two sloshing frequencies as functions of y One can observe from Fig. A3 that in squat tanks the sloshing pressures maintain relatively high values down to the bottom, while in slender tanks the sloshing effect is superficial. For the same value of the response acceleration, the contribution of the second mode is seen to be negligible. The other interesting result from Fig. A3.(b) is that the sloshing frequencies become almost independent of the parameter y, when this is larger than about 1Page 36 ENV 1998-4:1998 The value of @,, in this case is approximately given by the expression: 4 =42/VR (Rin metres) (A.10) which, for the usual values of R in petrochemical plants yields periods of oscillation of the order of few seconds (for instance, T.s = 4,7 sec for R = 10 m) Pressure resultants In a way analogous to that followed for the impulsive component one may arrive at the expressions for the base shear resultant and the total moment immediately below the bottom plate of the tank. The base shear is given by: 2.()=% m. Ay(0) (A11) with the nth modal convective mass. = m2 tanh (A, ¥) mae ne (A12) From eq. (A.11) one can note that the total shear force is given by the instantaneous sum of the forces contributed by the (infinite) oscillators having masses m,,, attached to the rigid tank by means of springs having stifinesses: K,=w; m,,. The tank is subjected to the ground acceleration 4,(r) and the masses respond with accelerations 4,(/). From Fig. A3 (and the following, Fig. A4) one can verify that only the first of the sloshing masses needs to be considered The total moment can be expressed as: M0) =¥, (meA.L0) ha =, Onl) ha (A13) where A,, is the level where the equivalent oscillator has to be applied in order to give the correct value of M.,: _ 2-cosh (A, 7) h, on( Zen bed car 2) (A.14) The values of m, and m.;, and the corresponding values of 4, and h,, are shown in Fig. A4, as functions of y.Page 37 ENV 1998-4:1998 nim yooD al 00 05 19 15 20 25 30 00 05 10 15 29 28 30 1-HR Y=HR (a) (b) Fig. A4 - First two sloshing modal masses (Fig. A4(a)), and corresponding heights hand h,, (Fig. A4(b)), as functions of y A.2.1.3 Height of the convective wave The predominant contribution to the sloshing wave height is provided by the first mode, and the expression of the peak at the edge is: pax = 084 R Se(T1) (A15) where S,(:) is the appropriate elastic acceleration response spectrum, expressed in g (acceleration of gravity). A.2.1.4 Combi tion of impulsive and convective pressures The time-history of the total pressure is the sum of the two time-histories, the impulsive one being driven by 4,(1), the convective one by 4,(#) (neglecting higher order components). If, as it is customary in design practice, a response spectrum approach is preferred, the problem of suitably combining the two maxima arises. Given the generally wide separation between the central frequencies of the ground motion and the sloshing frequency, the ‘square root of the sum of squares” rule may become unconservative, so that the alternative, upper bound, rule of adding the absolute values of the two maxima is recommended for general use A.2.1.6 Effect of walls inertia For steel tanks, the inertia forces acting on the shell due to its own mass are small in comparison with the hydrodynamic forces, and can normally be neglected. For concrete tanks however, the wall inertia forces may not be completely negligible. The inertia forces are contained in the same vertical plane of the seismic excitation;Page 38 ENV 1998-4:1998 considering their component normal to the surface of the shell one has for the pressure the following expression: Pu = 450030 4, (1) (A.16) with p, = mass density of the wall material s = wall thickness This pressure component, which is constant along the height, has to be added to the impulsive component given by eq. (A.1). The total shear at the base is obtained by simply considering the total mass of the tank multiplied by the acceleration of the ground. A.2.2 Vertical earthquake excitation The hydrodynamic pressure on the walls of a rigid tank due to a vertical ground acceleration 4,(r) is given by: Pa(Gt)=P H (1-9) A(t) (A17) A.2,3 Combination of pressures due to horizontal and vertical excitation The peak combined pressure due to horizontal and vertical excitation can be obtained by applying the rule given in 3.2. A.3 Vertical deformable circular tanks A.3.1 Horizontal earthquake excitation When the tank cannot be considered as rigid (this is almost always the case for steel tanks) the complete solution of the Laplace equation is ordinarily si form of the sum of three contributions, referred to as: "rigid impulsive" and “flexible” The third contribution is new with respect to the case of rigid tanks: it satisties the condition that the radial velocity of the fluid along the wall equals the deformation velocity of the tank wall, plus the conditions of zero vertical velocity at the tank bottom and zero pressure at the free surface of the fluid Since the deformation of the wall is also due to the sloshing pressures, the sloshing and the flexible components of the solution are theoretically coupled, a fact which makes the determination of the solution quite involved. Fortunately, the dynamic coupling is very weak, due to the separation which exists between the frequencies of the two motions, and this allows to determine the third component independently of the others with almost complete accuracy. The rigid impulsive and the sloshing components examined in A.2 remain therefore unaffected No closed-form expression is possible for the flexible component, since the pressurePage 39 ENV 1998-4:1998 distribution depends on the modes of vibration of the tank-fluid system, and hence ‘on the geometric and stiffness properties of the tank. These modes cannot be obtained directly from usual eigenvalue algorithms, since the participating mass of the fluid is not known a priori and also because only the modes of the type: 1 (G8) = 4(G) cos® are of interest (and these modes may be laborious to find among all other modes of a tank). Assuming the modes as known (only the fundamental one is normally sufficient, so that in the following expressions both the mode index and the summation over all modal contributions are dropped) the flexible pressure distribution has the form (6.0,t)=p Hy ¥ d, cos(v, <)cos0 4,(0) (A.18) LA +X athcodv)] as with: yee (A19) £10] % 10+ B.cones)| a Wy Aver) i.) an g,=2bfleeosves) 4s 1.19) (azn y, i(v,/¥) p, is the mass density of the shell, s is its thickness and 4,(r) is the response acceleration (relative to its base) of a simple oscillator having the fundamental frequency and damping factor of the first mode In most cases of flexible tanks, the pressure p,() in eq. (A18) provides the predominant contribution to the total pressure, due to the fact that, while the rigid impulsive term (eq. (A.1)) varies with the ground acceleration 4,(7), the flexible term (eq. (A.18)) varies with the response acceleration which, given the usual range of periods of the tank-fluid systems, is considerably amplified with respect to 4,(f). For the determination of the first mode shape of the tank, the following iterative procedure is suggested in ref. [2]. Starting from a trial shape f“(c) and denoting with f’(c)the one corresponding to the i-th iteration step, an “effective” mass of the shell is evaluated as: (c) = PD y 0s Ore ey where pi(c) is the amplitude of the pressure evaluated with eq. (A.18) at the i-thPage 40 ENV 1998-4:1998 step, and s(¢) is the thickness of the shell, respectively. The effective density from eq. (A.22) can then be used in a structural analysis of the tank to evaluate the (i+1)th mode shape, and so forth until convergence is achieved. The fundamental frequency of the tank-fluid system can be evaluated by means of the following approximate expression: Es (c)ipH)'? 12k gly) (with c= 1/3) (A23) with ey) =0,01675y? -0,15y +046 (A24) Pressure resultants Starting from eq, (A.18), the resultant base shear and total moment at the base can be evaluated, arriving at expressions in the form: -base shear ,(1)=m, A,(1) (Ist mode only) (A.25) with im, = myy 3D a 26) 1p IMF Dy (A26) mY, +total moment M,(¢)=m, h, A,(0) (A27) CV5=2 ge deliv /) with (A.28) ri A.3.2 Combination of pressures terms due to horizontal excitation The time-history of the total pressure is, in the case of flexible tanks, the sum of three time-histories: of the rigid impulsive one (eq. (A.1)), of the convective one (eq, (A.7)), and of the flexible one (eq. (A.18)) each of them differently distributed along the height and having a different variation with time. Referring for simplicity to the base shears produced by these pressures (eqs. (A.3), (A.11) and (A.25)) one has: Q) =m, A,(0)+ Sm, A,() +, Ar!) (A29) where, it is recalled, 4,(#) is the total or absolute response acceleration of a simple oscillator of frequency «, (eq. (A.9)) subjected to a hase acceleration 4,(1); while A,(0) is the response acceleration, relative to the base, of a simple oscillator ofPage 41 ENV 1996-4:1998 frequency «, (eq. (A.23)), and damping appropriate for the tank-fluid system, also subjected to 4,(r) If the individual maxima of the terms in eq. (A.29) are known, which can be achieved by using a response spectrum of absolute and relative accelerations, the corresponding pressures on the tank needed for a detailed stress analysis can be obtained by spreading the resultant over the tank walls and floor according to the relevant distribution. To expedite the design process, the masses m,. m,, and m,, the latter based on assumed first mode shapes, have been calculated as functions of the ratio 7, and are available in tabular form or in diagrams, for ex. in ref. [5] and [10] Use of eq. (A.29) in combination with response spectra, however, poses the problem of how to superimpose the maxima. Apart from the necessity of deriving a relative acceleration response spectrum for 4,(1), there is no accurate way of combining the peak of 4,(r) with that of 4,(1) In fact, since the input and its response cannot be assumed as independent in the relatively high range of frequency under consideration, the “square root of the sum of squares rule is unconservative. On the other hand, the simple addition of the individual maxima can lead to overconservative estimates. Given these difficulties, various approximate approaches based on the theory previously discussed have been proposed. ‘Two of these, presented as alternatives and illustrated in detail in ref. [5], are due to Veletsos-Yang (V.Y.) and Haroun-Housner (H.H.). The V.Y. proposal consists essentially in replacing eq, (A.29) with the equation’ (0) =m, Ag(O)+ Sma, All) (A30) ie, in assuming the entire impulsive mass to respond with the amplified absolute response acceleration of flexible tank system (4,,(t)= 4,(t)+ 4,(s)). The maximum of 4,(0) is obtained directly from the appropriate response spectrum. The V.Y. procedure is an upper bound solution, whose approximation has been proven to be acceptable for H/R ratios not much larger than 1. Above this value, corrections to decrease the conservativeness are suggested. In view of the conservative nature of the method, the effects of tank inertia may generally be neglected. If desired, the total base shear can be evaluated approximately by the expression: .()=(€,-m): Agl) (A31)Page 42 ENV 1998-4:1998 where 4,(1) is the pseudoacceleration response of the tank-fluid system, and (e.-m) is the effective participating mass of the tank wall in the first mode, where m is the total mass of the tank and the factor ©, may be determined approximately from: HIR | 05 70 30 e 05 07 0.9 The H.H. proposal starts by writing eq, (A.29) in the form: O()=m, 4,()+ LmAa(t* m,(Ag(t)- 4,(9) (A32) which can be re-arranged as: 2()- (=m) 40+ Em A(t)+m, Ag(t) (A33) i.e., ina form suitable for the use of the response spectrum The masses m, and m, are given in graphs as functions of H/R and s/R, together with the heights at which these masses must be located to yield the correct value of the moment (see ref. [5}) The effects of the inertia of the tank wall are incorporated in the values of the masses and of their heights. The “square root of the sum of squares” rule is used to combine the maximum values of the three components in eq. (A.33). In the H.H. approach, the problem of distributing heightwise the total shear force at the base is solved by assuming a uniform pressure distribution over the tank height, which leads to a value of the hoop stress o equal to: 21, Sans = SE (A34) Along lines similar to those of Veletsos-Yang, an even more simplified approach has been elaborated by Malhotra (1997) [8], which is reported in full below.Page 44 ENV 1996-4:1998 Seismic response Base shear: The total base shear is = (m, +m, +m,) S, (Tay). 5, (Ton) (A37) where, m, ~ the mass of tank wall, m,. the mass of tank roof; S,(7imj) ~ the impulsive spectral acceleration, obtained from a 2 percent damped elastic response spectrum for steel or prestressed concrete tanks and a 5 percent damped elastic response spectrum for concrete tanks; 5,(J.,) = the convective spectral acceleration, obtained from a 0,5 percent damped elastic response spectrum. Overturning moment above the base plate: The overturning moment above the base plate, in combination with ordinary beam theory, gives the axial stress at the base of the tank wall. The net overturning moment immediately above the base plate is M = (mm hy #IHg by +I, be) Se( Timp) +e Ie Se (Toon) (A238) where, /, and h, are the heights of the centroid of the impulsive and convective hydrodynamic wall pressure; they are obtained from Table A1; h. and A, are heights of the centres of gravity of the tank wall and roof, respectively. Overturning moment below the base plate: The overturning moment immediately below the base plate is on account of the hydrodynamic. pressure on the tank wall as well as that on the base plate. It is given by M = (mm Hi Imp hy + My by) Se(Tinp) * Me Hc Se(Teon) (A39) where heights ’, and 4’, are obtained from Table At. If the tank is supported on a ring foundation, moment M should be used to design the tank wall, base anchors and the foundation. If the tank is supported on a mat foundation, moment M should be used to design the tank wall and anchors, while M” should be used to design the foundation, Free-surface wave-height: The vertical displacement of liquid surface due to sloshing is given by eq (A.15) A.3.3 Vertical earthquake ex jon In addition to the pressure p,(c./) given by eq. (A.17), due to the tank moving rigidly in the vertical direction with acceleration 4,(t), a pressure contribution Py(G.t) resulting from the deformability (radial "breathing") of the shell must be considered. This additional term has the expression:Page 45 ENV 1998-4:1998 Pag(t) = 0815 f(y) pH cos (8s) A,(t) (A40) where: = 1,078 + 0,274 Iny for 0,8 (B.5) Xmax 2 with a = od being the peak soil acceleration. (12) If the directions of the pipeline and of the propagation do not coincide, in both cases of wave types longitudinal strains and curvatures are produced, which are functioning of the angle 9 formed by the two directions. The longitudinal strains are given in this case by v a e)= oh (8)+ ah (9)-R (B.6) where R is the diameter of the pipe. Since the second term is in general small ‘compared with the first one, the maximum of the sum occurs when the first term is at its maximum, that is, with a value: © c (13) For the condition of perfect bond between pipe and soil to be satisfied, the available friction force per unit length must equilibrate the variation of the longitudinal force leading to a (87) ty =SE where E and s are the Modulus of Elasticity and thickness of the pipe, and tay is the average shear stress between pipe and soil which depends on the friction coefficient between soil and pipe, and on the burial depth,DD ENV 1998-4:1999 BSI 389 Chiswick High Road. Loudon WA 4AL BSI — British Standards Institution BST is the independent national body responsible for preparing British Standands, It presents the UK view on standards in Europe and at the international level. 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