Georgetown Drainage in 19330s PDF

Proceedings.] MAM DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN.
215
(Paper No. 4859.)
‘‘ The Main Drainage of Georgetown, British Guiana.”

By GUYHOWARDHUMPHREYS,
M.A.,M. Inst. C.E., and
IAN
MILLEREDINGTON
AITKEN, B.Sc.(Eng.).
THE Colony of British Guiana has an area of 89,464 square miles,
of which 275 square miles is under cultivation, 99 per cent. of the
country being practically undeveloped.The estimatedpopulation,
according to the 1931 census, is 310,933, the average density being
3.5 persons to thesquare mile.
The more inhabited portion of the Colony, which is in the alluvial
flat, extends along the coast line to a depth inlandof about 10 miles ;
most of this area, including the City of Georgetown, is below high-
water level of spring tides and is protected by dikes and sea walls.
The Colony, throughout its history, has suffered many vicissitudes,
chiefly due to shortage of labour and financial stringency ; these
things, combinedwith certain natural disadvantages, such as the
immense and recurrent expense of coastal defencework, have
always been a grievous burden.
POPULATION.
According to the 1931 census, the population of the Colony was
as follows :-
Aborigines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,348
East Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130,540
Chinese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,951
Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,612
Europeans (other
than
Portuguese) . . . . . . . 2,127
Negroes, mixed races, etc.. . . . . . . . . . 158,355
-
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . 310,933
Of these, the East Indians have been imported on the indenture
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216 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [hfinute* of
system for workon estates. Thedocks are manned chiefly by

Negroes and a certain number of East Indians.
(Fig. 1, Plate 4).

GEORGETOWN
The principal commercial street of Georgetown is Water Street,
immediately behind the river front,andthe main residential
thoroughfares are Main,High,Carmichael,Waterloo, and Camp
Streets, which run from north to south, and Brick Dam, Middle
Street,and Young Street, which run fromeast to west.The
poorer quartersarenotverysharply defined, but Albuoystown
at the south is the most “ slummy ” part of the city. The village
of Kitty, which lies immediately tothe east, is a collection of
hutments whichhouse a considerable portion of the work-peoplc
employed inthe city. Unfortunately,many good-class properties
have become surrounded withsmall shacks crowdedon tothe
variouslots, so that there is scarcelypassage-roombetween the
buildings.
The area of the city, including open spaces, parks, and cemeteries,
is 1,612 acres. Excluding open spaces, etc., the inhabitedarea is
1,146 acres. The city’s population, according to the 1931 census,
was 61,899 ; from that figure, the averagedensity of population
works out a t 54 persons per inhabited acre. The maximum density
of population has been estimated to be in the region of 100 person8
per inhabited acre in the overcrowded poorer quarters.
The flatness of the city has necessitated the construction of an
elaboratenetwork of drainage-canals, trenches, and drains, the
majority of which are open. The main canals run alongside streets,
and discharge,when tidal conditions permit,through sluices into
the Demerarariver.Subsidiary openconcreteconnecting-drains
encircle most of the squares and rectangIesformed by the inter-
sectingstreets, and many of the property blocks so formed are
traversed by similar drains passing through alleyways in the centre
of the blocks. The coincidence of a high tidewithheavyrain
sometimes results in serious floodingover large areas of the
city.
The municipal water-supply is conveyed about 20 miles through
the Lamaha canal, one of the feeders from an irrigation conservancy
of about 100 square miles area serving the Demerara sugar-estates,
and is pumped t o the consumers. Thewater is coffee-coloured,
because of decayed vegetable matter in colloidal suspension, has an
astringent taste, and is corrosive to pipes and fittings. It is used
chiefly for flushing and washing purposes ; most of the inhabitants
also bathe in it, and some of the poorerclasses perforce drink it.
Proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN, BRITISH GUIANA. 217
In 1921 about 70 gallons per head of this raw canal water, known
as " Lamaha water," was being pumped daily into the citymains.
Drinking-water is normally obtainedby collecting rainwater
from roofs invats which are, in theory, mosquito-proofed. In
practice the proofingisseldom adequate or properly maintained.
The undesirability of thismethod of obtainingpotablewater is
obvious, especially as carrion crows swarmon the house-tops. In
some better-class houses the vat water is filtered and boiled before
use, but even this is no sure safeguardunlesssupervision of the
boiling process is very strict.
In 1921 sewage-disposal was chiefly by individual cesspits, septic
tanks, and privies with earth pits or removable pails. The cesspits
were emptied periodically by municipal extractor carts, but as the
cesspits were generally of poor construction and liable to leak, the
amount of attention which they receivedwasgenerally small.
Further, the service wasbarely equal tothe demand, andthe
cesspits frequently overflowed into the open concrete surface-water
channels.Certain of the opendrainage-trencheswere thuslittle
better thansewers and, in thepoorer parts of the city, it was common
practice for night utensils t o be emptied intothe surface water
drains. The degree of filth existing in the poorer quarters, particu-
larly in those where the surface-water drains had notbeen concreted,
was very serious. The large number of earth pits throughout the
city also encouraged the breeding of mosquitoes.
At that time the electric lighting system was in a poor condition,
charges being high and interruptions of supply frequent. This has
now been rectified as an indirect result of the installation of the new
sewerage scheme, a modern power-station having been constructed
for supplying power to thescheme and for all other purposes.
The climate is rightly stated to be " a pleasant one for a tropical
country, its characteristics being more sub-tropical than tropical."
Themean temperature throughout the year is 80.4" F., the mean
maximum being 84" B., and themean minimum about 75"F. Daring
the major portion of the year, a continuous in-shore breeze tempers
the already moderate heat, but it renders the atmosphere saline and
exceedingly humid. There are two wet seasons annually, one from
June untilthe end of August, andtheotherduring December,
January, and February. Over the past 80 years, the annual rainfall
in the city has averaged 87 inches, but during the constructional
period of the works described in this Paper, i.e. from 1924 t o 1929,
there was a considerable variation from this average. For example,
the year's rainfall in 1925 was 63-25 inches, while in 1928 it was
96-48 inches.
The subsoil of the city is a deltaic deposit of alluvium of a peculiarly
218 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN THE
ON
MAIN [Minutes of
uniform quality from the Demerara river. The top soil consists of
a few inches of friable clay, merging into brown clay to a depth of
about 5 feet 6 inches over the whole city. Beneath the brown clay
lies a substance known locally as " caddy." Thisis a mixture
of wet dark-blue clay and very fine sand and possesses the con-
sistency of putty, its water content being approximately 40 per cent.
Borings by the Public Works Department have revealed that this
material extends to a depth of about 33 feet belowground-level,
and that the centre of the stratum is almost liquid, but that t,he
materialis more tenacious a t thetopand bottom.The top
layer of " caddy " appears to be fairly stable when first excavated
but, none the less, it is an exceedingly treacheroussubstance. It
will apparently stand vertically without timberingfor a short while,
but careful observation will reveal rapidly-extending cracks in the
surroundingground,perhaps many feetaway.Theresult of
parsimony or carelessness in timberingtrenches is ultimately
wholesale collapse of trench sides.
The depth of the subsoil water is somewhat variable, and the tidal
influence is felt along the riverside and for a considerable distance
eastwards. In other parts of the city the permanent rest level of
the subsoil water seems to follownolaw. The subsoil water is
highly saline and contains dissolved sulphuretted hydrogen, due to
the presence of deposits of iron pyrites. To make matters worse, the
citytramwayssystem, now abandoned, was, at the time of the
laying of the sewers, in a defective condition, and there was con-
clusive evidence that iron pipes in theregion of the tram-lines suffered
to an alarming extent from electrolysis, due to stray earth-return
currents.
SEWERAGE SCHEME.
Schemes for improving the sanitation of the city date back to
1854, but nothing effective was doneuntil 1924. I n 1913 the
Surgeon-General said : " The present system of sewage disposal in
the City of Georgetown is as bad as it can possibly be, and has not a
single redeemingpoint." I n spite of the absence of a pure water-
supply, the local authorities decided to carry out the installation
of a seweragescheme first, and in 1920 the late Mr. H. Howard
Humphreys, M.Sc., M. Inst. C.E., was asked to visit the Colony and
report on this proposal. In 1921 hemade a report in which he
recommended that nothing less than a water-borne sewerage system
would meet the requirements of the city. I n 1923, the Colonial
Government decided that a start should be made, and constructional
work was actually commenced in 1924. The main-drainage part of
the scheme was completed in 1929.
Proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN,
BRITISH
GUIANA. 219
The followingcombination of circumstances, creating serious
engineering difficulties, had t.0 be met :-
The flatness of the city.
The treacherous and corrosive nature of the subsoil.
The periodic flooding of large areas of the city.
The exceedinglyhumid and saline atmospheric conditions.
"he comparative inexperience and poor quality of the available
labour.
It was obvious that a pumping scheme would have to be adopted,
and it was decidedthat thekey-note of its design shouldbe standardi-
zation. Since the nature of the subsoil practically fixed a maximum
economic depth for digging trenches, it was necessary t o divide the
city into areas, each of which should comprise a complete sewage-
disposal system, resembling the other areas in every possible respect.
The maximumeconomic depth of trench wasconsidered to be 15
feet, which entailed as many as twenty-four separate areas, with the
possibility of two additional areas beingrequired in the event of
northward expansion of the city. It was decided that the operation
of the pumping-stations should be electrical and entirely automatic.
The layout of the scheme is shown in Fig. 1, Plate 4.
STREETSEWERS.
The street sewers throughout are of 7 inches internal diameter.
This standardization of a small size of sewer throughout the city is
one of the most valuable featuresof the type of layout adopted, and
results from the entire scheme being divided into a large number of
small individual sewage-collectingsystems.Thesewers consist of
" Class C " cast-iron pipes in 12-foot lengths, which are protected
from external corrosion by B doublewrapping of hessian cloth

dipped in Dr. Angus Smith's solution. Jointing was generally done
with run lead.
Where possible, each sewer route, from the highest manhole to the
pumping-station, is divisible intothreedistinct gradients. The
uppermost section is sloped at 1/120, the intermediate section at
1/180 andthe lowest section a t 1/200.These slopes could not
alwaysbe arranged, and a few lengths were laid with somewhat
easier gradients.
In places the sewer pipes are supported on piles, but to a much
greaterextent they rest on hardwood cross sleepers. Piling was
generally avoided, as it was found practicable to obtain satisfactory
results with the cross-sleeper supports, provided always that they
were driven down firmly before laying the pipes, and that care was
taken toprevent the sewers from moving out of line duringrefilling.
220 HUYPHREYS
AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Millutes of
The street manholes were constructed in advance of the sewers, so

that any slight movements should be taken up before the sewer-
trenches were excavated. Deep lengths of trench were mostly
constructed with the assistance of steel sheet piling in preference to
timber, as the steel piles caused less damage to the adjacent ground
when they were withdrawn.
The original intention had been for the pumping-stations to be
constructed first, and for the sewers to be laid upstream,so that the
stations would act as sumps for the drainage water. This was done
to some extent, but factors overwhich the engineers hadno
control delayedthe installation of the permanent pumping-machinery
until the sewer-construction work was nearly completed. The sewer-
trenches had thereforeto be dewatered by temporary pumping-plant,
which caused considerabledelay and much extra expense.
The refilling of the trenches was necessarily carried out with great
circumspection, and satisfactory results could be obtained only by
rigorous supervision. The tendencywas always for the filling material
to be deposited carelessly, so that the pipes were forced either out
of line or out of gradient. The reforming of the road surfaces was
also a slow matter, and the only satisfactory method was to feed
the depressions withstone daybydayuntilfurthersettlement
ceased. Owing to the unstable condition of the subsoil, the scarring
left by the early sewer-trenches was in many places very great, and
cracks appeared several feet awayfrom the actual trench sides.
The aggregate lcngth of street sewers laid is 33 miles.
MANHOLES.
The manholeswere constructedwithplain concretewalls.Two
kinds were adopted, namely, shaftless, forinvertdepthsup to
8 feet 6 inches, and shafted, for greaterdepths. All except the
mostshallowmanholeswere constructed inside small coffer-dams
which were usually formed of sheet piling, and were founded upon
timber sleepers.
Owing to the liability to flooding of the streets it was essential
for the manhole-covers to bewatertight. As no suitable pattern
could then be obtained, a new type was designed in which the cover
was seated on an asbestos joint let into a concave groove, and was
helddown bytwo gunmetallugs (Pig. 2). Subsequently, these
coverswere further developed so that the twisting of the lugs in
one direction locked the cover, while a reverse twist raised it slightly
off its seating, thus enabling it to be easily removed.
Automaticunderground flushing-tanks of 300 gallons capacity
were installed at the heads of nine street sewers, into which it was
Proceedings.] DRAINAGE O F GEORGETOWN,
BRITISH
GUIANA. 22 1
expected that larger proportions of solids would be discharged, and
provision was made for flushing the remaining sewers by means of
137 flushing manholesfed through U seals by the city'sLamaha
pipe water service.
A control manholeis situated adjacentto each pumping-station and
is provided with disk valves whereby sewage may be cut off from
entering the sewage-well. By allowing the normal sewageflow to
back upin the street sewers andthen opening these valves, a
thorough flush of the lower lengths of sewer may be obtained.
Fig. 2.
Semi -S<eel
Mongones:
Bronze Lock.
LOCKANDSEATING.
MANHOLE-COVER
Drop leads are frequent. Each is constructed by means of a tee

inserted in the line of the high level sewer and connected to a
90-degree bend. Although it may be thought that a 45-degree junc-
tion in thesewer would have been preferable, it was found desirable
that the volume of excavation for the drop leads should be kept as
small as possible. In actual practice, no troublehas everbeen
experienced through sewage leapingthe vertical limb of the tee.
The internal dimensions of the street manholes are 4 feet 6 inches
square for the deep type and 4 feet square for the shallow type.
The total number of manholes is 335 ordinary, 137 manual flushing,
9 automatic flushing, 51 with drop leads, and 30 wit.h overflows.
SEWEROVERFLOWS.
A special feature of the sewers is the arrangement of overflow
manholes by means of which adjacentpumpingareasare linked
together a t a suitable level.The positions of these overflow man-
holes are shown in Fig. 1, Plate 4. For example, the special length
of sewerJ.23A-N.lAconnects areas J and N. These inter-area
overflows were installed so that, in the event of a complete shut-
down of any pumping-station, sewagewould temporarily overflow
into some other adjoining area. Each area has a t least one connec-
tion, and most areas have several connections, to adjacent areas,
222 HUMPHREYS AND AITREN ON THE MAIN [Minutes of
and reasonable security therefore exists against flooding following a

temporary mechanicalbreakdown or serious choking of a street
sewer. Further, when the control manhole a t any pumping-station
is closed for the purpose of carrying out any special work in a
sewage-well, the knowledge that these inter-area overflows are avail-
able t o prevent flooding allows of any such work being carried out
without undue haste.
A second line of defence exists in many areas where high-point
manholes serve as a common starting-point for two lengths of sewer.
For example, manhole E.6 is common to the lengths E.6-E.7 and
E.6-F.9 (Fig. 1, Plate 4) and, in the event of the inter-area overflow
manholes, such as E.19, failing to cope with the flow, the sewage,
on rising, would eventually find an outlet to the adjacent areas by
means of this high-point manhole.
At eightpoints emergency outlets are providedfrommanholes
into adjacent main surface-water canals. These outlets, which are
fitted with tidal flaps and locked sluice-valves, serve two objects.
In the event of a total failure of electric power-a very unlikely
but not quite negligible contingency-it would obviously be better
to pass as much sewage as possible into thesurface-water canals than
to allow it to back up through covers and gulley-gratings into the
compounds. Moreover, when special tests of the pumping-machinery
are being made this arrangement enables large volumes of trench
water to be taken into the sewers and delivered into the pumping-
station sewage-wells, the tidal flaps being raised for the purpose.
This feature was of particular value during the installation work.
SEWER-VENTILATION.
Ventilation of the sewers is provided for by means of house-con-
nection vent-pipes, no intercepting traps being used. The air in the
sewers remainsremarkably free fromsewer-gas,owing largely to
the speed with which sewage is removed from the system.
PUMPING-STATION STRUCTURES.
The locationof the pumping-stations was governed verylargely by
the fixing of the maximum allowable sewer-depth a t 15 feet. In a
number of instances the stations hadt o be placed under the carriage-
way, but in other cases a greensward situation was available and
motor room aboveground could have been adopted. It was felt,
however, that standardization was so desirable thatthe station
structures should be all of one pattern, and the design adopted is
shown in Figs. 3, Plate 4. Mass-concrete construction was employed
proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN,
BRITISH
GUIANA. 223
in preference to reinforced concrete, owing to theinexperience of the
local labour, the necessity for having ample weight to stabilize the
structure in the partly liquid subsoil, and the desirability of having
a sufficent thickness of concrete in the walls to ensure that they
should be absolutely watertight.
Steel sheet piling wasused during the excavation work, and as
much as possible of the excavated material was removed by means
of excavators driven by paraffin engines. As soon as the excavation
was completed, it was essential for concreting t o proceed continu-
ously and with the maximum possible speed until a sufficient weight
has been laid to arrest uplift. At one station concreteworkwas
inadvertently stopped for ashort period, during which a rise in
level of several inches took place.
The foundation raft was heavily reinforced in order to prevent it
from being broken by any tendency to unequal settlement, and the
walls enclosing the pump- and motor-chambers were constructed of
concrete to which hydraulic lime had been added for waterproofing
purposes,
Access between the motor-room and pump-chamber of any pump-
ing-station is by means of a trap-door large enough to permit of the
passage of the largest part of any pump. Each motor-room roof is
provided with a precast slab which, although normally covered by
the roadway, is easily removable in the event of any major replace-
ment of machinery. No slab, however, has yet had to be removed
at any pumping-station.
Normalaccess to eachsewage-well and to eachmotor-room is
through a separate manhole of 20 inches clear circular opening.
I n order to enable any part of the pumps to be hoisted through
the trap-door, a shortlength of steeljoist is provided in each
stationimmediatelyunder the motor-roomroof and centrally
over the trap-door.Thisjoistisfittedwith a clampfromwhich
hoisting-tackle can be suspended. A portable arrangement of steel-
joist runwayand roller frame is used for lifting the motors or handling
the starting-panels.
Each sewage-well is ventilated by means of a fresh-air inlet con-
nected to the shaft of the well and by a vent column connected to
the barrel of the arch. While the construction of arched roofs to
the sewage-wellswas rather more difficult than the formation of
flat roofs, yet, from the point of view of ventilation, it was a very
desirable feature. Themechanical equipment of thesestations is
dealtwithlater, andthe method of ventilating the motor-and
pump-rooms can best be described at thatstage.
224
RISINGMAINS.
The wharf frontage, whichforms the western boundary of the
city, is composed of a forestof greenheart piles driven into a gradually
shelving foreshore, considerable areas of which are exposed at low
water. These piles form a severecheck tothe current, which
averages about 3 knots on a falling tide, and there is a tendency for
solid matters to be drawn on to the mud ba,nks under the piles. A
series of %oat testswas therefore carried out around the end of the
Fort Groyne (Fig. 1, Plate 4),and a point was discovered from which
the floats, under varying tidal conditions, showed no tendency to
Fig. 4.
OF KIsma MAINS AND I’ua~nruoSTATIONS.

LAYOUT
DIAGRAMMATIC
NOT TO SCALE.
return either to the Georgetown river-bank or tothe foreshore.

The outfall pipe was accordingly laid to that point.
Pig. 4 shows a skeletonlayout of the rising mains.These are
all of “ Class C ” cast-iron pipes, with the exception of the sea
outfall which ismade up of flangedpipes of27 inches internal
diameter, in 12-foot Iengths, eachwith three longitudinal ribs.
These pipes were laid with a number of ball-and-socket joints, in
some cases at consecutive joints, but generally a t every second or
third joint, so that the pipe-lengths were free to conform to irregu-
larities in theriver-bed. Steadying stump piles were driven on either
side of each pipe-length in order to prevent lateral movement after
laying.
~rocwdings.] DRAINAGE OF OEORGETOWN, BRITISH GUIANA. 225
Thesubmarinepipes were jointed by divers, who experienced
considerable difficultiesowing tothe exceedingly muddywater
andthestrength of the currents, which preventedthemfrom
working for more than half an hour a t each turn of the tide. The
pipes were bolted up on shore in sections of two or three, in most
cases completewithball-and-socketjoint at one end, and were
lowered into position from a timbergantryformed on piles. I n
order to facilitate thebolting up of these flanged pipes under water,
special cone-and-cup devices were made, one of each being clamped
to the two flangeswhich had to be matched. These deviceswere
previouslyadjusted in position by registering the pipe-flanges on
shore. Theconsequentautomatic re-registering of the flanges
under water was so successful that, after some practice, one diver
was able to insert and tighten up the twelve l-inch bolts required
at a jointandreturn tothe surface within 20 minutes of his
descent. Theend of the outfall was temporarilysealed off with
a steel plate, so asto preventtheentry of mud and debris
pending the commencement of the regular operation of the
scheme.
A by-pass emergency outfall was installed, by means of which
sewage could be discharged immediately behindthe south end of the
Fort Groyne, and this wm used until a sufficient number of pumping
stations were a t work to ensure that thescour from the sewage would
prevent the collection of mudin the dischargeend of the main
outfall pipe.
The Demerara River carries much hidden debris. A tell-tal0 pipe
was therefore fitted to the outfall at its highest point to indicate
the existence of any serious blockage.
In the city the rising mains were laidwithaminimum cover
of 2 feet 6 inches, and were carefully graded.Air-valves were
installed at all high points and washouts into the sewers a t all low
points. An isolating-valve was fitted on the dischargeconnection
from each pumping-station.
Stations G, E, I, M, N, Q, F, J, R, U and X are connected to one
trunk main which traverses Light and Newmarket Streets, and
stations H, K, L, 0, P, S, T, V, W, Y and Z are similarly connected
to a trunk main in Waterloo Street. These two mains are joined a t
the junction of Newmarket and WaterlooStreets and passalong
Parade,Barrack andWaterStreets to the sea outfall, pumping-
stations C and B being linked in on the way.
Two emergency by-pass mainswere provided, one in Regent Street
and the other in Sussex Street, in order to reduce the danger of a
complete interruption of pumping operationsin the event of a repair
being necessary to one of the trunk mains, and also to enable some
[THE INST. C.E. VOL. 236.1 16
226 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minutes of
degree of relief of pressure to be given should the actualflows in the

mains exceed those which were allowed for in the design stages.
The air-valves used on the rising mains are of the single-ball type
and each is providedwith an isolating-valve. Thevalves are
housed in small elevated concrete chamberssituated on the roadside
parapets, and each chamber is provided with a lamphole cover and
with a drain which is carried to the nearest surface-water channel.
All rising-main valvesof sizes lessthan 12 inches are provided with
valve-boxes and are of the vertical type. Larger valves are of the
horizontaltype. All valves are constructed to beclosedby the
same direction of rotation of the spindle-a point which is of much
importance in a scheme worked, as thisis, by unskilled labour.
The rising-main washouts discharge, where possible,into thenearest
sewer, but in one or two places it was only possible to provide for
their discharge into an adjacentsurface-water trench. It is of course
intended that the use of these particular washouts shall be restricted
to emergency conditions, and even then they will be used only when
the trenches are discharging to sea on a falling tide.
At eight points tappings were made into the rising mains in order
to enable pressure records to be taken from time t o time. Special
chambers were provided for the portable pressure-recorders so that
they can be left in position, free from any danger of interference.
In all, there are 63 air valves, 22 washout valves, 62 rising-main
control valves and 2 rising-main reflux valves. The total length of
rising mains is log miles.
HOUSECONNEUTIONS.
In 1923, after the decision to install the main-drainage scheme
had been made, the question arosehow house connectionscould best
be provided. No survey of the properties in the city existed, and
a large number of owners could not be expected to execute, or to
pay immediately for, the installation of the necessary connections.
It was eventually decided that the house-connection work should be
carried out pari passu with the sewerage work.
Accordingly a property survey was put in hand by the Engineers
as soon as possible. The city was divided into blocks, and the survey
was plotted to a scale of 1 inch t o 40 feet. Fig. 5, Plate 4, shows a
typical section, which is indicated also by a small double-hatched
area in Fig. 1, Plate 4,adjacent to pumping station V.
Aconsiderableportion of the survey was carried out by local
certified surveyors. The Engineer’s staff then toured the whole of
these areas, and recorded the position and condition of all existing
Prooeedings.1 DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN, BRITISH QUIANA. 227
sanitary fittings, 80 that, whereverpossible, they could be linked
into the new scheme. From the information so obtained, tentative
layouts of the house connections weredrawn up, these being checked
on site, and the drain routes were then surveyed. A photographic
survey w a made of the supporting piers of many properties, so that
any future claims for damage due to excavations could be dealt
with equitably. This method was invaluable for rebutting claims
of an imaginative character.
It frequently occurred that, between the time of the preparation
of the plans and the commencement of the work, house-owners had
causedconsiderable structuralalterations to be made, and these
necessitated a revision of the plans. On Fig. 5, Plate 4, such altera-
tions are showncross-hatched. Water-vats, in particular, were
frequently moved into new situations which interfered with the
projected drain routes.
Householders in the poorer quarters were wont hurriedly to con-
struct so-called " sinks "-rough timber boxes suspended from their
windows-in the hope that these might be considered of sufficient
importance to be linked into the scheme. This practice was a t first
somewhatembarrassing t o the Engineers, but it was eventually
discouraged by a refusal t o sanction the construction of any drains
at the public expense if they were additional to those projected on
the original plans.
From an inspection of numerous properties it became evident that
separate house-connectionswouldbe a useless extravagance, and
it was clear that many of the existing internal fittingswould require
to beeitherrenovated or replaced, on account of their defective
condition. The yards were dotted with earth pits over which crazy
structures in every stage of decaywere erected. As any such pit
became full, it was covered with mud and the superstructure was
moved to a fresh pit. Occasional standpipes in these yards provided
a supply of Lamaha water for general purposes. It was particularly
noticeable that the taps, where they had not been removed, were
often left running continuously.
The sanitary arrangements inside the better-class houses followed
no sort of order, and, to make matters more difficult, the general
level of the lots was below that of the streets. As the survey pro-
ceeded, it becameincreasingly clear that the scope of the work
involved in making the houseconnectionswasbound to be very
much greater than had been anticipated.Apart from the almost
completeabsence of decentsanitary fittings, except inthebest
class of property, andinadditiontothe complexity of fitting
together a jigsaw puzzle of odds and ends in the way of existing
points of exit of foal waters and excrementitious matters, there was
the ever-present di5culty of laying pipes through restricted alley-

ways close to the insecure foundations of top-heavy buildings.
In a number of instances 4-inch stoneware drains were laid on a
concrete benching, as they were easier and cheaper to lay than cast-
iron drains, but where the ground was particularly bad or the trenches
were deep, cast-iron pipes were laid on timber sleepers.
The inspection-chambersare of three types. Those of type A have
a maximum depth of 3 feet, their lateral dimensions 4are feet by 3 feet
overall and 3 feet by 2 feet inside, and they haveprecast reinforced-
concrete tops with light inspection covers of clear internal dimen-
sions 2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches.These covers are watertight and
are provided with locks. Type B inspection-chambers were utilized
for depths from 3 feet up to 7 feet, the lateral dimensions being
5 feet 6 inches by 4 feet overall and 4 feet by 2 feet 6 inches inside.
These chambers are founded on a timber bed 4 inches thick. The
deepest chambers, type C, are 6 feet by 4 feet 6 inches overall and
4 feet by 2 feet 6 inches inside.
Collapsible forms were used in casting these chambers and were
very satisfactory, the finish obtained being quiteequal tothat
customary on English works. Thedrop leads are of a slightly
different formfrom that adopted for the street sewers. As they
are associatedwithpipes of 4 inchesinternaldiameter, it was
essential to use anglejunctionsinstead of tees in the connection
between the high-level drain and thedown pipe.
Special precautions had to be taken to prevent the ingress of
storm water into thehouse connections, the gullies being particularly
vulnerable in this respect. It was also necessary to design special
gulley traps with a deep seal, so as to ensure that the traps would
not empty through evaporation. The traps are bedded in concrete,
along with the outlet bends and theheads of the connecting drains.
Waste pipes are placed so as todischarge into concrete trays leading
into thegullies, so that opening of the gulley-gratings is not interfered
with by thewaste pipe.
Some ventilation pipes were placed at the head of drains against
the walls of buildings, and the piping was of the standard L.C.C.
pattern. Where,however, ventilation pipeshad to stand alone,
3-inch steel pipe columns, supported in cast-iron shoes of robust
construction, were carried to a height of 25 feet above ground-level.
External water-closet and bath chambers had to be supplied in
thousands, and the compartments were made up of heavy-gauge
galvanized corrugated iron sheets with 14 inch by 14 inch angle-
barframes.The backs,sides, doors, and roofswere dispatched
from England already assembled, so that they required only to be
bolted together after arrival on the site. The water-closet compart-
~roceedings.1 DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN, BRITISH GUIANA. 229
ments were installed either singly or in double, treble, or quadruple
assemblies, and the new angle-bars were provided ready drilled to
take the brackets for the flushing-cisterns. The closets chosen were
of a type proved to be exceptionally efficient in flushing, as ~ ~ c h
abuse of them was to be expected in the early stages of the opera-
tion of the scheme. The closets and compartments were founded on
substantial concretebases. The latter, owing to thedanger of flood-
ing, had to be kept as high as possible. They were consequently
laid on the ground and, where it was considered to be advisable,
an inverted concrete lip was formed to protect the base from any
under-scour by flood waters.
The construction of the bath compartments was generally similar
to that of the closets, but they are surrounded by concrete curbs,
the waste water being led to gullies. No piped water-supply is laid
to these baths, owing to the liability to serious wastage of water
through showers being left running.
Most of the yard standpipes in the poorer quarters were replaced
by communal sinks, situated where convenient in the open. Central
concrete columns 3 feet square serve to support the precast sinks,
which are 3 feetsquare inside. Asubstantial base of concrete
provides a clean surround on which the user can stand. The taps
on the standpipes fitted to each sink are of a waste-proof type, and
their installation has doubtlesscontributed largely tothe con-
siderable reduction in the city’s consumption of piped water which
has been experienced since theinstallation of the scheme. This
matter is dealt with in theAppendix to thisPaper.
Fig. 5, Plate 4, shows a typical layout of house connections.
In concluding this part of the Paper, mention should perhaps be
made of the difficulty in supervising work of this character where
the workmen are scattered in isolated groups frequently hidden by
luxuriant tropical vegetation. The work itself was frequently of an
exceedingly objectionable character, owing to the close proximity
of insanitary cesspits. It is, therefore, satisfactory to record
thatthe supervising staffkept comparatively free from serious
illness.
Thehouse-connection workwas completed in 1930, except for
the linking-in of certain properties which already possessed septic
tanks.This work is proceeding undermunicipal supervision. The
grand total of house-drainsconstructedunder the scheme was
524,771 feet, or nearly 100 miles.Some 250,000 feet of water-
service piping had to be installed under the scheme to pmvide a
water-supply to water-closet cisterns where no water service had
previously existed. Approximately 9,OOO external water-closet and
bath compartments, 5,000 inspection-chambers, 1,500 communal
230 RUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minutes of
sinks, 10,000 gulleys, 600 ventilating columns and 3,000 soil-pipe

connectionswere also provided.TheConsultingEngineers for the
main-drainage scheme retiredfromparticipation inthe house-
connectionwork early in 1927, before any appreciable number of
house connections had been finished, but the foregoing description
of this work is included for the sake of completeness.
METHODOF SEWAGE-PUMPING.
It wasdecided to installautomatically-operated, electrically-
driven centrifugal pumps which would deliver direct into the rising
mains, since by this means the sewage would be pumped only once.
The consequent probIems wereexceptionally interesting, and the
methodby which they weresolved is briefly setoutinthe
Appendix.
The general factors which controlledthe design may besummarized
as follows :-
(a) In view of the relatively high cost of electric energy, it was
essential that the extreme range of working-conditions
of each pump should be considered in conjunction with
the pump characteristics, so as to ensure that the pumps
should always work as close as possible to their highest
efficiencies.
(b) It was advisable that the pumping-machinery shouldbe
as standardized as possible, so that only the minimum
number of sizes of pumps and motorsshouldbe in-
stalled.
(c) It was essential that the automatic electrical equipment
should be robust and resistant to hot, humid, and saline
atmospheric conditions,
(G!) It was essential that the machineryshouldbeprotected
againstdamageunderevery possible combinationof
circumstances.
(e) It was advisable t o arrange for immediate and automatic
notification of any breakdown in thepumping-machinery.
The Appendix deals in some detail with the solutions of problems
(a) and (b), so thatthey need only besummarized here. The
estimated inflow to the sewage-well of each station was calculated
from the population figures of the various districts. The minimum
allowable output of each pump-under its maximum delivery head
-was chosen for each station to exceed the calculated maximum
rate ofinflow.Two extreme conditions of pump deliveryhead
hadto beinvestigated.The hst, and higher, of these largely
settled the pump design and wa9 based on the assumption that one
Pro~edinge.1 DRAINAGE OF QEORQETOWN, BRITISH QUIANA. 231
pump in every station was at work and was delivering its speczed
minimum output of 200 or 250 gallons per minute (according to the
calculated maximum rate of inflow) a t a time when the sewage-wells
were practically empty. This
condition thus corresponded to
maximum friction headplusmaximum static head. The second
and minimum condition was one which was applied to each station
in turn, and largely settled the motor ratings. It assumed that one
pump in the station was a t work, and that it was the only pump
working on the whole system a t a time when the sewage-well of
that particular pumping-station was full to overflow level. This
condition corresponded to minimum .friction headin the rising
mains plus minimum static head.
Preliminary calculations of friction head for both conditions were
based on assumed figures of pump-output, and friction-head curves,
drawnthrough the values so obtained and sufficiently extended,
were superimposed on typical characteristic curves of the proposed
pumps, so as toarrive at anestimate of the actualranges of working-
head and output for the pumps ineach station.
The estimated rates of inflow to thepumping-stations, the friction
formulas used, the methods of calculation and of checking by tests,
and the pump sizes and motor ratings finally adopted, are given in
the Appendix.
PTJMPING-PLANT.
ELECTRICAL
The pumping stations are supplied with electric energy from the
Demerara Electric Company’snew power-station, which has an
installed capacity of 3,750 kilowatts. The Company’a distribution
system is entirely overhead, and theprimary supply isat 3,810 volts,
three-phase, 50 cycles. A separate ring main feeder is providedsolely
for the supply of the sewage-pumping stations and of the electrical
plant at the municipal waterworks. The layout of this ring main
feeder andits branchesconnecting the varioussewage-pumping
stations is shown in Fig. 6 (p. 232). The electric energy consumed
at thewaterworks isdirectly metered and is subtracted each month
from the quantity registered as delivered to the ring main feeder a t
the power-station ; the remainder, after making an arbitrary allow-
ance for transmission losses, is reckoned as the electric energy
consumption of the sewerage system for the month in question.
Thecontractwith the Demerara Electric Company stipulates
that the power-factor of the electric supply delivered over the ring
main feeder shall bemaintainedabove 80 per cent. (lagging). In
practice, the power-factor of supply is maintained between 90 per
232 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minutes Of
cent. and 100 per cent. by the provision of power-factor correction

apparatus at the waterworks pumping-station.
An overheadtransformer stationis located at the side of the
roadway, close to each pumping-station, and is supplied by B branch
line from the ring main feeder. The high-tension supply is stepped
down by thetransformer to 220 volts, three-phase, for the pumping-
station equipment.
Figs. 3, Plate 4, show the arrangement of a typical pumping-
station. The motor room is located above the pump room, and both
areadjacent to the sewage-wellwhich hasaworking-capacity of
Fig. 6.
kter Works
P-
4;
'+ l1- -
LAYOUTOF RING MAIN FEEDER.
about 5,500 gallons. Eachpumping-station is equippedwithtwo

practically identicalindependentautomaticpumpingequipments,
each comprising a vertical-shaft motor and pump,suction and
delivery piping, suction valve, delivery reflux valve, isolating valve,
motor starter,protective devices and float-operated control-gear.
The provision in each station of two independent pumping equip-
ments which areautomatically controlled fromseparatesets of
float-gear ensures that the work of eachpumping-station is not
suspended by the development of any fault in the pumping equip-
ment which is in service at thetime. In addition acomplete pumping
equipment is normally available for service while the other is under
inspection or repair. The vertical motors are of drip-proof, squirrel-
Proceedings.] DRAINAQE OF QEORQETOWN, BRITISH OUIANA. 233
cage type,arranged for high-torque “ star-delta ” starting.The
aggregate power of the motors installed is 808 HP. : details of
individual station equipments are givenin theAppendix.
Each pumping equipmentcarries a shaft fan, and an air inlet and
air outlet are provided in the pump room and the motor room re-
spectively. These latter are connected to short vent columns a t the
sides of the roadway under which the pumping-station is located,
the cowl of the inlet vent beingdirectedtowards the prevailing
winds, and that of the outlet vent in the opposite direction. The
natural ventilation obtained inthis mannerisaugmented, when
one of the pumping equipments is in operation, by the action of the
shaft fan, which blows air from the pump room into the motor room
through theventilating ducts of the motor below which it is located,
the trap-door between pump room and motor room being normally
kept closed.
Althoughtwoseparatesets of float-operated control-gear are
provided in each station, designated respectively the “ service float-
gear ” and the “ emergency float-gear,” each set is not necessarily
associated with the motor and pump opposite which it is located.
In the centre of the wall is a hand-operated multi-contact control
selector switch designated the “sequence change-over switch ” by
means of which either pumping equipment is normally controlled
by the service float-gear. Whichever pumping equipment isselected
for normal service by the sequence change-over switch, the other
pumpingequipmentis then under the control of the emergency
floatgear. In practice, the position of the sequencechange-over
switch isaltered daily, so that each pumping equipment is in normal
service on alternate days.
The service pumping equipment is brought into and out of opera-
tion, according to therise and fall of level of sewage in thewell, by
means of the service float-gear. Although both floats rise and fall as
the sewage-well fills and is pumped out, it will be noted fromFigs. 3,
Plate 4, that the emergency pumping equipment will remain out of
action under normal conditions, since the service pumping equip-
ment is started to pump out the well before the level of the sewage
has risensufficiently to operate the emergency float-gear. Should
any defect occur in the service pumping equipment or in the service
float-gear, the resulting further rise of sewage level in thewell operates
the emergency float-gear so as to start the emergency pumping
equipment.
The operation of the service float-gear, when the sewage-well fills,
completes the control circuit for the motor starter of whichever
is the service pumpingequipment for the day,according to the
position of the sequence change-over switch, and the starter con-
234 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minut- of
tactors connect the windings of the motor first in ‘‘ star ” formation

until the motor is sufficiently accelerated, and then in “ delta ”
formation for full-speed operation. When the service float-switch
opens, the starter trips outto shut down the motor.
The correct operation of each starter is ensured by the provision
of interlocking relays, and the change-over from‘ I star ” to “ delta ”
connection of the motor-winding5 is effected by a transfer relay
controlled by an accelerating relay. Should an excessive load come
on a motor, as might happen if its pump were choked, an overload
relaycauses that particularequipment to be locked out for
inspection. The same relay may also be operated manually and be
released by means of the “ lock out ” and “ reset ’’ push-buttons
shown in Figs. 3, Plate 4, so that any pumping equipment may be
isolated a t will. Each motor starterhasan associated “stalling
relay,” which locks out the corresponding pumping equipment inthe
event of the motor not attaining full speed within a period of 30
seconds.
A tubular electric heater is permanently fixed under each motor.
These heaters are switched on during the rainy seasons when the
atmospheric humidity in the pumping-stations is excessively high,
the slight warmth so maintainedpreventing the condensation of
moisture in the motors. The heater for any motor is automatically
cut out of circuit while that motor is in operation.
Thepower-supply to the twopumpingequipment5isbrought
through the ironclad main fuse-board. The fuse panel on the left
supplies the control and auxiliary circuits, namely, (a) the circuits
through the variouscontactor coils, control relays, etc. ; (b) the
circuit to the auxiliary distribution board, which supplies the bulk-
headlamp,portablehandlamp,andmotorheaters ; and (c) the
circuit tothe blower socket. This last providesconnection for
a portable blowerwhich is used duringmonthly inspections or
special repair work in order toaugmentthestation ventilating
system and to ensure the comfort of the staff employed on such
work.
The entrance manholeto themotor room of each pumping-station
is providedwitha cast-iron manhole-cover.Whenclosed, this
cover is locked down by means of two special keys which cannot
be removed until the cover is securely seated and locked. The keys
are provided with eye-holes through which a bar is passed for turn-
ing them. When the cover is unlocked by means of the keys, these
eye-holes come into line and the bar can then be threaded through
both keys to facilitate the lifting of the cover. In the event of a
cover becoming jammed in position, it may be forced off its seat by
turning the keys in the opposite direction. The keys and bar for
proceedings.1 DRAINAQE OF BEORQETOWPI, BRITISH BUIANA. 235
each pumping-station entrance manhole are kept in a lockable box
fixed t41the pumping-station terminal pole structure.
Eachpumping-station is inspected daily, the position of the
sequencechange-over switch being altered at each visit, and also
a monthly overhaul.
SIGNALLING
SYSTEM.
Although the existence of a standby pumping equipment in each
pumping-station and a system of daily routineinspectionmight
beconsideredsufficientprovision againstnormaloperating con-
tingencies, the reliability of the system would, insuch circum-
stances, depend to a large extent on the diligence of the
inspectors. Also, occasions will arise from time to time whenone
of the pumping equipments in a &ation is temporarily out of service,
in which case no standby is available in the event of trouble with
the remaining pumping equipment. An automatic alarm signalling
system, operating on. the principle of the Wheatstone bridge, was
therefore developed, and was subsequently arranged also to make
a continuousautomaticrecord a t the Chief Engineer’s office of
the operation of the service pump a t each of the twenty-four
stations, to maketell-tale records of the visits of thestation
inspectors, and to provide telephonic communication between the
various pumping-stations andthe Chief Engineer’s office.
Since the twenty-four pumping-stations scattered over the city
are connected to the one signal-receiving point, it was essential that
the transmitting apparatusshould be as simple as possible, that the
number of pilot conductorsrequiredshould be a minimum, and
thatthe operating batteryand all the more delicate apparatus
should be located at the receiving point. In the system which has
been installed, the transmission of a signal is effected by the con-
nection of a resistance across two common pilot lines constituting
one arm of a Wheatstone bridge balance. The receiving apparatus
restores the balance of the resistance bridgeand, in so doing,
indicates the corresponding source of the signal. A miniature 48-volt
battery provides the necessary direct current for operation of the
system, and is trickle-charged, through a valve rectifier,from the
office-lighting supply.
On account of thesituation of the Chief Engineer’s office in
relation to the twenty-four pumping stations, the signalling system
was divided into three sections, in each of which one pair of pilot
lines serves eight stations, thus incidentally simplifying the design,
in that less provision is required to deal with the possibility of over-
lapping signals. Each pumping-station in any one section is
236 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE
MAIN [Minuks of
providedwith a signalling resistance of different valuefrom the

othersevenpumping-stations in the section. One conductor of
eachpair of pilot lines is common to the sameterminal at the
receiving apparatus, so that there are only four terminals in all, and
advantageistaken of thisfactto combine the pilot lines for
Sections I1 and 111 of the system in the form of a three-core cable
where the routes of these twosections coincide. Lead-covered cables,
withimpregnated-paper insulation, are employed, suspended from
overhead messenger wire carried on convenient routes of the Post
Office telephonesystem, the enclosedcopper conductors being of
No. 20 S.W.G. and the overall diameter of the cable about 2 inch.
Pig. 7 represents thelayout of the pilot cables connecting the
pumping-stations to theChief Engineer’s office.
The occurrence of trouble in the service pumping equipment a t
any pumping-station is indicated as follows. The operation of the
emergency float-gear closes anextra switch, which connects the
signalling resistance across the pilot lines so long as the standby
pump is operating. A record is thus obtained of the operation of
the standby equipment, and the signal lasts long enough to call
attention t o the occurrence of the trouble.
The receiving apparatus at the Chief Engineer’s office includes a
trouble-signal pilot-lamp cabinet (Pig. 8 ) and a 27-pen chart recorder.
Proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF OEORQETOWN, BRITISH
GUIANA. 237
The starting of the emergency pumping equipment at anypumping-
stationis indicated, after a fewseconds, by the lighting of the
corresponding pilot lamp on the cabinet andthe ringing of an
alarm-bell. The reason for the short delay will be explained later.
The alarm-bell continues to ring until it is stopped by depressing
the alarm reset key on the pilot-lamp cabinet.
When the office is closed, the aIarm-bell circuit is shunted through
akey on the trouble-signal pilot-lampcabinet to a relay on the
Fig. 8.
f
3rd.
Sig.
8rd.
Sig .
TROUBLE-SIQNAL
PILOT-LAMP CABINET.
main control-panel of the waterworks pumping-station, near which

the office is located, which lights a warninglampduring the
period of the trouble-signal. An adjacent bellgives ashort ring
when the relay is energized, and again when it is de-energized.
These timesare recorded bythe waterworks attendant, who is
thus able to deduce whether or not the emergency pumping equip-
ment, in whichever pumping-stationis signalling, hasoperated
satisfactorily. He reports accordingly to the electrician or to the
Chief Engineer, who both reside within the waterworks compound
238 WMPEREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minutes of
and who can ascertain which pumping-station has transmitted the

signal by examination of the office recorder.
Althoughthere is little likelihood of two trouble-signals from
different stations in thesame signalling section being I‘ on the line ”
together, the systemis designed so that, after discriminating the
source of a trouble-signal (an operation whichoccupiesless than
14 second), the receiving apparatus is again conditioned to receive
and indicate a further signal of any kind on the same section. Even
after two co-existent trouble-signals are received and indicated, the
occurrence of a third signal on the section is indicated, but, should
thisthird signal be another trouble-signal, its source cannot be
ascertained until one of the previous signals has beencleared. I n
practice each trouble-signal lastsabout 10 minutes, andthe
number received averages only about one every three days on any
one section of the signalling system; therefore the occurrence even
of two overlapping trouble-signals is a remote possibility in normal
circumstances, and seldom occurs.
The provision of these arrangements enables the same method of
signalling to be employedfor making recordsof the normal operation
of the stations and for providing a check on the movements of the
pumping-station inspectors, and of the sewage-well cleaning gang.
The same signalling resistance a t each station is connectedacross
the pilot lines for these additionalsignals, and they aredistinguished
from trouble-signals by the operation of special relays in the receiving
apparatus. Almost theentire equipment of receiving apparatus
was made up
from
standardautomatic
telephone-exchange
apparatus, thus reducingveryconsiderably the cost of installing
this signalling system.
The signalling systemrecords the normaloperation of each
pumping-station on a continuous chartinthe Chief Engineer’s
office, whichshows the periods of operation of the service
pumps. Fig. 9 illustrates a typicalportion of thechart for
Section I of the signalling system.The 27-pen chart recorder
makes records on three such charts-one for each signalling section
of eight pumping-stations, a separatependrawing a continuous
line for each station at the rateof 1 inch per hourand being deflected
by a solenoidwhen an operationrecordis made. The chart for
Section I also receives records from three additionalpens, associated
respectively with thethree sections of the system, and operated
only on the receipt of trouble signals.
In eachpumping-station is installed a servicesignalling relay
(Figs. 3, Plate 4), which is energized when the float-switch of the
service float-gear is operated, and connects thestation signalling
resistance across the pilot lines for a period of about 14 second
~rooeedinge.1 DRAINAGE OE QEOWETOWN, BRITISH QUIANA. 239
when the service pump is started. The relay makes a similar
li+.econdconnection of the signalling resistance when the float-
switchopens so as to shut down the service pump. These short
signals cause the receiving apparatus to ascertain the particular
pumping-station which is signalling and momentarily to energize
an interposing relay associated with that station. This interposing
Fig. 9.
Section
Pens
-Stn'lion
Pens
PORTIONon RECOBDERCHART FOR SECTIONI OB
SIQNALLINQ
SYSTFA.
relay locks its own contacts in t,he closed position on receipt of the
first or " start signal, and releases them on receipt of the second
))
or " shutdown " signal ; and these contacts in turn operate the
corresponding pen in the chart recorder, thus making a record of
the period during which the station'a service pump was operating.
The service operation records
providevaluable
information
regarding the consistency of performance of each of the forty-eight
pumping equipmente, and also assist indrawing attention to a
240 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minute6 of
sticking reflux valve or to the entry of storm water into thesewerage

system at any point, either of which events would result in the
nearest pumping-station beingcalled upon to operate more often
than usual.
Since the operation recordingsignals are individually of extremely
shortduration,there is little chance of twosuch signals being
simultaneously “ on the line ” in any one section of eight pumping-
stations ; further,theirbrevityautomatically distinguishes them
from trouble-signals, since, in the latter, a shortdelayactionis
incorporated, as already described. Service operation signals, there-
fore, do not affect either the alarm-bell arrangements or the trouble-
signal pilot-lamp cabinet.
The transmission of a trouble-signal from any pumping-station-
in which event the station resistance remains connected across the
section pilot lines as long as the emergency pump is in action-
does not prevent the receiving apparatus from continuing to deal
with contemporary service operation signals from the other seven
stations in the section, but the interposing relay associated with the
station sending the trouble-signal is temporarily thrown out of step.
At the same time,the section pen recordsthe actionof the emergency
pump in the stationwhich has developed trouble, so that a distinct
record is made of any trouble-signal received. Fig. 9 shows the
record of a trouble-signal from pumping-stationF at 9.45 a.m. After
a station has beenvisited in response to a trouble-signal, the sequence
operation of the corresponding interposingrelay is reset by hand.
Each interposing relay is fitted for daily office-record purposes
with a counter attachment, which operates on each “ start ”
service operation signal and thus keepscount of the number of
times the sewage-well m at each station.
For the purpose of time-checking the movements of the pumping-
station inspectors and thesewage-well cleaning gang, a key-operated
dial switch is providedin each stationinside the call-box : its position
is indicated in Figs. 3, Plate 4, andtheinterior assembly in
Fig. 10. Each inspector and the sewer foreman are provided with
a special key which, on arrival a t a station,theyinsertinthe
dial switch and with which they make eight half-turns. The key is
not released untilthey complete this action, whichcauses the
signalling resistance to be connected across the pilot lines for two
consecutive periods of about 18 second, with an interval of 2 second
betweenthem.Thesetwo successive signals operatethe corre-
sponding interposing relay at the Chief Engineer’s office so as to
cause the station penin the chart recorder to be deflected for about
2 seconds. Pig. 9 shows the type of time-check records thus made.
For purposes of identification, the sewer foreman operates his key
twice, with an interval of a fewminutes-as at 6.30 a.m. and
noon for stations J and G respectively. Thesecond inspector’s
mark for station F a t 10.15 a.m. represents a return visit of one of
the inspectors in response to instructions from the Chief Engineer’s
office,following on the reception of the trouble-signal from that
station.
Each station inspector carries a portable telephone outfit which,
during his visit to any station, he leaves plugged into a telephone
socket in the call-box. If he desires to get into communication with
Fig. 10.
\
0 0
0 0
INTERIOB
ASSEMBLY
I;LDIAGRAM
OF CALL-BOX.
O F CONNECTIONS.
the Chief Engineer’s office, he depresses the ringing key, shown in

Fig. 10, which causes the alarm bell in the Chief Engineer’s oflice to
ring and, at the same time, causes the telephone lamp onthe trouble-
signal pilot-lamp cabinet to light up and remain lit until thereceiver
of the office telephone is lifted. If it is desired to get into com-
munication with one of the visiting inspectors, the buzzerkey
on the cabinet is depressed, thustransmitting a high-frequency
note which is amplified in the receiver of any portable telephone
plugged in at a pumping-station, and can clearly be heard above
the noise of a pump in operation. The speech, calling, and buzzer
[THE INST. C.E. VOL. 236.1 16
242 HUMPEREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minutes of
currentsare superimposed on the pilot lines through telephone

transformers and condensers, andin no way interferewith the
other functions of the signalling system.
Alongside the entrance manhole of each sewage-pumping station,
and mounted on the ceiling of the motor room, is the " entry switch,"
shown in Figs. 3, Plate 4, which serves as a main lighting switch, and
also breaks the circuits from the emergency float-gear signal-trans-
mitting switch and from the service signalling relay. It is operated
by a wooden bar which slides horizontallyacross the manhole
opening. The entry switch therefore
performs the following
functions :-
(a) The switching-on of the lights byan inspector on his
arrival a t a pumping-station, following on the reception
of a trouble-signal, immediately removes that signal from
the section pilot lines ;
(6) The operation of the pumping-stationequipmentmay be
test,ed, or the sewage-well pumped out for cleaning
purposes, without causing the transmission of unneces-
sary service operation or trouble signals. This incident-
ally renders time-check signals more readily discernible
on the office recorder charts ;
(c) It is impossible for an inspector, mechanic, or sewer foreman
inadvertently to leave the lights on or the signalling
circuits open, when leaving a pumping-station ;
(d) The entry of an unauthorized person into the pumping-
station, while a visiting inepector or mechanic is in the
pump room, is prevented.
The following trouble-signals werereceived duringa period of
6 months :-
Cause of trouble-signal. Protective device NO. of

__ operating. signals.
~
_.____
Temporary overload.
Chokage of pump
. . . . .. .
. . . . . . . .
Overload relay I 63
. ..
Transfer relay requiring adjustment
Accelerating relay requiring adjustment
do.
do.
do.
~
:
73
4
~2
Overload relay requiring adjustment . do. i 2
Temporary chokage during starting . .
. . . . . .
Stalling relay
do.
7
1
Jamming of reflux valve 6
. . .
Stalling relay requiring adjustment
. . . .
Defect in control supply circuit
do.
Control fuse
4
1
Defect in motor supply circuit
Pump lost prime
. . . .
. . . . . . . .
Motor fuse
-
1 '
2
2
. . . . .
Defect in signalling circuit - I 1
. . . . .
Defect in service float-gear ~1
~__~_____
. . .
Defect in emergency float-gear. i 2
. . ~i y 9 -
~~~ ~~
' Total number of trouble-signals in 6 months ~
Proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF GEOROETOWN,
BRITISH
GUIANA. 243
Thiscorresponds on the average to one signal per pump every
79 weeks.
Theseweragescheme has been in fulloperation for more than
3 years without a single major breakdown having occurred in any of
the forty-eightseparate electrical pumping equipments, or in the
supervisory signalling system,although the conditions of tropical
temperature,restrictedventilation, and extremehumidity,under
which thisplanthasto operate, are mostonerous. The success
which has attended the installation of this completely automatic
electric sewage-pumpingscheme demonstrates the reliability of
modern electrical plant.
PUMPSAND VALVES.
The “ Flexala ” type of pump was adopted because of its proved
reliability and durabilityininstallations in England, and also
because the horse-power required appeared, from the manufacturers’
curves, to be rather less for the specifiedconditions thanthat
requiredby most other makes.This wag veryimportant, since,
apart from the actual current consumed, a standing charge was to
be based upon the rated horse-power of the motors.
I n each station the pumps are in duplicate, but they can be run
in series so that extra pressurecanbe brought to bear in the
event of a rising main becoming choked.
The pumps are mounted on specially-designed castings in order
that they can be cleared of any minor obstruction by the simple
process of uncoupling a blankflange on the inlet tee, shown in Figs. 3,
Plate 4.
The reflux valve flaps can be raised manually, this arrangement
having proved to be of great value in case of chokages in thepumps
or in their suction pipes. The original reflux valve flaps were
of aluminium, but their rapid corrosion necessitated the substitution
of cast-iron flaps.
A cleaning-eye was provided at the point where the rising-main
connectionleaveseach pumping-station, as shown in Figs. 3,
Plate 4. Gauges inthe motor room indicate the pressure and
vacuum developed by each pump. Air-release valves were originally
fitted to thefirst pumps installed, so as toensure that no air-locking
could take place owing to generation of gas in an idle pump. How-
ever, nosuch trouble wasexperienced, probably because of the
practice of changing over the pumps daily, and the air-valves were
therefore discarded.
In order to protect the pumping plant during the early stages of
its operation,coarsescreenswere provided in eachsewage-well,
244 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [ b h u t e s of
andtheyarestillin use. They are cleaned about once in every

3 weeks onthe average, andthe screenings are removed in a
lorry so constructed asto eliminate any nuisance to passers-by.
It is hoped that, when the populacebecomesmore careful in its
use of the scheme, it will be possible for the screens to be removed,
but such a step is not advisable at present.
I n addition t o a complete outfit of electrical testing instruments,
rising-mainpressure-recorders, etc., the maintenanceequipment
includes a portable venturi meter specially made by Messrs. George
Kent, Limited, comprising a combined flow- and pressure-recording
instrumenton LI sprung-frame standand a " Venturi-Orivent "
meter body whichreplaces the vertical section of dischargepipe-
line, seen in Figs. 3, Plate 4, between the motor-room floor and the
cleaning-eye. When it is desired to carry out efficiency tests a t any
pumping-station, the meter body is inserted in place of this section
of pipe, and is connected to the portable recorder, whichmakes
a 24-hourrecord of the pressure and delivery of the service
pump on the one chart. A portable chart-recording kilowatt input
meter is installed to operate over the same period. Examination of
the charts from these instruments enables the pump-efficiency over
the complete range of normal conditions to becalculated.The
value of this arrangement requires no emphasis.
LABOURPROBLENS,
CAPITAL AND OPERATINGCOSTS.
Thelabouravailable on the site in 1923, for aconstructional
scheme of such magnitude, was a matter for anxious consideration,
especially as practically everything on the scheme, from the pre-
liminary assembling of the unloaded plantand materiaIs to the
operation of the completed scheme, was new to the men.
The standard of labour wasexceedinglypoor a t the outset. It
is not possible to give the actual numbers of Negroes and Asiatics
employed, but they were approximately equal. For some months
a process of trainingand elimination of ineffectives had to be
carriedout, since the bestlabour remained on the plantations.
The Asiatics proved to be serious workers, but their physique was
deplorable and it took monthsof steady work to effect a realimprove-
ment in this. As timewent on, however, a great changewas
wrought, and labour, which wasinitially the despair of the Engineers,
improved to a remarkable and gratifying extent.
The installation of the main-drainage scheme cost approximately
2492,000 andthe house-connectionworksf546,000. Thecost of
the latter will in time belargely repaid by property-owners. Analyses
Proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN, BRITISH
GUIANA. 245
of figures kept on the house-connection work during the years 1928-
1930 show that therelative costs of labour, supervision, and materials
amounted to 31 per cent., 9 per cent. and 60 per cent. respectively.
The operation of the main-drainage scheme is now controlled by
the GeorgetownSewerage and Water Commissioners, and, after 1
year's operation, the Chief Engineer made a report on the operating-
costs. Theconclusion then reached was t h a t " practically
speaking, the new sewerage system costs little or no more to operate
thanthe oldmethods of sewage disposal, although the benefits
obtained are worthy of a considerably increased operating cost."
The staff required to operate the main-drainage scheme comprises
a Chief Engineer and an AssistantEngineer, 1 sewerforeman, 11
labourers, 2 pumping-station inspectors, 1 pump mechanic, 1
electrician and l apprentice elect'rician. Of these, the Chief Engineer,
his Assistant, and the electricians, have additional duties connected
with the supervision of the waterworks,which is also under the
control of the Sewerage and Water Commissioners.
The annual operating-costs for 1930 and 1931, including a proper
proportion of salaries and all overheadexpenses, amounted to
almost exactly €10,000, of which approximately €6,000 represents
the cost of electric energy, the total energy-consumption in 1931
being 430,000 kilowatt-hours at an average overall rate of about
3Bd. per unit. The total electric energysupplied to the Sewerage
andWater Commissioners, which in 1931 included a further
650,000 kilowatt-hours for operation of the waterworks, is charged
for bythe supply company a t a bulk-supply rate whichworks
out at about 2fd. per unit supplied ; but for internal accounting
purposes the waterworks consumption is booked a t a lower rate and
the sewerage consumption at a higher rate, because the former load
is steadier and the low power-factor of the sewerage consumption
is compensated for by the waterworks plant.
CONCLUSION.
The Authors feel some diffide,nce in attempting to deal with any
but the engineering aspects of the scheme. It is impossible,how-
ever, to overlook the fact that the expenditure of so much capital
on this scheme was undertaken in order to improve the health of
the city, and the question " Has there been sufficient improvement
to justify this expenditure ? " has to be answered.
Theprevalence of enteric fever is generally acceptedas the
sanitaryindex for any tropicalcommunity. In Georgetown this
feverwas made compulsorily notifiable in 1912. Since thenthe
number of cases notified and the case rates have been :-
Year. Notifications. Rate per

1,000.
~.
Year. , Notifications. Rate per
1,000.
1913 254 4.7 1922 ~ 135 2.4

1914 154 2.8 1923 168 3.0
1915 196 3.6 1924 158 2.8
1916 190 3.5 1925 80 1*4
1917 272 5.0 1926 103 1.8
1918 220 4.1 1927 67 1.2
1919 178 3.3 1928 55 1.0
1920
1921
-
314
221
-
5.8
4.0
-
1929
1930
1931 1
I n commenting on the foregoing figures, the City Medical Officer
43
24
19
0.7
0.4
0.3
of Health states-“ Within recent years, the decline in theprevalence

of this disease as indicated by notification has been enormous, the
number of notifications received during the year (1930)being the
smallest recorded since the disease has been notifiable.”
It was to be expected that flariasis would be affected to some
extentbythe lessening of the number of breeding-places for
mosquitoes, consequent upon the filling-in of more than 4,000 cess-
pits. During the 1916-1920 and 1921-1925 quinquennia, the average
death-rates due to this distressing disease were 1.18 and 0.69per
1,000 respectively. The rate was reduced during the period 1927-
1929 t o 0.47 per 1,000, while in 1930 it fell to 0.38, and in 1931 to
0.35 per 1,000. Other factors in addition t o sewage-disposal affect
this disease, and its eradication can only be expected when the city’s
water-supply has beenimproved and surface-waterdrainage has
been modernized so as to abolish all mosquito breeding-grounds.
The overall death-rate has followed a downward curve since 1928,
as shown by the following figures :-
Per thousand.
1924. . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5
1928. . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.0
1926. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.0
1927. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
1928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.9
1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
1930. . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3
1931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5
The 1930 and 1931 figures constitute low records.
Hopeful as these figures are, the full benefits of modern sanitation
cannot besecured until a pure water-supply is provided and the
surface-waterdrainage is improved. It willdoubtless beasked
Pmseedings.] DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN,
BRITISH
GUIANA. 247
why asupply of purewater for the city was not provided as a
preliminary to the sewerage scheme. The Authors cannot definitely
answer this question : the position is one of those curious anomalies
which are met with during the course of an engineer’s professional
life. The local authorities, however, undoubtedly influenced by
the established custom of relying upon rainwater for apotable
supply,considered that seweragewas the more urgently required
public service. Before the war a trial wellwas sunk in the city,
and this well has since, under artesian conditions, given a copious
supply of water whichcould have beenrendered potableby
aeration. A scheme for a battery of wells to supply the city’s
requirements was actually under consideration some years ago, but
there was a t first a local prejudiceagainstartesian well water,
a.nd thisfact, in conjunction withtroubles experienced in the
subsequent drilling of wells in country districts,resulted in indefinite
postponement of the scheme.Thiswas perhapsfortunate, as it
has recentlybeen demonstrated on a small scale bythe Chief
Engineer of the Sewerage andWater Commissioners thatthe
Lamahawatercanbe rendered potable, and a scheme has now
been developed for the installation of a complete water-purification
plant embodying chemical treatment, sedimentation, filtration, and
chlorination. However, the sewerageschemegainedprecedence,
and its full benefits obviously cannotbe realized until the com-
plementary water-purification scheme is installed.
These two schemes in turn cannot be expected to yield their full
benefit until the surface-water drainage of the city has been con-
siderably improved. The installation of drainage
a pumping-
station, which will assist matters, is already in hand. Nevertheless,
the medical statistics quoted above provebeyond all doubt that the
installation of the new main-drainage scheme has by itself brought
about a very marked improvement in the health conditions of the
city, and has amplyjustified the expense that has been involved. It
must also be borne in mind that other correlative improvements
have been effected, the principal of these being the cheaper and
more reliable electricity supply now available from the new power-
station, which was constructed primarily for the supply of the new
sewerage and waterworks scheme. It is estimated that the reduced
charges for domestic electricity supply are equivalent to an average
saving, during the period of the municipal power-supply contract, of
. B0,OOO per annum, or twice the cost of operating the newsewerage
scheme.
In conclusion, the Authorssubmit that the unusuallayout of
this scheme-comprising as it does a large number of individual
sewage-collectingsystems,each with its own automatic pumping
248 RUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE
MAIN [Minutes of
station,and the whole installation beingcontrolled by a super-

visory signalling system-althoughdesigned to meet the peculiar
engineeringproblems of this particular case, may, byvirtue of
its succes8 in operationtogetherwith itsmany advantages and
economies, be applicable in other situationswhere the same problems
do not necessarily arise.
The principal features of the layout may conveniently be sum-
marized as follows :-
( l ) The higher cost of pumping-station structures and equip-
mentis more or lessoffset bythe lower cost of the
drainagesystem generally-large-capacitysewersbeing
eliminated bythe sub-division of the system into
numerous individual sewerage areas in each of which
disposal is effected from a central collecting well through
pressure rising mainsrunningfull a t a relatively high
velocity.
(2) Owing to theuse of automatic equipment, the large number
of pumping-stations does not entail an increase in the
cost operation and maintenance of plant.
(3) Because of the rapidity with which sewage,is removed from
the gravitational system, intercepting traps and main-
sewer ventilating-columns are rendered unnecessary, and
the complete drainagesystemcanbe efficiently and
uniformly ventilated through house-connection back
vents.
(4) The cost of maintenance of the drainagesystem is con-
siderably reduced by the absence of intercepting traps
and by the use of sewers of relatively small cast-iron
pipes with ideal gradients.
TheMain Drainage Schemewasdesigned by Messrs.Howard

Humphreys & Sons, andthe constructionalworkwassupervised
in Georgetown partlyby Mr. R. L. Nunn, M. Inst. C.E., in
1924-25, andpartlyby Mr. J. Perkins,from 1926 onwards. Mr.
I. M. E. Aitken represented Messrs. Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical
Export Company (who, together with Messrs. R. E. Smart & Com-
pany, supplied the sewage-pumping machinery), both in England in
the early stages and during erection in the Colony, and subsequently
became Chief Engineer tothe GeorgetownSewerage and Water
Commissioners.
The Paper is accompanied byfourteentracings, fromwhich

Plate 4 and the Figures in the text have been prepared, and by the
following Appendix.
BRITISH
GUIANA. 249
APPENDIX.
NOTESON THE DESIQNOF THE SEWAQE-PUMPINQ M ~ C H I N E R Y .
Various empirical formulas for friction in the pipes were examined, in con-
junction with the reports of many experimenters, and it was eventually decided
that Manning'sformulagaveresults,over the range of pipesizesinvolved,
which representedas closely as possible the average of the most reliable formulas
available. The matter was of more than usual importance in the case of this
particular scheme, since the pumps have to operate on a widely varying range
of delivery head conditions which are determined almost entirely by pipe-line
friction, and any serious error in the method of calculating friction heads would
obviously have resulted either in a considerable loss of efficiency or in a large
expenditure in replacement of machinery.
It was first necessary to arrive at a reasonable close estimate of the flow to
each sewage-well. The only useful figures available a t the time were those of
theapproximate population inthe various city wards in 1921.Thesewere
reduced to a basis of population per unit area for each ward, and the popula-
tion to be served by eachof the twenty-foursewerage areas was thus estimated.
Theconsumptionperhead of the Lamaha pipewaterwasabnormally
high at the time. This supply was slightly augmented for drinkingand cooking
purposesbymeans of rainwater. Theactualdaily consumptionperhead
was estimated to be made up as follows :-
( l ) Lamahawater usedfordomesticpurposes . . . 60 gallons
(2) Lamaha water used for street-flushing and industrial
purposes
(3) water
domestic
Vat
used
. . . . . . . . . . . .
for purposes. . . . .
20
2
..
-
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 gallons
Since items(1)and (3) would pass intothe sewers, togethcrwiththe
additionalLamahawater used for water-closetflushingsubsequent to the
installation of the seweragescheme, the employment of thesefigureswould
have required the scheme to bedesigned for a sewageflowexceeding
60 gallons per day per head. This would have involved a ruinous expenditure
in bothcapitalandrunning costs. It wasthereforedeemedessential to
request the municipal authorities to enforce economies in water-consumption
and to make a much lower allowance in fixing the designed capacity of the
sewerage scheme.
On this basis the scheme was designed for a sewage flow of only 30 gallons
per day per head, and this assumption has been proved to be justified by the
fact that, since the schemewas put into operation, there has, contrary to
local expectations, been a very pronounced reduction in the consumption of
Lamaha water. The water-consumptionperheadis now madc up approxi-
mately as follows :-
( l ) Lamaha waterusedfordomesticpurposes . . . 30 gallons
(2) Lamaha water used for street-flushing and industrial
(3) Vat
purposes . . . . . . . . . . . .
water used for domestic . .
purposes . ,
12
2
.
,,
-
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 gallons
2 50 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [Minutes of
I n calculating the sewage pumping duties, it was assumed that the total flow
would reach the pumping-stations in 17 hours (i.e. between G %.m.and 11 p.m.)
and that the maximum rate of flow would rise to twice the average rate. I n
actual fact, observations have shown that 90 per cent. of the daily aggregate is
pumped during this period. Table I gives the calculated flows to the pumping-
stations.
TABLEI.
Estimated &timated Specified minimum

Pumping- Estimated daily flow maxlmum rate output of either
station. population to station. of flow. pump a t maximum
of area. Gallons. Gallons per head.
minute. Gallons per minute.
B 1,915 57,450 112.6 200

C 1,222 36,660 72.0 200
E 1,803 54,090 106.0 200
li' 3,148 94,440 185.0 250
G 2,575 77,250 151.4 250
H 2,097 62,910 123.2 200
I 1,115 33,450 65.6 200
J 3,404 102,120 200.0 250
K 3,080 92,400 1s1.0 250
L 1,360 40,800 80.0 200
M 1,690 50,700 99.2 200
N 3,650 100,500 214.4 250
0 3,952 118,560 232.0 250
P 2,970 89,370 175.0 250
Q 1,568 47,040 92.2 200
R 3,504 105,120 206.0 250
S 2,463 73,890 145.0 250
T 2,296 68,880 135.0 200
U 2,030 G0,900 119.2 200
V 2,610 78,300 153.2 250
TV 2,844 85,320 167-2 250
X 1,730 51,900 101.8 200
Y 2,512 75,360 147.6 250
Z 2,991 89,730 176.0 250
58,538
The adoption of the above figures of specified minimum pumpoutput ensured

that either pump in any stationwould be capable of coping with the inflow at
its maximum rate, and therefore could not fail to reduce the level in thesewage.
well at a l l times.
BRITISH
GUIANA. 251
The pumps would clearly have to work between two extreme sets of con-
ditions, namely :-
(A) One pump a t work in each station throughout the entire system, and
all sewage-wells practically empty.
(B) Only one pump a t work in the entire system, and the corresponding
sewage-well full to overflow level.
Condition A would arise only in very rare circumstances-forexample,
after a complete cessation of electricity supply had shut down all the pumping-
stations for sufficient time to cause all the sewage-wells to fill, so that on the
re-establishment of the supplyeach station wouldcommence to pump into
the rising mains. Even so, the conditions set out would only be fully satisfied
if all the sewage-wellssimultaneouslybecameempty. On the other hand,
condition B wouldbe frequently approached a t night, and it wastherefore
considered desirable for the pumps to be of such a design that the efficiency
characteristic tended to reach its peak nearer to the duty point corresponding
t o condition B, so that the pumpswouldwork on the average as close to
maximum efficiency as possible.
As already mentioned, it was decided to calculate the friction losses in the
rising mains by Manning’s formula,
.
(=
V2na
-__
2.22R413’
where V denotes the velocity in feet per second,
n ,, the formula comt.ant,
R ,, the hydraulicmean radius of the pipein feet,
and i ,, the hydraulicgradient.
The value assumedfor n was 0013 for all sizes of pipe.Thesizes and
lengths of main are given in Table 11, the reference numbers corresponding to
those in Fig. 4.
252 HUMPHREYS
AND
AITKEN ON THE MAIN [nlinutes of
TABLEII.--PIPE DIMENSIONS
AND LENUTHS.
Reference
NO.
Si7e.of
mam. ! Lengt,h. Reference
NO.
Size of
mmn. Length.
Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet.
~~
1-2 27 57s 10-20 18 22

2-3 27 i 06 20-21 15 1,126
3-4 27 318 21-22 15 12
B--$ G i0 22-23 14 1,138
4-5 2G 1,604 23-24 14 136
C-5 G. 28 24-25 9 1,202
A-5 G 1,050 (future) 25-26 8 14
5-6 2G 726 26-27 8 331
6-7 26 203 27-28 8 1,303
7-8 26 593 28-29 ~
8 1,313
S-0 1,192 20-30 8 343
9-10 15 1,342 E-31 G 1,001
10-11 14 596 D-31 G 115 (future)
11-12 14 153 31-19 ,
~
8 536
12-13 1'1 G21 F-20 6 21
13-14 12 1,235 J-21 G 34
14-15 12 S9 1-22 G 1,515
15-1G S 1,291 N-23 G 44
H-S G 1,109 Q-34 G 38
K-9 6 541 34-33 G 1,229
L-9 G 1,035 33-32 G $6
0-17 G 9 M-32 6 36
17-10 14 574 32-24 8 1,559
I'-10
S-l3
T-13
v-15
U-l4
G
G
G
G
B
I
j
,
~
S05
732
817
734
913
R-25
U-28
X-30
19-35
G-35
G
G
G
18
G
1i
258
224
2,15G
42
P-l8 G l5 35- 8 18 G28
18-lG S iG0
Z-16 , G so0
From the foregoing data, the maximum friction head against either pump in
each station was first calculated, corresponding, with one pump in each station
delivering its specified 200 or 250 gallons per minute output under maximum
static head (i.e. with the sewage-wellspractically empty), to condition A.
It was assumod for this purpose that the future stations, A and D, were each
delivering200gallonsperminute. Theresult of these calculations for the
rising mains alone are given in Table 111.
BRITISH
GUIANA. 253
TABLE111.
Maximum friction
Pumping-station. Specifled delivery. head in external
Gallons per minute. mains.
Feet.
- ____-.. ~..~~
____ ..
A (future) 200 -
B 200 4.7
C 200 8.7
D (future) 200 -
E 200 36.0
F 250 23.2
G 250 15.5
H 200 22.1
I 200 42.5
J 250 29.2
I< 250 24.1
L 200 25-8
M 200 46.4
N 250 34.1
0 250 25.4
P 250 36.5
Q 200 58.2
R 250 47.6
S 250 42.5
T 200 39.6
U 200 62.4
V 250 49.8
W 250 52.0
X 200 65.2
Y 250 57.6
Z 250 66.3
Allowances were then added to the foregoing figures for static head, external
valve friction, and friction losses in the pumpingstation pipework. The static
heads with wells empty are uniform a t 23 feet. Friction losses in the rising-
main valves wereestimated to range from 1-76foot for stationB to 6.18 feet for
station Y. As the pipe sizes in each pumping-station were similar, the station
pipework losses had two values. depending upon whether the assumed pump
deliveries were 200 or 250 gallons per minute, and were 3.65 feet and 5.70 feet
respectively.
Table I V shows the total figures for maximum delivery head so obtained.
TABLEIV.
Total head under
Pumping.station . . .
condition A
Feet
B . . . . . . . . . . . 33.1
c . . . . . . . . . . . 37.2
E . . . . . . . . . . . 67.6
F . . . . . . . . . . . 564
G . . . . . . . . . . . 48.7
H . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6
I . . . . . . . . . . . 73.3
J . . . . . . . . . . . G2.4
I< . . . . . . . . . . . 57.0
L . . . . . . . . . . . 56.4
M . . . . . . . . . . . 78.8
N . . . . . . . . . . . 68.2
0 . . . . . . . . . . . 59.8
P . . . . . . . . . . . 70.8
Q . . . . . . . . . . . 90.6
R . . . . . . . . . . . 81.6
S . . . . . . . . . . . 7G.9
T . . . . . . . . .
. . . 714
U . . . . . . . .
. . . 94.0
v . . . . . . . .
. . . 84.1
W . . . . . . . .
. . . 86.3
X . . . . . . . . . . 97.0
Y . . . . . . . . . . . 93.5
z . . . . . . . . . . . 1004'
A t this stage it was possible t o select standard sizes of pumps which would
deliver not less than thespecified minimumoutputs a t the calculated total delivery
.
heads set out in theabove Table The foregoing figuresof total head could not
be taken as exact. and to arrive more nearly a t the true working.conditions.
the characteristics of the pump sizes chosen were combined with the external
.
main charact.eristics as described hereunder for condition B The points of
intersection of the two curves gave somewhat higher figures for the total head
under conditionA .
A preliminary determination of the respective pump sizes for the various
stations having thus been made. the next step was to consider the other extreme
condition for each p u m p t h a t of minimum possible delivery head (condition B)
-to ensure not only that the pump would be capable of operating effectively
under thiscondition. but also that its efficiency shouldthen be as high as possible.
since. as has been pointed out. the average conditions of operation would in
practice be closer to condition B . Furthermore. the minimum head duty
point corresponds to maximum power.consumption. and thus determines the
necessary motorrating. The operating-head of eachpump was calculated
under this condition by assuming figures for pump flow, calculating the rising-
main friction heads corresponding to these flows on the assumption that no
other pumpingstation was a t work, and adding the static head corresponding
to the sewage-well being full to overflow level, namely, 16 feet for all stations.
Calculated allowances were alsoadded for external valve and stationpipework
friction losses, as for condition A. The values of the total heads so obtained
for a station were then plotted on a graph according to the assumed flows.
This graph gave a sufficiently close approximation, for preliminary purposes,
to the external characteristic of the rising mains from the pumpingstation to
the outfall. The approximate pump characteristic corresponding to the pump
size chosen was drawn on the same graph, and the point of intersection of the
two curves, after any verxcation or correction required on recalculation for the
particular flow so derived, thus represented the minimum head duty point for
the pumping-station inquestion.
Theaboveinvestigation of the twoextreme conditions of working duty,
represented by conditions A and B, enabled the exact design of each pump
impeller to be settled so as tosatisfy the requirements of high average operating
efficiency.The entire calculations werefinally repeated, so as to correspond
to the performance represented by the individual pump characteristics which
had been developed in the above manner.
Pig. I 1 (p. 258) shows a typical set of characteristics of one of the pumps in
station U. The head-delivery curve is of a somewhat irregular form, as it is
drawn from actual test figures. The peculiar deformations of this curve, as
compared with the usual type obtained with centrifugalpumps, is consistently
experienced with rubberimpellers of the Flexala type, andis ascribed to flexure
of the rubber vanes under varying centrifugaland hydraulic forces. Two pairs
of friction curves, constructed in the mannerdeacribed above, are shown in thc
Figure, one pair being calculated from Manning's formula with n = 0.013, and
the other pair withn = 0.010 for reasons which will be explained later.
In the case illustrated, the calculated working limits, with n taken as 0.013,
liebetweenheads of 97 feet and 87.6 feet.Theefficiency and brake horse-
power curvesare also based uponthe act,ualtest figures for this particular pump.
It will be seen that the maximum efficiency occurs a t a total head of 90 feet,
which is slightly nearer to the lower limit of working-head than t o the upper
limit; this fact, combined with the comparatively goodefficiencyfigure of
59 per cent. for a pump designed to deal with unscreened sewage, means that
the pumps in this station give a reasonably efficient performance throughout
their working-range. At no stage between the estimatedlimits of working
would the efficiencyfall below 48 per cent. The brake horse-power rises from
12.8 a t maximum head to 21.4 a t minimum head, and the motor chosen for
this particular station hasa rating of 26 B.HP., so that itoperates at all timcs
well within its capacity.
As far as possible, the motor ratings were chosen so that their normal con-
ditions of working approximated to their full-load rating more closely than in
the case of station U, but this was not always possible without the introduction
of a multiplicity of motor ratings which, from the point of view of standardiza-
tion, was undesirable.
The machinery schedule of Table V, which formed the basis for the selection
of the requisite motor ratings and pump sizes, summarizes the results of the
investigations. In spite of the varyingworkingconditions, the number of
motor ratings was kept down to four, namely, 9.5, 16, 19 and 25 B.HP. These
ratings are for continuous full-load operation with a temperature-rise allowance
256 HUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [IIinutes of
TABLEV.-
- *l+
53
'S 1
.
S
.uy S
o$ R
E 'g
g
3
$24 E
ou
Y
5 egg:
3
.M
a g$
l3
PI
g au
W
(1) (7)
__ ~~
-
B 1,015 57,450 200 2G0
C 1,222 36,AGO 200 230
E 1,803 54,090 200 210
F 3,145 94,440 250 260
G 2,575 77,250 250 2GO
H 2,097 62,910 200 200
I 1,115 33,450 200 210
J 3,404 102,120 250 260
K 3,050 92,400 250 2G0
L 1,360 40,800 200 200
M 1,690 50,700 200 206
N 3,050 109,500 250 265
0 3,952 118,560 250 250
P 2,979 89,370 250 260
Q 1,568 47,040 200 200
R 3,504 105,120 250 2G0
S 2,463 73,590 250 255
T 2,296 65,880 200 200
U 2,030 60,900 200 200
V 2,610 78,300 250 255
TV 2,844 85,320 250 250
X 1,730 51,000 200 202
Y 2,612 75,360 250 255
2 2,991 89,730 250 260
-
proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF QEORGETOWN, BRITISH GUIANA. 257
MACHLNERY SCHEDULE.
(15)
~~
400 4.2 54.0

400 4.2 54.0
375 7.7 57.0
530 7.3 46.0
480 5.9 49.0
295 4.2 49.0
350 7.7 59-0
505 7.2 50-0
410 6.8 53.0
320 5.0 48.0
510 10.7 55.0
540 8.8 56.0
490 7-3 49.0
400 8.1 55.0
370 10.0 59.0
570 12.1 51.0
460 10.4 58.0
390 8.0 57.0
465 12.6 59.0
475 11.6 59.0
440 11 *2 59.0
430 12.3 58.5
525 13.3 55.0
460 13.4 58.0
--
[TEE INST. C.E. VOL. 536.1
258 HUiWPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [fihutes of
of only 30" Centigrade, and undercondition B the motorrating is slightly

exceeded in somecases. Theintermittentoperation of the pumps ensures,
however, that the heating effect is less exacting than a continuous full load
wouldbe. Thenumber of impellersizeswasfixed a t eight, namely, 8-76
inches, 9.375 inches and 10 inches low-lift type, and 10 inches, 10.6 inches,
11 inches, 12 inches and 12.5 inches medium-lifttype. Thedesigned pump
efficienciesranged from 44 per cent, to 69 per cent., while the majority were
over 60 per cent.
Table V was prepared before any pumpswere manufactured.Thus, the
TEST GRAPHS OB PUMPIN0 STATION U.
calculated maximum and minimum pressure heads for station U, for example,
donotexactly correspond with those shown on the characteristiccurve in
Pig. 11, since thelatter is based on actualtest results. However,such
discrepancies were all very small, since the test characteristic curves, which
were determinedwithexactitude before the dispatch of the pumps,closely
approximated tothe theoreticalcurvesutilized for designpurposes. This
was again verified when site tests were carried out under simulated working-
conditions.
The accuracy of the calculated figures embodied in the machinery schedule
was largely dependent on the value of n used in Manning's formula, and a t
first sight it might be thought that,if this were evenslightly incorrect, the
whole
design of the machinery would be affected to an extentsufficient to render the
Proceedings.] DRAINAGE OF BEORGETOWN, BRITISH QUIANA. 259
consequences disastrous. It is admitted that the assumed value of 0.013 was
rather a high one to take for a network of new cast-iron pipes, but the factors
which had to be taken into accountwere the additional friction due to ultimate
ageing, to possible rough joints, to the flow of sewage instead of clear water,
and to possible sludge accumulations in the pipes. A single faulty joint can,
as experience has demonstrated, cause a remarkable increase in friction losses,
particularly if any lead intrusion exists. This will form a nucleus for agglo-
meration of rags and other debris, andinsuchcircumstances the gravest
inconsistencies will arise between the actual and the calculatedfigures.
It waa not possible to make investigations into the value of n before the
machinery was manufactured, but it was felt that, after installation, such tests
would be valuable not only as a check on the accuracy of the calculations, but
also &S a check on the actual condition of the mains as laid and for the future
guidance of engineerswho might be faced with similar problemselsewhere.
In one section of main so tested, unduly high friction figures were obtained,
and investigation showed that defective pipe-joint was the cause. There is
small doubt that, had this defect remained undetected, a serious chokage would
have eventually occurred.
The tests on the rising mains were carried out in 1927. A large number of
lengths of 6-inch andS-inch main were selected,and very careful measurements
were made of flows and friction head losses. For the sake of example, the pro-
oedure followed and the results obtained in one of these tests are set outbelow.
Two points, A and B, 1,084 feet apart, were selected on the 6-inch rising
mainbranch connecting pumping-station H with the trunk rising main in
Waterloo Street (Pig. 4). The main was tapped at each point, and combined
pressure-gauges and mercury columns were fitted by means of f-inch piping.
The level of the centre of each gauge waa made identical. Care was taken to
prevent the f-inch piping from projecting into the main, so aa to avoid eddy
errors. A V-notch flow-meaauring tank was connected to the 6-inch main on
the down-stream side of point B. The station well waa filled with Lamaha
water, and both station pumps operated until the measuring-tank waa full and
all air wasclearedfrom the main.Cockswere fitted to the pressure-gauge
connections so that air could also be released from these points. The motors
were then switched off and, when surge hadceased in the mains, the static head
readings at points A and B were taken, these being synchronized by telephone.
Both motors were again started and readings offlow and head were taken,
the flow being reduced by closing the delivery valve on No. 2 pump. When
No. 2 pump valve waa shut right down, the motor waa stopped and No. 1 pump
valve was then gradually closed, further synchronized readings being taken
during thisprocess.
The main in question was newly laid, and included ninety-six spigot-and-
socket joints andone double collar. The jointswere made with run lead. There
were three air valve branch connections, but no bends on this length. The
temperature of the water was 78" F. The arrangement of the testing outfit is
shown in Fig. 12,
The value of n in Manning's formula waa calculated asfollows from the results
obtained :-
. Van3
S = 2.223m;
R = 0.125 for a 6-inch pipe.
Thus R4/5= 0.0625 ;
hence i _ _VZn8
__.~
2.22 X 0.0625'
260 ETJ&fPHREYB AND AITKEN ON THE MAIN [&Iinubsof
%c
and V%%= 0.13875i, or n = 0.3725-
v . . . . (1)
Discharge in cubic feet per second = nr2 X V , where r, the p i p radius in

feet, = 0.25.
Hence discharge in gallons perminute, Q,= 60 X 6.23 X w 2 V , SO that
V = 0.01359Q.
Substitutiig these values in equation (1)-
c
0.37254i - 27.414:
0.01359Q Q
. . . . . . . . (2)
The value of n was calculated from equation (2) and is shown, for each test
reading taken, in TableVI,
Fig. 12.
rbj
TESTINGAPPARATUS
BOB RISINGMAIN FRIOTION
LOSSES.
The results set out in the following Tables have been plotted in Fig. 13, and
on this has been superimposed the theoretical curve of friction losses for a
value of n = 0.010. T w o points of inkrest will beobserved. Firstly, the
results of the two sets of test figures, with an interval of 9+ weeks,would
indicate a tendency forthe friction inthe main to increase with age, there being
a consistent divergence between the two sets of figures. Secondly, for this size
of main (6inches), a value of R of 0.010 would have given results more closely
approximating to the true friction figures for the main when new, but lower
value for n should not be utilized.
The effect of these results on the design of the pumping machinerywas
investigated, the original friction-head calculations were duly revised taking
n as 0.010 and, from the results so obtained, new external c;haracteriatic curvea
were plotted on the originals, an example being given in Fig. 21. It will be
observed that, for this particular pumping-station, the maximum-head figure
ie reduced from 97 to 96 feet, and theminimum-head figure from 87.6 to 796 feet.
The point of maximum efficiency now fdla rather nearer the higher limit of the
new operating rangc, while the maximum brake horse-power is increased from
ProOeedings.1 DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN, BRITISH GUIANA. 261
TABLEVI.
First series of Tests-Date 6.6.27.

510 37.9 543 32.3 0.0298 4.731 0.0093
495 35.5 5.45 30.05 0.0277 4-56] 0.0093
445 30.2 4-95 25,25 0.02329 4.238 0.0095
415 25.4 4-45 20.95 0.01933 3.810 0.0092
370 20.2 3.95 16.25 0*01500 3-358 0.0091
320 15-6 3.7 11.9 0.01098 2.873 0.0090
240 10.1 3.2 6.9 0.0091
2.190 0.00637
385 474 29.45 18.15 0.0092
3-550 0.01675
340 40.0 25-2 14.8 0,01365 3.204 0.0095
300 35.3 22.5 12.8 0*01181 2,977 0.0099
270 29.5 19.95 9.55 0*00881 2.573 0.0096
240 25.4 17.45 7.95 0.0098
2.348 0.00734
200 20.2 14.45 5.75 ~ 0.00531 1.997 0*0100
162 15.4 11.5 0.00360 3.9 1.645 0.0102
120 10.4 8.2 2-2 ~ 0.00203 1.235 0.0103
Second series of Tests-Date 11.8.27.

300 42.4 27.38 15.02 0.0138 ~ 3.22 0.0107
278 37.3 24.53 12.77 0.0118 2.98 0.0107
265 35.0 23.28 11.72 0.01082 2.85 0.0108
24 1 31.8 23.18 8.62 0.00796 2.44 0.0101
219 27.0 20.23 6-77 0.00625 2.1 7 0~0100
200 23.5 17.73 5.77 0.00533 2.00 0~0100
183 20.7 15.83 4.87 0*00450 1.84 0~0101
162 18.1 14.13 3.97 0.003G6 1.66 0.0102
146 15.25 12.08 3.17 0.00292 1-48 0~0101
128 12.0 9.83 2.17 0.0020 1.225 0.0096
104 9.5 7.43 2.07 0.00191 l -20 0.0115
445 35.0 4.73 30.27 0.0279 4.58 0.0103
428 32.2 4.55 27.65 0.0255 4-38 0.0102
410 29.3 4.48 24.82 0.0229 4.16 0*0101
388 26.5 4.38 22.12 0.0204 3.92 0.0101
373 24.5 4.01 20.49 0.0189 3.78 0.0101
353 22.0 3.48 18.52 0.0171 3.59 0*0101
327 19.25 3.33 15.92 0.0147 3.33 0.0102
290 15.5 3.08 12.42 0.0115 2.94 0.0101
264 13.0 2-98 10.02 0.0093 2.64 0~0100
240 11*75 2.78 8.97 0.00828 2.50 0.0104
190 9.5 2.43 7.07 0.00653 2.22 0.0116
262 RUMPHREYS AND AITKEN ON THE m [xinutea of
21.4 to 23.3, Otherstations showed proportionatelysimilar results. Thus

the actual effect on the design of the machinery could not be considered in any
way disastrous,although it was by no meansnegligible.Nevertheless, the
adoption of a lower figurefor n would have been an advisable safeguard against
any excessiveoverloading of the variousmotorswhencalculating the per-
formance of the pumps underminimum-hcadconditions,while, in order to
provide forthe complete range of working-conditions,it would have been rational
to calculate the maximum-head conditions using a higher figure for *the
respective figures being 0.010 and 0.013, or such modified values as particular
circumstancesmightwarrant.Fortunately,in the case of this scheme, the
Fig. 13.
FLOW: GALLONS PER MINUTE.
RESULTS
OF TESTSON 6-INCH RISING MAIN, 1,084FEET LONG.
increased motor loading which was experienced was in no way serious, since
the intermittent schedule under which the pumps operate is of a particularly
infrequent character a t the times when the highest load ie imposed on the
motors. In fact, it would have beenpossible to increase the loading of the
motors by about 60 per cent. under these conditions without exceeding their
temperature rating as based on equivalent continuous full-loadoperation.
In the autumn of 1929 a series of dailypressure-readings were taken a t
station U under varying conditions of pumping. These lay between the limits
of 89 and 80 feet, the moanfigurebeing 84 feet. Similar observations were
made in certain other stations, and the results are set out in Table VI1 and
are compared withtheestimated duty rangespreparedfrom the original
theoretical pump curves.
These results represent operating-conditions with practically new mains, as
only half the scheme was in actual service pumping sewage at the beginning
of July 1929, while the remainder of the scheme only came into reasonablyfull
service about the time when the above readingswere taken.
Thefollowing Table includes only certain of the pumpingstations, as the
readings obtainedfor the other stations were unfortunately rendered inaccurate
BRITISH
GUIANA. 263
TABLEVII.
Station.
Estimated range of
pressure.
Feet. 1 Actual range of
pressure.
Feet.
B 40.5-35 43-36
C 42 -35 40-35
F 59 -45.5 63-42
G 51 -40.5 49-41
H 51 -47 54-45
I<
N
u
i 59
-55
72 -64
96 -89.5
55-49
74-61
89-80
2
~
106*5-E6.3 103-85
l
owing to the pump impellers having become damaged, in spite of the fact that
the Flcxala pump has been used for pumping unscreened sewage and sludge in
this country with perfect success ; in fact, in one such installation, a Flexala
pump wasworking for 6 to 8 hours per diem for 3 years, at theend of
which time the rubber vanes were somewhat worn, but not to such a degree
as to necessitate renewal. In the case of the Georgetown installation, the vanes
rigs. 14.
m. Rubber Vane
Cover PIate
wrmr DETAUHABLERUBBERVANES.
PUMP IMPELLER
N O T TO SCALE.
showed a tendency to tear from the disk after several weeks of service. There
is no doubt that this was due in some degree to the overloading occasioned by
the fact that the pumps hadinitially to work at heads lowerthan those for which
they were designed, although pumps working under similarly overloaded con-
ditions in this country hadnot experienced such troubles.
264 DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN, BRITISH GUIANA. [%IInutes01
The matter was carefully investigated in England, the defective impellers

being returned for examination. DiBerent qualities of rubber were tried, and
experimental impellers, all of which were designed to counteract the shearing
forces at the vane roots, were built up by various means. Cast-iron impellers
were also sent out, designed to carry the pumping scheme forward until B cure
had beendiscovered for the failure of the rubberimpellers;but in spite
of all the research which was done, no full explanation was found for these
failures.
After considerable experimental work, one of the Authors then designed an
impeller (shown in Fig. 1 4 ) , which, while retaining the excellent and essential
flexibility of the Flexala pump impeller, is made with detachable vanes which
can be replaced cheaply and expeditiously whenever a failure occurs, the disk,
shaft boss, etc., being practically everlasting. It is simple in design, the com-
ponent parts being the rubber vanes, cover plate, back plate, and spindle. In
order to detach the vanes, the split pins and nuts at the reaz of the back
plate are removed, and the cover plate is taken off. The vanes, which are sepa-
rately mounted on ribs cast onthe back plate, may thenbe removed, new vanes
can be substituted, and thewhole impeller re-assembledin a few minutes.
Although the design of this modified type of impeller makes it easy to effect
any repairs, it is believed that frequent replacement of the vanes will not be
necessary, because of their greater strength a t the roots, which will overcome
any tendency totear. I n any efficiently-runsewage-pumping installation
periodicefficiency tests should be made in order to ascertainwhetherun-
necessary power is being consumed through gradual but inevitable wear in the
pumps.Much can be done to compensate for suchloss of efficiencycheaply
if the impellers can be renovatedbyhaving new vanesfitted periodically.
It is here that the typeof impeller described has undoubted advantages.
Mr. A. Honeysett, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E., was actively concernedwith
advising Messrs. R. E. Smart & Company on matters relating to the opcrating-
conditions of thc pumps.
PLATE 4.
MAINDRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN.
Fig: 5
SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF SEWAGE WELL, PUMP ROOM AND MOTOR~ROOM.

,e ELEVATION ON YY.
SECTIONAL PLAN O F MOTOR ROOM.
G E N E R AP
LL A N
TYPICAL PUMPING STATION TVPICAL HOUSE CONNECTION SURVEY SHEET.
WATERLOW & S O N S L I M I T E D ,L A T E THOS.
KELL & S O N , LONDON.
Minutes of Proceedings of The Institution of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 236 Session 1932-33 Part 2. G. H. HUMPHREYS & I. M. E. AITKEN.

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Proceedings.] MAM DRAINAGE OF GEORGETOWN.

(Paper No. 4859.)

‘‘ The Main Drainage of Georgetown, British Guiana.”

Of these, the East Indians have been imported on the indenture

system for workon estates. Thedocks are manned chiefly by

(Fig. 1, Plate 4).

from external corrosion by B doublewrapping of hessian cloth

The street manholes were constructed in advance of the sewers, so

Drop leads are frequent. Each is constructed by means of a tee

and reasonable security therefore exists against flooding following a

OF KIsma MAINS AND I’ua~nruoSTATIONS.

return either to the Georgetown river-bank or tothe foreshore.

degree of relief of pressure to be given should the actualflows in the

the ever-present di5culty of laying pipes through restricted alley-

sinks, 10,000 gulleys, 600 ventilating columns and 3,000 soil-pipe

cent. and 100 per cent. by the provision of power-factor correction

LAYOUTOF RING MAIN FEEDER.

about 5,500 gallons. Eachpumping-station is equippedwithtwo

tactors connect the windings of the motor first in ‘‘ star ” formation

providedwith a signalling resistance of different valuefrom the

main control-panel of the waterworks pumping-station, near which

and who can ascertain which pumping-station has transmitted the

sticking reflux valve or to the entry of storm water into thesewerage

the Chief Engineer’s office, he depresses the ringing key, shown in

currentsare superimposed on the pilot lines through telephone

Cause of trouble-signal. Protective device NO. of

' Total number of trouble-signals in 6 months ~

andtheyarestillin use. They are cleaned about once in every

Year. Notifications. Rate per

1913 254 4.7 1922 ~ 135 2.4

of Health states-“ Within recent years, the decline in theprevalence

station,and the whole installation beingcontrolled by a super-

TheMain Drainage Schemewasdesigned by Messrs.Howard

The Paper is accompanied byfourteentracings, fromwhich

Estimated &timated Specified minimum

B 1,915 57,450 112.6 200

The adoption of the above figures of specified minimum pumpoutput ensured

1-2 27 57s 10-20 18 22

400 4.2 54.0

[TEE INST. C.E. VOL. 536.1

of only 30" Centigrade, and undercondition B the motorrating is slightly

TEST GRAPHS OB PUMPIN0 STATION U.

Discharge in cubic feet per second = nr2 X V , where r, the p i p radius in

First series of Tests-Date 6.6.27.

Second series of Tests-Date 11.8.27.

21.4 to 23.3, Otherstations showed proportionatelysimilar results. Thus

FLOW: GALLONS PER MINUTE.

The matter was carefully investigated in England, the defective impellers

SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF SEWAGE WELL, PUMP ROOM AND MOTOR~ROOM.

SECTIONAL PLAN O F MOTOR ROOM.

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