Understanding the Complexities

of Designing Diaphragms in
Buildings for Earthquakes

Des K. Bull
Holmes Consulting Group Ltd
 Function of Diaphragms

1. Relatively thin but stiff horizontal

structural systems which transmit in-
plane lateral forces to, or between,
vertical lateral force resisting elements.

2. The diaphragms tie the whole structure

together.

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 Forces in diaphragms under earthquakes
• ‘Inertia’ forces
– Inertia at a particular floor

• ‘Transfer’ forces
– Forces develop between primary lateral
force resisting structures
– These forces are often very large.

Force distribution in a floor diaphragm =

Inertia + Transfer forces

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 Forces in diaphragm (cont.)
• Inertia and “transfer” forces are
COUPLED in the analysis.
– through stiffness and deformation
compatibility of the diaphragms and
vertical structural systems.
• CAN’T determine distribution of
“transfer” forces or inertia in isolation.

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Floor plan configuration issues

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• Plan configurations
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• Plan configurations
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Pretensioned, precast concrete floors with cast-
in-place topping
• Are these more of a concern than cast-in-place
slabs ?

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Pretensioned, precast concrete floors with cast-
in-place topping

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Structural Behaviour of
Diaphragms

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Beam Analogy

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 Openings in diaphragms and
“Strut & Tie” methods

• “Strut & Tie”

– Advantages over the simple Beam or
Tied Arch approach

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Openings in diaphragms and
“Strut & Tie” methods

Diagonal compression fields

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 Openings in diaphragms and
“Strut & Tie” methods

Load paths in a section of floor: “micro strut & tie” solution

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Openings in diaphragms and
“Strut & Tie” methods

Diagonal tension fields

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“Beam” or “Tied Arch” or “Strut & Tie” ?

– simple model
– Provision of “tie” reinforcement 17
“Drag Bars” or “Collectors”

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“Strut & Tie” with “drag” bars

A bit complex?
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“Drag Bars” or “Collectors”

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Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

Floor plate
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Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

Inertia effects, distributed across the floor

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Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

Compression fan develops

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 Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C

Sketch in the centres of compression: struts of a truss

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 Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C

Note: the tie T is connected at the mid points of the beams

• more later 25
 Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C

Part of the floor (mauve) wants to “fall out” of the building

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 Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C

Must tie this part back in to the truss or arch (dotted red ties)
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Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C

Alternatively: use secondary beams as ties/chords

and make smaller struts to collect on these ties
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Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C

Or, combine the secondary beams with

the floor reinforcement acting as ties 29
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C

More struts, closer to the fan compression field

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 Diaphragms: Forces

Fi : floor, beams,
columns and cladding EQ

C’

C C
Struts and ties
T

T is smaller
To get other ties, requires some cracking
and yielding within the floor: “redistribution of actions” 31
Issues for Diaphragms when
resisting Earthquakes

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 Deformation modes with beam elongation

Loss of support possible

Beam elongation

over this region

Beam elongation
Mode 1

(a) Beam plastic hinge rotates to allow for beam

elongation (10 – 50 mm)
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Deformation modes with beam elongation
Beam elongation

Loss of support possible over this region

Beam elongation
Mode 2

(b) Entire beam rotates to allow for beam

elongation (10 – 50 mm)
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Delamination of topping from
hollowcore units
North

South
Plan View
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 Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Column-Beam Node: Traditional view
• Higher compressive stress - smaller contact surface

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 Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Column-Beam Node

• Potentially large plasticity demands in38Ties

 Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties

Node locations (where the struts and ties

meet):
• Mid-point of beams
– these points are relatively undamaged by
ductile frame action
– Keep TIE steel away from primary beams
because this steel can be included in the
tension flange (negative moment, typ.)

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 Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Floor-Beam Node
• Distributed node - keeps compressive stresses down

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 Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Floor-Beam Node
• Distributed node - keeps compressive stresses down

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 NZS 3101:1995 requires:
Tension component

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Alternative layout of reinforcement
for column tie

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Detailing for integrity

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Detailing for integrity

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Determining forces in Diaphragms
resulting from Earthquakes

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 Diaphragms: Forces
‘Inertia’ & ‘Transfer’ forces are COUPLED Fi

– These can not be treated in isolation.

• Some analysis methods:
Equivalent Static Analysis (ESA)
• You have equilibrium (magnitudes and directions
of the applied forces at the boundary of the
diaphragm).
• If the TIES are connected correctly, this mitigates
the coarseness of ESA.
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 Diaphragms: Forces

Fi Fi

Peak Ground Accn.

Equivalent Static Analysis Maxima Envelope of

(ESA) Floor Accelerations
(DR 902 Parts)
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 Diaphragms: Forces

‘Inertia’ & ‘Transfer’ forces

Modal Analysis
WON’T work
• you DO NOT have equilibrium.

– Or model the diaphragm in the analysis model ?

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 Diaphragms: Introduced Forces
At each floor:
• Using an ESA (?) :
– Determine the shear
force distribution for
Height

walls, frames and

F2 columns

• Calculate the storey forces

Fi for each structural sub-
Vbase i system
Shear in Wall i – It is these Fi that make
up the boundary
conditions on each floor.
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 Diaphragms: Introduced Forces

Fi : floor, beams, FD = 2000 kN

columns and cladding
Inertia = 165 kN
250 250 250

1500 kN

500 kN

250 250 250

Actions on the diaphragm: ESA

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 Diaphragms: Introduced Forces

Fi : floor, beams, FD = 2000 kN

columns and cladding
250 250 250

1500 kN

500 kN

250 250 250

≅ 1500 kN ≅ 500 kN

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Diaphragms: Introduced Forces

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 Conclusions: Issues

• Strut and Tie method is more versatile than the Beam or Tied
Arch approach.

• Diaphragm will be damaged locally and may need some limited

redistribution of internal forces.
– Detailing of the floors to ensure integrity of the floor is
essential:
• Maintenance of load paths
• Continued support of gravity

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 Conclusions: Issues

• Estimating magnitudes of the inter-related inertia and

“transfer” forces requires further study:
– A type of Equivalent Static Analysis that
generates the deformations of the structure
(induces “transfer” forces) while producing
reasonable magnitudes of inertia is highly
desirable for desk-top design.

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