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    Acoustic Emission PDF

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    Farzad

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    CHAPTER 10 ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING 1. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT The word “acoustic” is detived from the Greek word abouts, which fas to do with “hearing” For centres, the recur to stl collage hate sounds ha ae emited prior tothe Ine of supporting member. A toe branch emit cracking sound tori actualy teats and stepping ono thine pofce sounds that war of pend ing elas. Acoitc emission (AE) inthis frm to the ears wha visa nspecton tothe ees, Th analyse of thee emissions has become scence in el. ‘Acoustic emission testing (AET has become a recognized nendestucive test (NDT) method comment wed to diet a leete ful in mechani Toad scares and ‘omponsnts. AE can prove comprehensive infrmaton onthe aigination ofa discon ‘uty (aw) ina suesed component ad also proviesinfermatonpersining to the de ‘clpment ofthis flaw asthe component i subjected to continous o epee stress, Discounts in somponents ease energy asthe component ie Fubjeced to te- hunicalouding or sss This nergy tavele inthe form of igh reqney sess waves, Theve waves or osilatins are veaeved with he we of bers (rane) hf conver th ery ints vliage. This voltage ceetoneall amplified snd wth he se fining cv is Taher processed at AE signal ds, Analysis ofthe collected data comprises the characterization ofthe recived vole (sgl) acordng Wo ther source Tecatian, voliage intensity ad frequency ont “The major dferenee between the AE method of NDT and the ote NDT methods ie that hi method is pasive, whereas the eter na sense, ae forthe moe pat sete. With uieasoni, cogrphic or the other NDT meth, he sure of informations Se rived by crea some eect in or onthe mateal by exteral application of energy or compounds. AE rele on energy a its win the component oe material under “Te oxpination of the method is trite to. Kaiser inthe 1950. The sounds emit ted during crack growth boame anise of scene invetigton during the 1960 As the technology developed, AE became scoped as NDT seth. Separating heeft Information fom the Dekground noise asthe challenge fhe inarament veoper Maturity ofthe techaaogy Ted tothe ongoing ivetignton ino the micromesbanial roses that produce tes emissions vain various neil “The technology involves the ure of lttesnie sensors (20 Khz-1 Mh) that sen for ‘he sounds of mater and stractral fue. Aus misson Tequecis se wll ib ‘he range of 150-300 Kl, which above the fequeney of nil sound. Crack growth sie to hygzogen eminent, fatigue, sess coro, an rep ean be detected ad located with he use of his technology High essue leas ean also be detected ai yor Isted, AE technology’ also becoming commonly applicable to nondstntive testing for Suc neg of sructare made fom compost materials 2. PRINCIPLES OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING The AET proces iil in Figure 10-1 It begins with fores ating on a body te ‘esulng ress the tli ht cases deformation a with acoatc emission. The Stes es onthe mater and produces lel pate deormatio, which i reakdown of ‘he materal at specific paces This ister feakdow oducts acoustic eso: a laste wave that raves outward fom te sure, moving trou the body unl itarives ta remote sensor. In espns the enor produces an electra ial, which spased ‘o elevtonic equipment fr Tuner processing. 2.4 Acoustic Emission Sources 242 Sires [As previously mentioned, the AE process begins with sues. Stes is 2 falar concep to enginerngpesonpel, Is ke an itemal force eld in suture tha ansmis and Talances the extemallyinposed forces (load). Depending ons drectonal properties, ses nay be desorbed as tens compressive, bending, sear, otosin. Sues is meas ‘red in pounds per square nck js (ilograms per cease) To calcul stress, te owe pounds) i ivi by the are hat eres eae inches. SKrese canbe thought of ar thre dimensional ii ving different components in iret directions at eck poit in astute In response to sues, the suet of the rmteial changes in shape This change in shape sealed “iran” The material defor lasically and if the stress is high enough wll deform plassally 3s well “Pasi” in ths context means "permanent" lati deformation involves a permanent change inte ‘elaive positon ofthe ats nthe tel stare On the stories pla defor =i SIGNAL [= ELECTR( STIMULUS. tin < la~ (FC FIGURE 10-1 Schematic ofthe acu emis rics. SENSOR ‘nation involes the sliding f sromic planes over one ano, trough the ageney of Slomi.seale regularities known at dsocations, The movers! of dislocations isthe ‘mlroseopic mechani that under the prose changes in shape tae recognized = Yveling, Buckling, denting, ee Acousic emison tht esl fom the moves of de locations, or “sa,” have ben extensively studied wit special abraoy techniques ‘Other Kinds of pennanet deformtion take place when materials weak and ne = ‘aoe ate created Ona crscopc real inside a pice of tel te materi most ly to beak ae specks of slie, oxide, and eabide, and ater nonmealie mesial, THe Salest ofthese tems re he carbide “recipi scattered win the mt gaits, fo example, microscope plates of iro carbide, only a few hundred atoms hick, distributed in*pearite colonies" These prcinttes py» bg pt in governing theses mechan ‘a properties. On larger scale, the ae nonmetallic "plus Tying betwen te rea grain, suchas manganese slide "singers" formed dfng te rling of he sel lt and slg schason nrduced dng welding, There may sso be nontali ot= fesion products intimately eonected to the mata sfc. Al these nonmetal compo= ‘ens ae lest dice than the malic mace ia which they ae embedded. As resale {hey bre mae easly when the metal i snes, The breaking ofthese nonmetallic ‘component isthe mai source ofthe acoustic emission observed hen rk fre metals sre deformed ‘When metal is cracked, tee i a diferent kindof acoustic emission souce and this one is he most inportnt in nondesretive esting. The oseirence ofa crack insta ‘reates anew sure, This sama dye fo stactre's ingen als the best ‘ecopnied source of bigh-amplitde acoustic emisions. Detection of emission fom {rowing acs as boon he most commen goal he many applietion af AL tehnolo- by. When esurface-treaking crack grows, the strctre opens up in response othe Pl oes. This far more seus than he opening ofa inclusion, which would end tonnave no more than loa effect. Therefore, sacks end to proce higher ample ‘enlsthat are more ready dstctable 'As wel a casing nrge-amplide AE waves as they progress, erscks prods smal: ampliude AE waves tm material deformation st te eck tip Emision can also be reduced fom te rubbing or “tng” of era srlees a they spen an close and ‘rnd in response to changing lends. Crtesion products forming on he crack sures am enhance hs emission, which make the erack even sore emisive, ‘When mater na component deers sn expose to a ype of loading, the defo ration tends fo relieve and smooth out the local sesce. This mane tht after an couse emision event hasten plce, the elastic energy stored inthe ses flé will have been reduced; some of wil hve been relessed. The energy rlesse from the ste felis used create new deformation ha wl wa he marl and produce the ‘cous emisio, Sted another way, the sure of the soos emission ergy the neray stored inthe clase sees Geld produced bythe loacng ofthe sactre Aeoosis Emissions produced atte sous, as ashot pulse of elas and ise enersy that = {trough the material a an li wave, The theory of frequency spectra stows that, Being a shor impulse, he wave caries energy a ll eguents frm very Too som big upper iit onthe exer of 1000 Az higher. Experience a sho ht igh sestvty to these emisions is most xsl achieved by using contact Sensors in he up er para this requncy range, been TOD KHz and 50 Ke ‘Some ofthe low-frequency emission (approximately $0 zt 15 kia), if bey ae Jo enough, ean he heard. This coun the dea tht the eneay of acoustic isons s send over avery wide fequene range andthe theory at AE compass equences all te way down to zero is evidenced by the largest aot emission of earth ‘wakes, wich shake bullingsutdeed les any at equencies of few bet and les. Finly the lower-sfequney component isl ential tthe permanent change in the stes fel created by te ation a the sure ever. “The amount of sous emission energy released and the amplinde of the resaing ‘waves dopnds on hes and the sped of the source event, Aston event prodices# ‘rater signal han ila weak event The theory i that emission ampli is proprton= At the are ofthe new surface create. A sudden dice rack event wil pedoce 3 ‘ester signal han wills slow, eeping advan ofthe crack tip over the ue distance ‘The ery is that emission ampli i proportional othe cack velo. "The sssociton beeen acusticemision an crack growth has een intensively studied. Process involving some form of eovitlement, suc ax hydrogenindaced ‘asking ad ses corrosion eking, are generally among the ter entre. Date Processes such a slow Sous facture are generally quer Weldments ze more i Sive than puen¢ meal because thy ze by mature ls dct Tess uta to tinge the tts ferent lasses of pure activi: 1. Primary aetiviy from new, permanent changes inthe eiginallyfavcated entra, ‘Tubs ypically duet lea senses that are bigher han the orignal sess levels, 2, Secondary stv fom material tht were not prt the orginal faction, uch a conasion product. 3. Secondary actives rm rept processes such as rack uric rubbing (ton) that do ot produce new, permanent changes inthe material. Secondary atiy canbe ‘ltr helpful ora musace, depending onthe wn itis tees. Secondary emission ‘ieent rom noise” whichis always a nusance othe AE pesctoner Noise in AE testing means any unwanted signal di majorite in aout emi: son tecinolgy. The mai types of acoust nls sources ae Tcon an pact, which an result om many environmental cases Frtonnsorce re simolted by sci ‘Ml oading, which cases movement at movable connects or love balls Impact cares Ince un wind-driven ds, and flying objets nse pt of the AE tet eh gue isthe ability to elimi il hese noe sources ano Toss on wht i leva [Noise i adresse in tre way (by selecting sn appropriate fest sate and into ‘mentation stp: (2) by taking practi preitons on ie prevent oie sures fr 1 posible; (3) by recognising and removing noe nations fom the recorded dat, “This ast process te dana of dara nterpettion, 2.2 Structural Loading and AE Source Activity Acoustic emission our t oeatons where he local ses high enough o cause new, pment defomation. This ofa happens a revs concentration, repons where the Stes is raised by local geometry. Suess conceatatons exit at Weld dt changes Seton, and structural dsconinaties i general they azo eit round cracks and favs “The sess concentaions at weld details re the reason hy nig cracks nits fhese Iocatone ‘When a material deforms and emis eneray the dfoematon tends to slow the high Tocl sess Often the laud ransfere to ome other pa ofthe stirs This has 8 ‘Sabin ffs. th sttre te uslosded and then reloaded to the sme evel he ‘ions ht deformed te fit tine wl end o be sable the second tne. Ths, the eis ‘on sources wil tend ot to remit the second time around, unless the load exceds the previews maximum "When a material is loaded (aresed) changes shape: it setches, compresses shears The ena! term for dhs change i shape i "stain" The sinha a lai, reversible component and alo (ifthe load is high enough) a plast,peranent compo: ‘The elastic component ofthe sain occurs immedi aft the load i eplid. The sucsitain il nid the mater is quickly ritbuted such tat ll he eres oe talanced. Actual ths edsbtion takes pleat the speod sound, ough the prop ‘gation of elastic waves. Thi i wy body vibrates if shock force suddenly ppd ‘Unlike the easte componente pase component of th strain often takes conse bletime to develop. Some of he deformation is tmedite ut sme of te dlayed. De Taye defomnation of noumetlic mater site Sania. ln tn, pascs cee and stretch and wooden beams sg. Stel shoe ony trace ofthe kind of behavior, bat Scouse emission i ery sesive ideator and wil een rove time-dependent be Ivor that would therwise go umn Figure 102 lusztes the character behavior ate of anewly fabricated compo ents igure load and AF ate bth pote spat ime. The load ie asd and bd, then raise and eid agin, AE is generated dusng both load rises. Ding the fist lad hod there iso emission But dr the second loed bad, he ses is higher. The er ‘hn corines for some ine into tho second old period an then the compan eve ally sai. "nisin that continues during food olds ikely to indicate structurally significant efes: Many test procedures place partir emphasis on emission dating lod lds, nisin that oecus during rising ood on previously unloaded strtre i ee easy 10 Interpret it may esl fom discontinuities. Suuctrly sound mater wl als pode feissions while testes is incensed ering ntl loading. Te lnerpeation of sis Son during lod holds is easier Another characters of ctrl significa dex Is hat they end emit oma second loading a second loading is crcfuly monitored, ‘one often sees a itl elsion before the previo maximum load; ot esl a ih at The ist tine, but not zero ter. This emisio en be an important inde of sc ‘tinea. ‘As canbe observed in Figure 103, emision ie pote dry aginst oud inthis ‘scenario the loads raise, lowered, raised spun tos higher level, were, and fll ‘alse higher level tl, Emission generated ding the fist load rise (AB), but ‘he fod is lowered (BC) snd isd air (CB) there sno more emission unt the ee ACOUSTIC EMISSION LOAD & FIGURE 102 Emission coming during ed Hold inte inwabili. FeLieny eFrect D AE EVENTS or COUNTS Basen errecr FIGURE 103. Enistion o pete ding. ous lad maximum i excaeded. Emission contin asthe lai ised farther (BD), find stops ath load i lowered for the second tine (DE). On rai the oad for he Tas ime, a ferent emission patter is observed: te emission stars up before the pre vious maximum load i tained (F), Emission cones asthe oad is increased (0), ‘The behavior observed at point B (o emission ul previous maga lad is exceed. <8) is known asthe Kaiser effect. The bobsvioeoberved st pint F (emission at load Below the previous mama) is Knot atthe Flic effec. Insgient lass tend to show the Kaiser effet while structurally sigan flaws ted to show the Febty cet, ‘Ofspeil interests the AB monitoring of srt fig. The emission beavior of rowing fatigue cracks has ben extensively staid. Classi aborory datas shown i Figure 10-4 This dag sows both the ec length andthe scam tol of te fmusion detected The emision bean wih ear ination, end then ticked rather losly with the grow ofthe rack inceasing the erack popapted more apy 1 Sr fire, The experiment prove this was cred oot with eclic loading using ie lod amplitude. Ie was found Ust the primary eiaion fom active eck growth oseured only atthe peak oad levels In fat, Figte 10-4 shows ony the emission tat occured tthe peak oad levels secondary emission and noise that occured at lower fad levels ‘were ousie the gate tveshold evel. At Riss when the crack wae sil sal, nt every {yee peodaced emisbions. However, a the cack apprcched the eicallngh fru ‘Sable propagation, every cycle produced emissions. Tas Tes ts well withthe be- Iver of atic loaded specimens disused above, in tha sigan Mas fen Show the Kaser effect, whereas strctuallysigaican Mas tend 10 show the Feily ‘eet. The primary emission fom growing ftigu racks can result from wo sources. Fist, snr may be emisive pales pialy nonmetal incon, the ses conceta 2 e Esau, root 3 3g # 8 e 8 : a 10 20 30 40 50 50 : FIGURE 10-4 AE growing fom faigu crock. a reaion near the eack ip. Ashe crack vances toward these atic, the os tress Teves rise, and her breaking will reduce spiny emision. The other source i the movement ofthe crack ip itself Crack ip overeat spell taking place ina mixed ode same ofthe now sea is rated by dsloaton sett ni some oft eee by smalscae cleavage a sudden separation of th mater in aegion foc weakness andor exceptionally high stress. Crack ip movement by dislocation acy i ypcally ot detestable, but cleavage isan shot and relatively gost mesa tat proces plenty of AE coer in the normally detectable range ‘Secondary sci rom cack fae fiction is alo oflen observed in AE monitoring of fig racks In constan-ycle fatigue, his activity fen produces jst the same sil, je afer ele at insted load level. This secondary emission my eon fot Inundres o- thousands oFeyles, then dc ou only a start agin latrines The best explanation that robbing a rouh spots or aspera” onthe crack sac, sindist In igue 0, prodoces ths. I has also bon opened thatthe roel reat surfaces he crack up may stick together hen break apart agin athe crack ip opens and closes Theoreca relationships between AE apd crack propegton sates have been devel: oped: Exesive ecarh work ha ben done on AE fom constnt-yee fig; home tf lest work as been done reling tote randon-ye fatigue, Distinguishing between Primary and sconday emission i easy inte case of constan-ycle faigue Ta he case ‘ot randoneyele tigue itis nos easy. Crack face moverent eed ition o 10 fish gow isan undesae and probably detenortngconiton in the mater hat ‘Should be comet FRICTION SOURCES FIGURE 105 Crk ce rbbing cn prose sary emission, 2.3. Tho Signal Shaping Chal “The signal shaping chain i shown in igure 10-6. Its four inks the source, the prop sntionof the wave tbe sensor abd the signal-contining electronics Beh ink harem {olling influence onthe size and spe of te meatored ego. The Gal sia i drt cally cerontin shape om the vigil motion athe sure, An import sonsieaton ‘ndscussing te sgl shaping cain she eqpency content. All sins can be sled {8 other“sine wave” regency compnens This ste ed of “Fourie” stl, one ofthe most powerful tol the sen and technology of signal pocesing. “The ter "equenc” ees othe epetiion fate oat osiliatin within a pven sme pide, the amber of ees per seen. Anyone who bas tre the kao to ae "ear radios been selecting the reuency that he or she wants to reeve. Each rio Staton broadcasts ta parca reuoncy. By tuning to tation, the recetver eames Sense fo the desire requency. An acoustic emision source, however, int Ike a ne in COMPARATOF TIME THRESHOLD VOLTAGE FIGURE 16-13 Sigal eteston by comparison withthe, PEAK AMPLITUDE RISETI VOLTS | LY h Ne Li TITIAN VY FIGURE 10-44 Keysignletren “Sigal energy” i the aren unde the voltge-time envelope, ie, he area under the one Tne shown n Figure 10-14 Thi ser important mesvre of sigs ste ans the most widely used measure of AE atv. Won asuucture produces many emissions ‘neaponse leading, th energies of the iva signal an bead to proses ta ampiud. OF all th teiques tha ave bee set dese emission quant in 9 ‘Single number, his has bon the most oecess i "Cau rhe coarser utp pse coresponing othe threshold crossings A ingle bit may provide ona few cont o mip Furnish hundreds of counts depend ing onthe si and shape ofthe signa. For te elcenie designer, thi the eaves ‘measurement to make, and in the eaty years of AE, cours” wee he mast common Way {0 deserve and veprt AF quate. Dring the 1980s energy replied cots the re fered measure of AE activity. However, cous are sll ofl for data irre, ‘sed in conjunction with ample or Grain, they can give valuable infomation oo Sip shape ‘Sever ether signal festures may be measurable, depending on the equipment avail tle but those noted above are the tos widely use A Bock gram for typical ins ‘menation ved fo making these measurements x sown in Fgae 10-15, ’As well as measuring the fers ofthe individual signa te A inseam stlly rmeasres also the times at which they are detected and te environmental varabes Dat maybe casing te acu. The broader tpect of inemament architecture ede the ext ection. 2.6 Instrument Architecture The mos common overal design for AE instrument isthe socalled “hit-based” archi jac Typcl AE ety const of sere of distinc gna These signals ocr a ‘mega ime intervals and have widely varying shapes and sizes. Hivtased arcitectare ‘sesigned forthe efficient measurement and ecrding of hie knd of atv, couse Bassi TESTING 10.19 THRESHOI jivia SENSOR | FRONT MAIN. o Reker FIGURE 10-15 Sis ncstrement lock ingram Im hi-bsed architecture, he system emains dormant nil signi deste bythe Aesholdeeuiry, a diseassed in Section 25.2. The sgl smeared and a micro: processor sores at record continng the tine of dteton andthe real of te mea. tremeats made. Arti, hemeaurement ciety ese, ready forthe next it. Ths, theinformation passed tee computer ans fa saris at dal ets." Each it ats Set ake up gypclly 30 bytes of storage spce daly each it dataset wil emespnd tothe detection of one AE even (eg microscopic esc mp inthe steed mute of the structure under test, The est ta bulds up a computer meray, oi converted to ‘plays or writen wo dk or ome other media acoring fo the sytem design, Bove ‘nena dt sch a pressure, eee, dplceren, ete, may aloe measured at Te Sametime, nthe reste ay be writen along wth the ipa dat From thse data ceived he eompiter can generate many dierent kind of dsl, ‘both ding dra aquisition and also at any time aera by reply fda files wet to disk or oer storage medium. Reresnative architec fora hicbaed sytem ts shown in Figue 10-16. Thiedngram shows a channel with anplifstin, iterng eee- tion, measuement of signal features, andthe rater of da an ining information 1 ha storge and processing ciety 'A major advantage ofit-asod rchitectuei that divers very delle descrip tin ofthe emission while aking er eoonomical ue of data storage space. The stn oft ata sets optimizes the se of storage med and gives the gest sop fr dita ‘eipreation and evaluation. The data may be eieved works or even years ter for ev ‘on. The es record ial nthe same forma he day twat red. The pera rence ofthe data record ands ready availabilty for resalyais is oe of te toe ‘vantages, not only ofthis particular reitecture bt alo of AE testing a9 wile ‘itbsed architectures aimed at comprehensive data aeguison and vera sly sis capability. Thre ae other Kinds of reece with fret goals se well as var tions within the broad class afhihase arhtecture. Some instruments satis pn TIME OF TEST| CHANNEL #1 a Pr 5) TIME OF HIT RECORDER AE HIT FEATURE CHANNEL #N GATE) EXTRATION ' CIRCUITRY AMPLIFIED/FILTERED, NAL FIGURE 1016 lastunen fantom diagram, cin favor of porabiy. Some systems sacrifice vest in favor of automsi per ‘ion optimized for specie applications. There are simple systems that acsomste AE ‘nergy or counts in hardvare cours and ouput careonding volage fr plating 09 {oharaype recoder There re dedented ings instruments in which the computer Pins predefined st of graphs showans vious aspect the AE data bt oes no pro fice pecmanent record of every hit Insramens oust wih special alarms or nterpreve ‘vate. Both research Iboratones and commercial vendos have implemented many ifr AF insrametation dea ough the ear Ost of sever hundred diverse AE instrament designe fat ave been connected, ely afew have bac success sugh 0 arnt production nsubwantil quanti A sst-ofhert AE isrunent shown 8 Figure 10-17 This a complete dita 82 channel AE system 2.7 Multichannel Source Location Techniques 221 Introduction ‘AE insirumentaton ea ocd many channels single AE event canbe detected on Several chanel, producing ait on each an. These ts wl occur n very ick sce Son ypiclly al ling within afew ned iiroseonde as the waveton ies "ough Ie sensor array By comparing the areal times a dfleent schsrs, we ca ink ‘ur about the loeaton ofthe source Thi capability one ofthe mos eel fetes of [AE testing, When AE is used to inspect a large suet wih jus sow widely spaced ‘Senses, sure Toctionfeshniqes canbe edo nin the exact epions t should ‘De npowted lata, using ther NDT metho ‘When AE i sed fo determine if known flaw s ative, souse location techies canbe eral in enabling the sc to dacimintesscesully between the koows fa” FIGURE 10-17. Sutton acoustic eison system 1022 curren res and exrancous poise sources. Figur 10-18 shows more deals ofthe basic caneept. As tn wave spreads ot fom che sauce, i eachs fist the neat sensor, 82, then the ‘her sensor, $3 and SI. As te esting signals eras the detection thresholds on each nae,“ are proced on te comespondng chante in he measurement ‘pent The Fst hit on senor 82, carat me re afer the soare eve, where isthe fistance rom source to senso and isthe wave selcity discs in Section 2.42. The second and thd hits occur a tines re andar he source event respatvely. Note atthe isirument ha no det avarenes ofthe time ofthe sours event cn esse ‘only the times of he sling his: but from the ferences between thse Bit times, ‘i caleulte bth the location andthe ine ofthe source exert "There area variety of practical ecniguesdrived fom this general concept. The i tention might be te focut on one of more predefined ares of infresfo dictate ‘gains one or mre predefined ose soars, oro set sbou the test wiht prsoncey tons and take an approach sing aloeation spe ovectiow ofall sources onthe ene structure. Tee are techniques based on computation frm measued ie difference ed there ate also simplified acbigues that only cansidr the soqence ofthe tt, without "ven measuring the ata ne cifeences That ate alo techngucs based onto thre, four, or more sensors with compiaions oriented fo lines, pla, sl ad Semple strctal geomet, ‘With AE instruments, techniques ae executed somtimes andar, sometimes in ssquistionsime software or poset sovar, and sometimes according tothe Wer’ oie. Thee major approaches compel source Tneston, zone Toction, and gard ‘echniques are explained in the secuans belo 27.2 Compuel Source Location Too of the st widely usd Toeatontchguss ae known 3 tine fcaion and plan loan. The rnp of Tine location i seated in Fue 10-19, which shows the time of anival ference ata function of te source positon. When the source is at he Imioin, the wave aries st sensors Sad $2 smtaecusy and fhe tine of wal fineenc ee ar=a S3 2 SOURC) FIGURE 10-18 Basic principle of AE sue lation ACOUSTICEMISSION TESTING 1023 AT WELD | 0 MIDPOINT FIGURE 10.19 Prpi olin ston. [ST Ceti) i the algebraic symbol that ands forthe ime diference between its. ‘The rete tho astnce between he sour andthe midpoint the grater the dts T. The relatos is inca Bs uy ‘Where sth dance ofthe sure from the midpoint, ad isthe velocity of sound siscssed in Section 242. This relationship holds 50 long a he source is beeen the ‘Sensor. However, if the sure is beyond one ofthe sensors Ie doa Tas constant ‘alu of He, where Lis the distance between sensor. Ths, asoirosbesween the sesors nb pinpointed, but aot a source beyond 2 sensor. Note alo fn the above equation tat, ‘st seat alealaton ofthe source fcation require both an accuse essere of ‘he dela, and an secure knowlege ofthe wave velocity the delta Tiles fom fee eee of some accident of wave propszation, the calle location wl en t= ‘its dese to use two sensor locate sures along a weld ina plate but the 60 sorsare offset a distance D fom the Wel lineation result ae depited n Figo 1020. The relationship between source poston and det Tis qe siulr tthe oe sown in Figure 10-19 but the stag fine ave become curves besa he sensors ae fet rom he wel ine. Inti eas, ts pss, principe fo pinpoint a locaton onthe weld ine beyond ‘he sensors as ell as betwee the. The rete slope ofthe eure inthe region between ‘te sensor indicates tat the ching wl best eeuatand elie in he ental sin, Beyond the sensors, small change or error) nthe eared delta T produces a Tage change (or ror) inte ealustd source poston. In ther word, he ecg i tas lable “The examples in Figues 10-19 and 10.20 illustate ow, with two sensors (ne dla ‘itis posible oleate te X position oa source slog sine Wi thre sens, 80 1024 counrten tex MIDPOINT ARRIVAL NCE (AT) FIGURE 1020 Source oeton with wo sensor off fom awed ie, ‘eta 7s) itis possible wo loeate the X and ¥ positions ofa sure on lane. Thisis the ‘uation ifscated in Figure 10.18, Ter are many mathematical approacies o source Tocation on plans, Some using hee Sess and some wing four sensors 5st swith incr location the Best accuracy for pant lestion achieved when the source i wel whi the sensor say, rather thi ote off et, wth ony thes ‘corsa plane, the sure lation mathematics x ambiguaus over mos of he pane FFrmany points ouside te tangle, ts possible to find matching pois isd De wih se that wl prodse the same del Ts The esting regions of bigs lation ae Shown in Figure 10-21 foran ara of the sensors nan equlsersl sng ‘cation en o be ambiguots when te fst arival occu lng before ee ofthe ssherariva, When a thes sensor ava ised for monitoring a specif area of interest, Iisclenly amperant place the rea of nee n the ares of ungaeloetion, ot he trea of ambigious locaton. Aleratiely, he problem of ambiguaus locaton ean be Ye Solved bythe we of an entra dei frm fourth sensor. There ate mary mathematical tecnigues Tor accomplishing soarce loeation om plane, Some ure thee sensors snd some use four. Several exact analytical solutions av bre described, sme stow and cus. some fas ad sophisticated. Approximation sal ‘ns ve slso been widely used. Thee can offer a good combination of sped cea, and robustness when faced withthe option of infor data These inclse sterative ap. ‘roche, laste enkitons, nd linear and quasi pproimatons “The accuracy ofthe computed source location je Hinied more By wave propagation ‘actors tan by ihe tatersial approaches. The conventional approaches all asim thatthe weave tavele eet fom source t sons witha welldfned veloc. ln pat tee, reflections, multiple wave modes, and ofr propagation effete ht proce met= tunis inthe effative velocity aswel ay setter in he experimental dt, eam pee this sumption. The results tht computed source lection unig conenionlaprancs is ‘ery acute in some situations bt prone o serious err in others. tact geomet ind operating fequeney gover whether conventional source Toation techniques will wrk well ora aygicuous TOCATION @ GOOD LOCATION @ FIGURE 1021 Goo¢ lation and ambiguns oeation wh a thse sensor an, With compute source location, several hits are needed or there canbe no compute tin, Salle evens that nly hit oe enor ae ble ob ignored. This an be danger fs, especialy in widearea monitoring. Overeliance en computed source lotion fas Sometimes ed uses to igor import dat und to daw the wrong conlsios abou ‘Srutaralintepity. Therefore computed source loaton mst be used wisely. The sensor ‘spocing must be properly adped tthe wave tention on he parca site ben ‘monitored andthe desired seas. 273. Zone Location and Guard Techniques ‘A simpler type of source location is known as zone locaton Here, coneusons are dawn from theft sequence alone, whut stalls messring the dla T's. This development ‘began with he dea of gard Sensors, which is usa ip Figure 10.22, The techie sas conecived inthe early 1960s a away to rood data fom aimed ares of ier, ‘we ejecting noe rm outside, "Ada" seaoeD is plced on the ae of intrest sounded by several guard en- sore G. AE waves foo the aca of itrest wil tthe da senor before iting ny of the guards. Waves fom ouside wil itt least one o he ede before iting he dat Sensor Bised on ths i easy To ject the olde note. The concep an Be imple rend in several different ways, Sometimes this process i condned by hare eaiy i the insament or by software between th detecting and the recoeding ofthe Tis These eats, the noise signals ae pot records. Sometimes tis proces er fomed by postestanalsis on systems Uat rarer all is neating hits on goad Postest pressing i safer, but the file are longer and moe werk is necessary ding the analysis ofthe data, AS vacant on the guard sensor technique, guard sensors can ‘be placed 0 loin nie soures an da sensors ca be pce arn the ret ofthe inspeetion aren "The tes of frit zone locaton was a ter devclopment ofthe gua cone, FIGURE 1022 Guard sensor concept oncived in 1972. This is a technique for wide-area monitoring. Many senso monitor the inspec are, snd determination is made a 10 which chanel detects the wave fst the wave i waeling unfoemly, the st it senor ms be else othe ores than any eter sensor. By paying atenton othe fist hi seasor, geod Information Is ‘sed about the locaton of the sous. ‘With sci zone Tot, te inspotion are cn be divided ino 2000, cach 20 ‘sing eentered on one sensr Ifa paula senso isthe fst one 1 bet can Be com luge tha the sure Le somevtere nth sensors ze, igre 10-23 shows the pate of zones fora spe layout of sensors on plane, The ‘zone boundaries ar ight ines tha evenly divide te spaces between pas of senso. Ingeometie ems, they re the perpendicular bsetors of the ines joining neighboring Seasors Figue 1024 shows he expansion of tus eonept ito the trs-dimesion Data fom structural testis often displayed by channel, eg, a raph of hts versus channel ora pap ofa particular chanel’ atv. The prital value of fish one Tectia allows the user remove second-hand hh infomaion rm he da, so tat each chanel shows oaly the emission that atalyoxgiated wit is ‘zone This substan sharpens an clea the dt ‘As withthe guard technique, the Fsthit zane foeaion echnigue canbe plement by hardware city, by sofware ate time of da acquisition, or by sofware daring pests analy Deals ofthe inplemenation dle sepending on he spi nt: rent esi. Zone location an be extended to take ito account the second and this, if there are any. Wa te knowledge ofthe channel ta received the second it te soc et {ion ca be naoved dows os segment ofthe prinary zane, With the knowledge ofthe chan! tat received the thd hit the source cation canbe murowed dowa sl Tes. However, these techniques ae seldom implements. 'Abeafi ofthe zane cation approch that only 2 single iti needed forthe event tobe amited int te analysis proces. Ia the preceding cussion of compa souree FIGURE 10-28 Fise-itz00e teston location, i was pointed ot tht sever hits ae ede to give the dea T's required for ‘computation, Compared with his, rome location hs in eft, higher sensi and ‘one ofthe dete event ae inored, 2.8 Data Displays ‘Becoming familiar with he AB data dapays and earning ho to read them i very ith portant pa of tie AE use’ ining. Even tone who se fai with ther ND seth ao) FIGURE 1028 Zope ovation on st 10.28 curren ods muy find AE displays strange at ist because they ae baisly graphs of numerical na rater than the visual mages and displ tat re the working oo of sme other NDT metho. ‘AE dat ipa cn be rope nt four steps Location dspys Activity displays Inst pays ‘ata gusty (eos) daplaye Location displays are widely used, However, ter hinds of displays are very valle for backround infmation on-site, for investigative werk, and for da analysis espe cially inthe mote dificult stuns. Therefore, wth ining snd prose, the AE rat Vier becomes familar with all te dla Wes. Location days show here the tmision is eoming from. When computed lean techniques ae beng sed, te typeal Teetion ipl na mp ofthe inspection ae. An example x shown in igi 10-25, The use eins the X-Y coordinate ame foe the mapa the salvar et up The sen- soc numbers are shown inthe appropriate places onthe map. When pan sou lection isbeing used, te letion of each evet is ploted asa dot on te map. 1a source emits ‘repeated the dot form aclustr a shonin Figure 10-25. Thue ee i des at rll to the casters on he eroen that cacespond othe most missive sources. ‘Whe liner action is being wed the espa isa hstograr with the san between ‘ne sensors lid ot alan the X nis This is dasa Figure 10-26, The X ‘ied ino a amber of segments or bin” typi 18, Each ested event aig {othe in that correspond ot loeaton. The name of events in ach bi inte. bythe height ofthe istogam bur. When viewing ths pay, the ers eye drawn 0 the highes peako he highest conentation of indication. This s whee the maj of the emision activi orignts 20. a ee FIGURE 1025 Plana sos lston dy. AcoUsTC ESO TESTING 10.29 cy a haga om, | [iit nia coe xt FIGURE 10-26 Lins cation dp, A thir kind of lcation dip is histogram of evens as related to chanel. This it sed for fist hit zone location, here each event i sigh to the hana at deed st and later his on ter chanel are sands. Ths type of ply atte in Figure 10-27 The height ofthe bs foreach of the five chanel shows the sumer of vents dtected by that chanel fit Channel shows the most aii, ith 1700 eves Iitng it fst in oe hour of monitoring nti ex, the crack was Between channels and 2; channels 3, 4, and’ were guard sensors wsdl sereen out exaneos mie ‘There are vantions o the dspay shown in Figwe 10-27. For example, te tla AB signal eneray fem each 2a could be pled onthe Y ais nteado he tal numb of ‘rene Tis would provide reser prominence tothe znes that produced hiph-erey spas sah tare sans sauce IRE 10-27 Zone locaton dp, 1030 curren tes hits Te secnd major las of pls i activity displays. These ocd displays that hve ine on the X ais se Figure 10.28). The delay show when the AE seit cured and How snc ativy thre wat As in igre 10-26 the X ste divided ino bin inthis example, tere are 10D bine fom ef nigh, each bin eyes ne lize of 6 seconds. On the axis, the height of each fisogram bar shows how mich ‘mission occured during that tne lice, As shown, there tpl are detected i o> {ted eves, o tual ent shown. In older rors he ais fn showed AE count, ‘threshold crossing outs, as shown in Figure 10-18, "The ¥ ais sealing ean be men, in Figure 10.28, florian Figure 10 29, Looking at the inet la fe tine sles with very high activity stand ot promi ‘ety from ole! background. Inthe logarithms plo the sling rede he visual impact of these ery stv tie slices, but provides more infomation sot the Mactting lower evel activity i be= twee. I he logarithmic V ais sealing of Figure 10.29, 1B} sand for 1 which i 10, TER stand for 10% whichis 10, 1E3 stds fo 10 whichis 1000, ands on. HE stands for 1 Lopate ates ean cover are span. A Schou logathie pot would low ‘comparison in the sae lance a lange amounts of AE predsced in "hsbou tic” nd. very small amount produced inte "mile of de night” With nea es, very Stall mounts may ot even show above the belie "In Becoming Talis wit logarithmic pot importan oar how t ead the scale and hwo interpret the dpa nthe lower pat of th pay the pas fi Sng and fling acy my be informative, tt mit lays be remembered tht he ‘ua level stow Inte upper par o the py the level fatty drial restr ‘nd even a smal increase nthe eight of he stra har meus thousand of aon emiasion detested “Ano fmn of activity display & shown in Figure 10-0. Instead of showing the amount of activity in each tine sce, his display shows a runing ol fal the atity Ate since the star of the test. This isthe best dsl fer easing the average emis Sion ate aswel afr aberving the (lemon unt, “The third major clas of displays is “nent dipays." These provide stata in femation about the sizeof the detected signals In many case, large signals are key t9 edlgDSL PISA couce tg tee apm asa FIGURE 10-28 Avy doply: AB ate vers tine SypaeE nist cack 1 ‘ema nortan thn mall signals Furthermore, given ttl amount of AE signal eo fy might be originating fom 3 few are signals or om many sal sgl; cole be Important to know about these erigins These ae the sues Ut ae adressed by inten The bestAnown tnt dply i the “ampli dsribation” pt, which shows how many of the hit were large and how snany were stall. Thi pay exit in v0 forms. The “ferential” foe, tasted in Figwe 10-3, ia histogram wih amplitude fn he X aks The X axis ied ino a dred I JB slices Te eights of he tas TyABRBL EMSA cach TEM etee___sayagrna ieee 10-30 Comulatv stivity dsp 1032 curren re [RITE WIE] 1-10 dst Pris crack + Tight Retro 1 izad 999] 00") 00:09"e5) —160-| oan #1 “CieLEne rea o : lll ] : a urs vs Guanes [PS PRINT CRAP fre USER OMEN [PP PRE. CRAP “0 FIGURE 1031 Dire amplitude dsribwion show how many hits were recorded teach LB level. Typically there re many lowest Dito sina and fewer biph-amplitie signal, Naturally, thet are no measured goals ‘ith acopludes estan the detection ero ote play Blank wo the Ie of the Uheshold 8 vale “The cumiaive foem ofthe amplitude dsrbuton display isa ine graph resening ‘ho rumber of it that were pear than the X ais ampli. Ths om is nv om ‘he itferential display by scanning itm ght ole and accumulating the content of the bins. The comulotive diplay derived om Fig (01 is shown im Figure 10-3 Both deren nd cumulave forms ae oen displayed with loartine scale os the Yas This makes easier to assess he hgh-ampltde act even Wea the la Plitae hits re meh more mera, "The shapes ofthe ample dbus often give valuble clues about the source mechanisms that ate producing the. For exile growing cracks often eve staight Fines hen a ogame sale sed on the axis If he pot ef fom liner, probably aot s growing erick. Figure 10.32 is spies example of assign spe fide dsrvuson. Another type of tensity display isthe so-called “energy account" Iasated in Figure 10-33, This shows whether th foal signal energy is coming mot from low-energy events or mostly fom high-energy evens Te X aks shows the energy ofthe naval hits, on loguridune sale rom 6 100 000, divided int 0 bine. The height of each bar shows the ol energy fom all he its th fall int hat bn Difleent emission suree mechanisms eae mplitdedstons an energy = counts to show a diferent shapes Those daplays can hep to en the mechanisns that are working, and can bep el he derence between law -eated AF an exrane= ‘us noise. The fourth ad Inst major cles of AE slays i crsepla cplays. These are ‘sed during interpretation to ass ds quality Te fem “rons” pes pti which each hit gives one point on te dsp, showing te cos-eaionship between 40 ensured signal feeues. The bestesablshed crosiplos are “durton vert ample ode," "counts versus amplitde,” ad “couns versus duration.” A draionamplose ‘rseplot lasted in Figure 10-34 FIGURE 10-32 Comulsivespliuge dsr, Larger signals ypcally have higher pits and also more counts (see Fgae 10- 14). Therefore, the data inthe counts ampltudeeosplt tend falta dagoral bat runing Frm ower leo pper right. long with his base tendency thee are se “arias that en provide ational normation about the shape ofthe signal. Shape, it tum, depends onthe source mechanism, ‘Shon, sharp soures, such as cack grow cause shorevse, quick decay signals sbereas long, drawn source procsis, uch 88 edonal iin, show at slow rie $low- decay signal, Thie indicted in Figure 1035, "A cack-prowh signal and rcon signal might have the same amplitude, but the E] 1-10 pst PPLsé Crack + Tight Retro Ss47 2365) 10000) femmes cele 240592 B422¢| 01:00:42] 800e- ‘Loa #1 “ceCLE=C 6000: ~ aaah FIGURE 1033 Enegy acount LIBT PMUSA Crock + Tight Retre sey s2eos04 see : Ae FIGURE 16-34, Durtontnplsude cops ‘ton signa! would have mueh longer dation. This provides a ecnigue fr resog= izing sigals om fcuon apd distagishing them rom sgals origin fom cack {rowth Figure 0-34 shows thre distinct bands of ta. Thee sarge, bod Rand st {he top, a shor ght band atthe botom, anda tire Ing Between. These an or respond to diferent signal shapes. Samal shape i aflaenced no oly by turce mach fmm but also by wave popigton, so the analsis of ts Kind of data is gute de ‘mandiag I is ot immediatly abvioes wheter the ferent bands comespond 0 dierent chamel to ifeen source leans ro ilerent source mechanisms, Va. fous techniques of vanced data analysis and signal procesing ean be used to adhe these sen ele _______ SOURCE RESPON | uhoattdiuads ____ SOURCE. FIGURE 10-3 Signa shapes depend on source mechanis 2.9. Interpretation and Evaluation in pondestuctive testing, dala interpretation and evasion proceed as shown in Figure 1036. ASTM has developed te following deft Indication. Response or evidence ofa espns a nondesrcie tet Ierpretarion. The determination of whether ideation ar eleva, nonrlevaet, ot fae valuation. The determination ofthe sgicance of elevations, False (cfesng oan indication), Obained tough improper eehigueo rocessing, Jn AE testing, the most basi kindof nds is simply hi (he data recon po doce ater te signal ha crossed the tneshol), Relevant indesions are hts proded byte crack.Nonelevan ideation inloe it produced by sources tide the inp tio area Fase ndcations incude its due to “echoes,” which en ose ithe insane Isbadly setup. Th AE es nal othor NDT mthods, interpretation occas before evasion, Some ‘ames, interpretation is performed excl and delay as well-defined step in 3

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