Etando Ayuk (MSc.

Chemical pathology) 10/07/2020

Ml 105

ORGAN PHYSIOLOGY
Unit 8
Physiology

CONTENT

 Liver
 Kidneys
 Gastrointestinal tract
 Lungs
 Muscle
 Bones

Further Readings
Human anatomy & physiology
Elaine nicpon marieb, katja hoehn - 2013

Principles of anatomy and physiology

Gerard J. Tortora, bryan H. Derrickson - 2008 227

Ml 105
Unit 8
Physiology
ORGAN PHYSIOLOGY
Introduction
 Definition
 Organ, in biology, a group of tissues in a living organism that
have been adapted to perform a specific function. In higher
animals, organs are grouped into organ
systems; e.g., the esophagus, stomach, and liver are organs of
the digestive system.

 Physiology is the science of life. It is the branch of biology that

aims to understand the mechanisms of living things, from the
basis of cell function at the ionic and molecular level to the
integrated behaviour of the whole body and the influence of
the external environment
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Ml 105
Unit 8
ORGAN
LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

 The liver is the largest organ of the human body, weighs approximately 1500 g, and is located in the upper
right corner of the abdomen.

 The organ is closely associated with the small intestine, processing the nutrient-enriched venous blood
that leaves the digestive tract.

 The major blood vessels, portal vein and hepatic artery, lymphatics, nerves and hepatic bile duct
communicate with the liver at a common site, the hilus. From the hilus, they branch and rebranch within
the liver to form a system that travels together in a conduit structure, the portal canal

 The liver performs over 500 metabolic functions, resulting in synthesis of products that are released into
the blood stream (e.g. glucose derived from glycogenesis, plasma proteins, clotting factors and urea), or
that are excreted to the intestinal tract (bile). Also, several products are stored in liver parenchyma (e.g.
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glycogen, fat and fat soluble vitamins)

Ml 105
Unit 8
ORGAN
LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

Internal Anatomy of the Liver

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Unit 8
ORGAN
LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

Functional Units of Liver

 Lobules which are made up of hepatocytes
 Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the liver’s mass
 Surrounded be interlobular veins (branches of hepatic vein that empty into the vena cava)
 Interlobular arterial branches (proper hepatic artery)
 Bile ductus- series of ducts form the common hepatic duct
 Bile canaliculi
 Canals of Hering
 Interlobular bile ducts
 Intrahepatic bile ducts
 left and right hepatic ducts
Functions of the Liver
 Metabolic
 Storage
 Excretory/Secretory
 Protective
 Circulatory
 Coagulation
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Unit 8
ORGAN
LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

Metabolic Functions
 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from certain amino acids, lactate or glycerol )
 Glycogenolysis and glycogenesis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose/ formation of glycogen from
glucose)
 Hormone metabolism
 Synthesis of fatty acids, lipoproteins,cholesterol
 Ketogenesis (breakdown of keytones to fats)
 Protein Metabolism
 Synthesis of plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen)
 Urea synthesis (ammonia to urea)
 Red blood cell production (In the first trimester of the fetus)

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Unit 8
ORGAN
LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

Storage Functions
 Glycogen
 Vitamins A, D, E, K (fat soluable)
 B12 (water soluable)
 Iron
 Copper

Excretory/Secretory Functions
 Bile
 Water, Cholesterol, Bile pigments (Bilirubin and Biliverdin)
 Anions of the Bile acids, Phospholipids (mainly lecithin), Bicarbonate and other ions

 Insulin-like Growth Factor 1(IGF-1)

 Most blood proteins (save antibodies) are synthesis and therefore secreted by the liver
 Cholesterol, fatty acids (via lipoproteins)

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Unit 8
ORGAN
LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

Protective Function
 Purification, Transformation, and Clearance –
 The liver removes harmful substances (such as ammonia and toxins) from the blood and then breaks
them down or transforms them into less harmful compounds. In addition, the liver metabolizes most
hormones and ingested drugs to either more or less active products.
 Kupffer cells -ingest bacteria or other foreign material from the blood

Circulatory Function
 While the liver is technically part of the gastrointestinal system, it also plays an important role in blood
circulation.
 The liver has been called the "antechamber of the heart" because it collects and processes all of the
gastrointestinal blood through the portal vein and delivers it to the right side of the heart.
 The liver receives blood through two vascular systems, the portal vein and hepatic artery.
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Unit 8
ORGAN
LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

Coagulator Functions
 Production and secretion of coagulation factors
 fibrinogen I, prothrombin II, Factors (V, VII, IX, X, XI), protein C, protein S, antithrombin.

Liver Enzymes
 Transaminases
 aspartate aminotransferase(AST or SGOT)
 alanine aminotransferase(ALT or SGPT)

 Cholestatic Enzymes
 alkaline phosphatase(AP)
 gamma-glutamyl transferase(GGT)

 Liver enzymes are proteins that help to speed up a chemical reaction in the liver.
 Liver function tests are blood tests that are used to evaluate various functions of the liver
 for example, metabolism, storage, filtration and excretion, which are often performed by liver
enzymes. However, not all liver function tests are measures of enzyme function 235

Ml 105
Unit 8
ORGAN
KIDNEY PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

THE STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEY

 The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped
organs found in the lower back region
behind the intestines.

 They are 7-10cm long and are the major

excretory and osmoregulatory organs. Along
with the ureter, bladder and urethra, they
make up the urinary system.

 It is in this system that urine is produced

and excreted by the body via urination
(micturition).
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Unit 8
ORGAN
KIDNEY PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

THE STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEY

 The renal artery brings blood with waste products
to the kidney to be cleansed.
 After the blood is cleansed, it returns to the heart
via the renal vein.
 Wastes flow through the ureter as urine to the
bladder to be stored.
 When the bladder is full, stretch receptors in its
wall trigger a response, the muscles in the wall
contract and the sphincter muscles relax, allowing
the urine to be excreted through the urethra.
 The kidneys are enclosed with a protective fibrous
capsule that shows distinct regions. 237

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Unit 8
ORGAN
KIDNEY PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

OVERVIEW OF KIDNEY FUNCTIONS

 Excretion of wastes and other foreign substances.
 Regulation of blood ionic composition.
 Regulation of blood pH.
 Production of hormones.
 Regulation of blood pressure.
 Regulation of blood volume.
 Maintenance of blood osmolarity.
 Regulation of blood glucose level.

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Unit 8
ORGAN
KIDNEY PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY

REGULATION OF BLOOD IONIC COMPOSITION AND PH…1

 The kidney can correct any imbalances by:
 Removing excess acid (hydrogen ion) or bases (bicarbonate) in the urine and
 Restoring the bicarbonate concentration in the blood to normal.
 The kidney cells produce a constant amount of hydrogen ion and bicarbonate because of their own
cellular metabolism (production of carbon dioxide).
 Whether the kidney removes hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions in the urine depends upon the amount
of bicarbonate filtered in the glomerulus from the blood relative to the amount of hydrogen ions
secreted by the kidney cells.
 If the amount of filtered bicarbonate is greater than the amount of secreted hydrogen ions, then
bicarbonate will be lost in the urine.
 Likewise, If the amount of secreted hydrogen ion is greater than the amount of filtered bicarbonate, then
hydrogen ions will be lost in the urine (i.e. acidic urine) 239

Ml 105
Unit 8 KIDNEY PHYSIOLOGY
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

PRODUCTION OF HORMONES
 The human kidney secretes two hormones:
 Erythropoietin (EPO)
 Calcitriol (1,25[OH]2 Vitamin D3

1) Erythropoietin
 It’s a Glycoprotein that acts on the bone marrow to increase the production of red blood cells.
 Stimuli such as bleeding or moving to high altitudes (where oxygen is scarcer) trigger the release of EPO.
 Without a source of EPO, these patients suffer from anaemia.

2) Calcitriol
 Calcitriol is 1,25[OH] 2 Vitamin D3, the active form of vitamin D. It is derived from calciferol
 Calcitriol acts on
 the cells of the intestine to promote the absorption of calcium and phosphate from food
 bone to mobilize calcium from the bone to the blood

 Calciferol in the blood is converted into the active vitamin in two steps:
 calciferol is converted in the liver into 25[OH] vitamin D3
 this is carried to the kidneys where it is converted into calcitriol. This final step is promoted by the parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
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Unit 8 KIDNEY PHYSIOLOGY
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

REGUATION OF BLOOD VOLUME

 By separately regulating loss of water and loss of solutes in the urine, the kidneys maintain a relatively
constant blood osmolarity close to 300 milliosmoles per litre.

REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

 Like the liver, the kidneys can use the
 amino acid glutamine in gluconeogenesis,
 the synthesis of new glucose molecules.
 They can then release glucose into the
 blood to help maintain a normal blood
 glucose level.

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Ml 105
Unit 8 KIDNEY PHYSIOLOGY
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

MAINTENANCE OF BLOOD OSMOLARITY

 By separately regulating loss of water and loss of solutes in the urine, the kidneys maintain a relatively
constant blood osmolarity close to 300 milliosmoles per litre.

REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

 Like the liver, the kidneys can use the amino acid
glutamine in gluconeogenesis, the synthesis of new
glucose molecules.
 They can then release glucose into the blood to help
maintain a normal blood glucose level.

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Ml 105
Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an
organ system which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the
remaining waste as feces. E. g. mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines
 Gastrointestinal means pertaining to the stomach and intestines and a tract is a collection of related
anatomical structures or a series of connected body organs.
 The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract. This consists of a long tube of organs that runs
from the mouth to the anus and includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine,
together with the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas, which produce important secretions for digestion that
drain into the small intestine.
 Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into smaller pieces so the body can use them to
build and nourish cells and to provide energy.
 The digestive tract in an adult is about 30 feet long.
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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

Functions/ Steps/ Process of Digestive System

 The digestive system is responsible for taking whole foods and

turning them into energy and nutrients to allow the body to
function, grow, and repair itself.
 The six primary processes of the digestive system include:
 Ingestion of food
 Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes
 Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body
 Digestion of food into smaller pieces
 Absorption of nutrients
 Excretion of wastes

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Ml 105
Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

Ingestion
 The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the intake of food.
 The mouth is responsible for this function, as it is the orifice through which all food enters the body.
 The mouth and stomach are also responsible for the storage of food as it is waiting to be digested.
 This storage capacity allows the body to eat only a few times each day and to ingest more food than it
can process at one time.

Secretion
 In the course of a day, the digestive system secretes around 7 liters of fluids.
 These fluids include saliva, mucus, hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and bile. Saliva moistens dry food and
contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme that begins the digestion of carbohydrates.
 Mucus serves as a protective barrier and lubricant inside of the GI tract.
 Hydrochloric acid helps to digest food chemically and protects the body by killing bacteria present in our
food.
 Enzymes are like tiny biochemical machines that disassemble large macromolecules like proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids into their smaller components.
 Finally, bile is used to emulsify large masses of lipids into tiny globules for easy digestion.
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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

Digestion
 Digestion is the process of turning large pieces of food into its small component.
 Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces. This mode of digestion
begins with the chewing of food by the teeth and is continued through the muscular mixing of food by the stomach
and intestines.
 Bile produced by the liver is also used to mechanically break fats into smaller globules.
 The food is also being chemically digested as larger and more complex molecules are being broken down into smaller
molecules that are easier to absorb.
 Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva splitting complex carbohydrates into simple
carbohydrates.
 The enzymes and acid in the stomach continue chemical digestion, but the bulk of chemical digestion takes place in
the small intestine.
 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which is capable of digesting lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids.
By the time food has left the duodenum, it has been reduced to its chemical building blocks—fatty acids, amino acids,
monosaccharides, and nucleotides.
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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

Absorption
 Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the body to absorb.
 Absorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water and alcohol being absorbed directly into the
bloodstream.
 Most absorption takes place in the walls of the small intestine, which are densely folded to maximize the surface area
in contact with digested food.
 Small blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the molecules and carry them to the rest of the body.
 The large intestine is also involved in the absorption of water and vitamins B and K before feces leave the body

Excretion
 The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a process known as defecation.
 Defecation removes indigestible substances from the body so that they do not accumulate inside the gut.

Physiology of Saliva
 It Cleanses the mouth.
 It helps moisten and compact food into a round mass called a bolus.
 It contains enzymes that begin the chemical breakdown of starch.
 It dissolves food chemicals so they can be “tasted”.
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Ml 105
Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

Absorption
 Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the body to absorb.
 Absorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water and alcohol being absorbed directly into the
bloodstream.
 Most absorption takes place in the walls of the small intestine, which are densely folded to maximize the surface area
in contact with digested food.
 Small blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the molecules and carry them to the rest of the body.
 The large intestine is also involved in the absorption of water and vitamins B and K before feces leave the body

Excretion
 The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a process known as defecation.
 Defecation removes indigestible substances from the body so that they do not accumulate inside the gut.

Physiology of Saliva
 It Cleanses the mouth.
 It helps moisten and compact food into a round mass called a bolus.
 It contains enzymes that begin the chemical breakdown of starch.
 It dissolves food chemicals so they can be “tasted”.
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Ml 105
Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

 The respiratory system consists of the nose, pharynx,

larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
 Structurally, the respiratory system consists of two
portions
 [1] the term upper respiratory system refers to the
nose, pharynx, and associated structures.
 [2] The lower respiratory system refers to the
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

 The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in

humans and many other animals including a few fish
and some snails.
 In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are
located near the backbone on either side of the heart.

 Functionally, the respiratory system also consists of two portions.

 [1] The conducting portion consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubesnose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles- that conduct air in to the lungs.

 [2] the respiratory portion consists of those portions of the respiratory system where the
exchange of gases occurs-respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli 249

Ml 105
Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION
 inspiration- breathing in..
 principle inspiratory muscles - the diaphragm & external intercostals.
 stimulation of diaphragm by the phrenic nerve

diaphragm becomes tenses & flattens

this enlarges the thoracic cavity& reduces its internal pressure

this force air in to the lungs

 other muscles also help-the scalenes fix the first pair of ribs while the external intercostal muscle lift the
remaining ribs like bucket handles, making them swing up and out- this also forces air into the lungs
 deep inspiration – is aided by the pectoralis minor, sternocleidomastoid, and erector spinae muscles.

 expiration- passive process .

 It is achieved by the elasticity of the lungs and the thoracic cage- i.e., the tendency to return to their
original dimensions when released from tension.
 pause- when inspiration ceases, the phrenic nerves continue to stimulate the diaphragm for a little
longer; it makes the transition from inspiration to expiration smoother. 250

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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY
GAS EXCHANGE & TRANSPORT
 External[pulmonary] respiration:
 It is the exchange of O2 and CO2 between air in the alveoli of the lungs and blood in pulmonary
capillaries. It results in the conversion of deoxygenated blood coming from heart to oxygenated blood.

 Factors that affect the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange:-

 concentration gradient of gases[ie, po2 & pco2]
 Solubility of the gases
 Membrane area
 Ventilation-perfusion coupling.

 Internal respiration
 The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between tissue blood capillaries and tissue cells called
internal[tissue]respiration. It results in the conversion of oxygenated blood into deoxygenated blood.

 Oxygenated blood entering tissue capillaries has a pO2 of 100 mm Hg, where as tissue cells have an
average Po2 of 40 mm of Hg. Because of this difference , oxygen diffuses from the oxygenated blood
through interstitial fluid and into tissue cells until the pO2 in the blood decreases to 40 mm of Hg

 While oxygen diffuses from the tissue blood capillaries to tissue cells, carbon dioxide diffuses in the
opposite direction. 251

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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY
GAS TRANSPORT
 1. oxygen:
 The concentration of oxygen in arterial blood, by volume, is about 20 mL/dL. About 98.5% of this is bound
to hemoglobin and 1.5% is dissolved in the blood plasma.

 2. Carbon dioxide-
a) About 90% of the CO2 is hydrated (reacts with water) to form carbonic acid, which then dissociates
into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.
b) About 5% binds to the amino groups of plasma proteins and hemoglobin to form carbamino
compounds—chiefly, carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2).
c) The remaining 5% of the CO2 is carried in the blood as mdissolved gas.

CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
There are four main centers in the brain to regulate the respiration:
1. Inspiratory center
2. Expiratory center
3. Pneumotaxic center
4. Apneustic center. The first two centers are present on the medulla oblongata whereas the last two
centers on the Pons region of brain. 252

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Ml 105
Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

 Latin- Musculus (Mouse)

 The Muscle is a soft/contractile tissue
found in most animals.
 Muscle cells contain protein filaments
of actin and myosin that slide past one
another, producing a contraction that
changes both the length and the shape
of the cell.
 Muscles function to produce force and
motion.

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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

 Mobility
 The muscular system’s main function is to allow movement. When muscles contract, they contribute
to gross and fine movement.
 Gross movement refers to large, coordinated motions and includes: walking running , swimming
 Fine movement involves smaller movements, such as: writing, speaking facial expressions
 Most muscle movement of the body is under conscious control. However, some movements are
reflexive, such as withdrawing a hand from a source of heat.

 Stability:
 Muscle tendons stretch over joints and contribute to joint stability. Muscle tendons in the knee joint
and the shoulder joint are crucial in stabilization.
 The core muscles are those in the abdomen, back, and pelvis, and they also stabilize the body and
assist in tasks, such as lifting weights.
 Posture
 Skeletal muscles help keep the body in the correct position when someone is sitting or standing. This is
known as posture.
 Good posture relies on strong, flexible muscles. Stiff, weak, or tight muscles contribute to poor posture
and misalignment of the body.
 Long-term, bad posture leads to joint and muscle pain in the shoulders, back, neck, and elsewhere.
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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY
 Circulation
 The heart is a muscle that pumps blood throughout the body. The movement of the heart is outside of conscious
control, and it contracts automatically when stimulated by electrical signals.
 Smooth muscle in the arteries and veins plays a further role in the circulation of blood around the body. These
muscles maintain blood pressure and circulation in the event of blood loss or dehydration.
 They expand to increase blood flow during times of intense exercise when the body requires more oxygen.

 Respiration
 Breathing involves the use of the diaphragm muscle.
 The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts, it pushes
downward, causing the chest cavity to get bigger. The lungs then fill with air. When the diaphragm muscle relaxes, it
pushes air out of the lungs.
 When someone wants to breath more deeply, it requires help from other muscles, including those in the abdomen,
back, and neck.

 Organ protection
 Muscles in the torso protect the internal organs at the front, sides, and back of the body. The bones of the spine
and the ribs provide further protection.
 Muscles also protect the bones and organs by absorbing shock and reducing friction in the joints.

 Vision
 Six skeletal muscles around the eye control its movements. These muscles work quickly and precisely, and allow the
eye to:
 maintain a stable image, scan the surrounding area, track moving objects 255

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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES
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PHYSIOLOGY
 Digestion
 The muscular system allows for movement within the body, for example, during digestion or urination.
 Smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal or GI tract control digestion. The GI tract stretches from the mouth to the
anus.
 Food moves through the digestive system with a wave-like motion called peristalsis. Muscles in the walls of the
hollow organs contract and relax to cause this movement, which pushes food through the esophagus into the
stomach.
 The upper muscle in the stomach relaxes to allow food to enter, while the lower muscles mix food particles with
stomach acid and enzymes.

 Urination
 The urinary system comprises both smooth and skeletal muscles, including those in the: Bladder, Kidneys, penis or
vagina, Prostate, Ureters, urethra
 The muscles and nerves must work together to hold and release urine from the bladder.
 Urinary problems, such as poor bladder control or retention of urine, are caused by damage to the nerves that
carry signals to the muscles.

 Temperature regulation
 Maintaining normal body temperature is an important function of the muscular system. Almost 85 percent of the
heat a person generates in their body comes from contracting muscles.
 When body heat falls below optimal levels, the skeletal muscles increase their activity to make heat. Shivering is
one example of this mechanism. Muscles in the blood vessels also contract to maintain body heat.
 Body temperature can be brought back within normal range through the relaxation of smooth muscle in the blood
vessels. This action increases blood flow and releases excess heat through the skin. 256

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Ml 105
Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES
ORGAN
PHYSIOLOGY

 The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, and the

membranes that line the bones.

 Each bone is an organ that includes nervous tissue,

epithelial tissue (within the blood vessels), and
connective tissue (blood, bone, cartilage, adipose, and
fibrous connective tissue).

 The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, and the

membranes that line the bones.

 Each bone is an organ that includes nervous tissue, epithelial

tissue (within the blood vessels), and connective tissue (blood,
bone, cartilage, adipose, and fibrous connective tissue).
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Unit 8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES
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PHYSIOLOGY

 Support: Bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscles and other tissues.
 Protection: Bones such as the skull and rib cage protect internal organs from injury.
 Movement: Bones enable body movements by acting as levers and points of attachment for muscles.
 Mineral storage: Bones serve as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus, essential minerals for various
cellular activities throughout the body.
 Blood cell production: The production of blood cells, or hematopoiesis, occurs in the red marrow found
within the cavities of certain bones.
 Energy storage: Lipids, such as fats, stored in adipose cells of the yellow marrow serve as an energy
reservoir.
 Endocrine function: Bones release hormones that act on the kidneys and influence blood sugar
regulation and fat deposition.
 pH balance: Bones can release or absorb alkaline salts, helping blood to stay at the right pH level

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