Potassium iodide

Potassium iodide is a chemical compound,

medication, and dietary supplement.[2][3] As a
medication it is used to treat hyperthyroidism,
in radiation emergencies, and to protect the
thyroid gland when certain types of
radiopharmaceuticals are used.[4] In the
developing world it is also used to treat skin
sporotrichosis and phycomycosis.[4][5] As a
supplement it is used in those who have low
intake of iodine in the diet.[3] It is given by
mouth.[4]
 Potassium iodide

Clinical data
Trade names iOSAT, SSKI, ThyroSafe,
ThyroShield, others
AHFS/Drugs.com Monograph
Pregnancy US: D (Evidence of risk)
category
ATC code R05CA02 (WHO )
S01XA04 (WHO ),
V03AB21 (WHO )

Legal status
Legal status US: OTC

Identifiers

IUPAC name
Potassium iodide

CAS Number 7681-11-0  

PubChem CID 4875

DrugBank DB06715
ChemSpider 4709
UNII 1C4QK22F9J
KEGG D01016
ChEBI CHEBI:8346
ChEMBL ChEMBL1141
CompTox Dashboard DTXSID7034836
(EPA)
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.782

Chemical and physical data

Formula KI
Molar mass 166.0028
3D model (JSmol) Interactive image
Melting point 681 °C (1,258 °F)
Boiling point 1,330 °C (2,430 °F)
Solubility in water 1280 mg/mL (0 °C
(32 °F))
1400 mg/mL (20 °C
(68 °F))
1760 mg/mL (60 °C
(140 °F))
2060 mg/mL (100 °C
(212 °F))
0 [1]
2 0
SMILES
[K+].[I-]

InChI
InChI=1S/HI.K/h1H;/q;+1/p-1 
Key:NLKNQRATVPKPDG-UHFFFAOYSA-M

Common side effects include vomiting,

diarrhea, abdominal pain, rash, and swelling of
the salivary glands.[4] Other side effects
include allergic reactions, headache, goitre,
and depression.[5] While use during pregnancy
may harm the baby, its use is still
recommended in radiation emergencies.[4]
Potassium iodide has the chemical formula
KI.[6] Commercially it is made by mixing
potassium hydroxide with iodine.[7]

Potassium iodide has been used medically

since at least 1820.[8] It is on the World Health
Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the
safest and most effective medicines needed
in a health system.[9] Potassium iodide is
available as a generic medication and over
the counter.[10] In the United States a course
of treatment is less than US$25.[10] Potassium
iodide is also used for the iodization of salt.[3]
Medical uses

Dietary supplement E…

The uses of KI include as a nutritional

supplement in animal feeds and also the
human diet. For the latter, it is the most
common additive used to "iodize" table salt (a
public health measure to prevent iodine
deficiency in populations that get little
seafood). The oxidation of iodide causes slow
loss of iodine content from iodised salts that
are exposed to excess air. The alkali metal
iodide salt, over time and exposure to excess
oxygen and carbon dioxide, slowly oxidizes to
metal carbonate and elemental iodine, which
then evaporates.[11] Potassium iodate (KIO3) is
used to add iodine to some salts so that the
iodine is not lost by oxidation. Dextrose or
sodium thiosulfate are often added to iodized
table salt to stabilize potassium iodide thus
reducing loss of the volatile chemical.[12]

Thyroid protection E…
Pheochromocytoma seen as dark sphere in center of the
body. Image is by MIBG scintigraphy with radiation from
radioiodine in the MIBG. However, note unwanted uptake
of radioiodine from the pharmaceutical by the thyroid
gland in the neck, in both images (front and back) of the
same patient. Radioactivity is also seen in the bladder.

Thyroid iodine uptake blockade with

potassium iodide is used in nuclear medicine
scintigraphy and therapy with some
radioiodinated compounds that are not
targeted to the thyroid, such as iobenguane
(MIBG), which is used to image or treat neural
tissue tumors, or iodinated fibrinogen, which is
used in fibrinogen scans to investigate
clotting. These compounds contain iodine, but
not in the iodide form. However, since they
may be ultimately metabolized or break
down to radioactive iodide, it is common to
administer non-radioactive potassium iodide
to ensure that iodide from these
radiopharmaceuticals is not sequestered by
the normal affinity of the thyroid for iodide.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved

dosing of potassium iodide for this purpose
with iobenguane, is as follows (per 24 hours):
infants less than 1 month old, 16 mg; children 1
month to 3 years, 32 mg; children 3 years to
18 years, 65 mg; adults 130 mg.[13] However,
some sources recommend alternative dosing
regimens.[14]
Not all sources are in agreement on the
necessary duration of thyroid blockade,
although agreement appears to have been
reached about the necessity of blockade for
both scintigraphic and therapeutic
applications of iobenguane. Commercially
available iobenguane is labeled with iodine-
123, and product labeling recommends
administration of potassium iodide 1 hour prior
to administration of the radiopharmaceutical
for all age groups,[15] while the European
Association of Nuclear Medicine recommends
(for iobenguane labeled with either isotope),
that potassium iodide administration begin one
day prior to radiopharmaceutical
administration, and continue until the day
following the injection, with the exception of
new-borns, who do not require potassium
iodide doses following radiopharmaceutical
injection.[14][16]

Product labeling for diagnostic iodine-131

iobenguane recommends potassium iodide
administration one day before injection and
continuing 5 to 7 days following
administration, in keeping with the much
longer half-life of this isotope and its greater
danger to the thyroid.[17] Iodine-131 iobenguane
used for therapeutic purposes requires a
different pre-medication duration, beginning
24–48 hours prior to iobenguane injection and
continuing 10–15 days following injection.[18]

Nuclear accidents E…
WHO recommended dose for radiological emergencies involving radioactive iodine[19]
Age KI in mg per day

Over 12 years old 130

3 – 12 years old 65

1 – 36 months old 32

< 1 month old 16

In 1982, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration

approved potassium iodide to protect thyroid
glands from radioactive iodine involving
accidents or fission emergencies. In an
accidental event or attack on a nuclear
power plant, or in nuclear bomb fallout,
volatile fission product radionuclides may be
131
released. Of these products, I (Iodine-131) is
one of the most common and is particularly
dangerous to the thyroid gland because it
may lead to thyroid cancer. By saturating the
body with a source of stable iodide prior to
131
exposure, inhaled or ingested I tends to be
excreted, which prevents radioiodine uptake
by the thyroid. According to one 2000 study
131
"KI administered up to 48 h before I
exposure can almost completely block
thyroid uptake and therefore greatly reduce
the thyroid absorbed dose. However, KI
131
administration 96 h or more before I
exposure has no significant protective effect.
In contrast, KI administration after exposure
to radioiodine induces a smaller and rapidly
decreasing blockade effect."[20] For optimal
prevention, KI must be dosed daily until a risk
of significant exposure to radioiodine by either
inhalation or ingestion no longer exists.

Emergency 130 milligrams potassium iodide

doses provide 100 mg iodide (the other 30 mg
is the potassium in the compound), which is
roughly 700 times larger than the normal
nutritional need (see recommended dietary
allowance) for iodine, which is 150 micrograms
(0.15 mg) of iodine (as iodide) per day for an
adult. A typical tablet weighs 160 mg, with
130 mg of potassium iodide and 30 mg of
excipients, such as binding agents.

Potassium iodide cannot protect against any

other mechanisms of radiation poisoning, nor
can it provide any degree of protection
against dirty bombs that produce
radionuclides other than those of iodine.

The potassium iodide in iodized salt is

insufficient for this use.[21] A likely lethal dose
of salt (more than a kilogram[22]) would be
needed to equal the potassium iodide in one
tablet.[23]

The World Health Organization does not

recommend KI prophylaxis for adults over 40
years, unless the radiation dose from inhaled
radioiodine is expected to threaten thyroid
function, because the KI side effects increase
with age and may exceed the KI protective
effects; "...unless doses to the thyroid from
inhalation rise to levels threatening thyroid
function, that is of the order of about 5 Gy.
Such radiation doses will not occur far away
from an accident site."[19]

The U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services restated these two years later as
"The downward KI (potassium iodide) dose
adjustment by age group, based on body size
considerations, adheres to the principle of
minimum effective dose. The recommended
standard (daily) dose of KI for all school-age
children is the same (65 mg). However,
adolescents approaching adult size (i.e.,
>70 kg [154 lbs]) should receive the full adult
dose (130 mg) for maximal block of thyroid
radioiodine uptake. Neonates ideally should
receive the lowest dose (16 mg) of KI."[24]

SSKI (i.e., the "saturated solution of KI" rather

than tablets) may be used in radioiodine-
contamination emergencies (i.e., nuclear
accidents) to "block" the thyroid's uptake of
radioiodine, at a dose of two drops of SSKI
per day for an adult. This is not the same as
blocking the thyroid's release of thyroid
hormone, for which the adult dose is different
(and is actually higher by a factor of 7 or 8),
and for which KI anti-radiation pills (not a
common medical treatment form of KI) are
not usually available in pharmacies, or
normally used in hospitals, or by physicians.
Although the two forms of potassium iodide
are completely interchangeable, normally in
practice the SSKI solution, which is the
historical medical form of high dose iodine, is
generally used for all medical purposes save
for radioiodine prophylaxis. For protection of
the thyroid against radioiodine (iodine-131)
contamination, the convenient standard
130 mg KI pill is used, if available. As noted,
the equivalent two drops of SSKI (equaling
the dose of one KI pill) may be used for this
purpose, if the pills are not available.

Side effects
There is reason for caution with prescribing
the ingestion of high doses of potassium
iodide and iodate, as their unnecessary use
can cause conditions such as the Jod-
Basedow phenomena, trigger and/or worsen
hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, and
then cause temporary or even permanent
thyroid conditions. It can also cause
sialadenitis (an inflammation of the salivary
gland), gastrointestinal disturbances, and
rashes. Potassium iodide is also not
recommended for people with dermatitis
herpetiformis and hypocomplementemic
vasculitis – conditions that are linked to a risk
of iodine sensitivity.[25]

There have been some reports of potassium

iodide treatment causing swelling of the
parotid gland (one of the three glands that
secrete saliva), due to its stimulatory effects
on saliva production.[26]

A saturated solution of KI (SSKI) is typically

given orally in adult doses several times a
day (5 drops of SSKI assumed to be 1⁄3 mL)
for thyroid blockade (to prevent the thyroid
from excreting thyroid hormone) and
occasionally this dose is also used, when
iodide is used as an expectorant (the total
dose is about one gram KI per day for an
131
adult). The anti-radioiodine doses used for I
uptake blockade are lower, and range
downward from 100  mg a day for an adult, to
less than this for children (see table). All of
these doses should be compared with the far
lower dose of iodine needed in normal
nutrition, which is only 150 μg per day (150
micrograms, not milligrams).

At maximal doses, and sometimes at much

lower doses, side effects of iodide used for
medical reasons, in doses of 1000 times the
normal nutritional need, may include: acne,
loss of appetite, or upset stomach (especially
during the first several days, as the body
adjusts to the medication). More severe side
effects that require notification of a physician
are: fever, weakness, unusual tiredness,
swelling in the neck or throat, mouth sores,
skin rash, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains,
irregular heartbeat, numbness or tingling of
the hands or feet, or a metallic taste in the
mouth.[27]

The use of a particular 'Iodine tablet' used in

portable water purification has also been
determined as somewhat effective at
reducing radioiodine uptake. In a small study
on human subjects, who for each of their 90-
day trial, ingested four 20 milligram
tetraglycine hydroperiodide (TGHP) water
tablets, with each tablet releasing 8
milligrams (ppm) of free titratable iodine;[28] it
was found that the biological uptake of
radioactive iodine in these human subjects
dropped to, and remained at, a value of less
than 2% the radioiodine uptake rate of that
observed in control subjects who went fully
exposed to radioiodine without treatment.[29]
In the event of a radioiodine release the
ingestion of prophylaxis potassium iodide, if
available, or even iodate, would rightly take
precedence over perchlorate administration,
and would be the first line of defence in
protecting the population from a radioiodine
release. However, in the event of a
radioiodine release too massive and
widespread to be controlled by the limited
stock of iodide and iodate prophylaxis drugs,
then the addition of perchlorate ions to the
water supply, or distribution of perchlorate
tablets would serve as a cheap, efficacious,
second line of defense against carcinogenic
radioiodine bioaccumulation.

The ingestion of goitrogen drugs is, much like

potassium iodide also not without its dangers,
such as hypothyroidism. In all these cases
however, despite the risks, the prophylaxis
benefits of intervention with iodide, iodate or
perchlorate outweigh the serious cancer risk
from radioiodine bioaccumulation in regions
where radioiodine has sufficiently
contaminated the environment.
Potassium iodide in its raw form is a mild
irritant and should be handled with gloves.
Chronic overexposure can have adverse
effects on the thyroid. Potassium iodide is a
possible teratogen.

Industrial uses
KI is used with silver nitrate to make silver
iodide (AgI), an important chemical in film
photography. KI is a component in some
disinfectants and hair treatment chemicals. KI
is also used as a fluorescence quenching
agent in biomedical research, an application
that takes advantage of collisional quenching
of fluorescent substances by the iodide ion.
However, for several fluorophores addition of
KI in μM-mM concentrations results in
increase of fluorescence intensity, and iodide
acts as fluorescence enhancer.[30]

Potassium iodide is a component in the

electrolyte of dye sensitised solar cells
(DSSC) along with iodine.
Potassium iodide finds its most important
applications in organic synthesis mainly in the
preparation of aryl iodides in the Sandmeyer
reaction, starting from aryl amines. Aryl
iodides are in turn used to attach aryl groups
to other organics by nucleophilic substitution,
with iodide ion as the leaving group.

Chemistry
Potassium iodide is an ionic compound which
is made of the following ions: K+I−. It
crystallises in the sodium chloride structure. It
is produced industrially by treating KOH with
iodine.[31]

It is a white salt, which is the most

commercially significant iodide compound,
with approximately 37,000 tons produced in
1985. It absorbs water less readily than
sodium iodide, making it easier to work with.

Aged and impure samples are yellow

because of the slow oxidation of the salt to
potassium carbonate and elemental iodine.[31]
 4 KI + 2 CO2 + O2 → 2 K2CO3 + 2 I2

Inorganic chemistry E…

Since the iodide ion is a mild reducing agent,

I− is easily oxidised to I2 by powerful
oxidising agents such as chlorine:

2 KI(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2 KCl(aq) + I2(aq)

This reaction is employed in the isolation of

iodine from natural sources. Air will oxidize
iodide, as evidenced by the observation of a
purple extract when aged samples of KI are
rinsed with dichloromethane. As formed
under acidic conditions, hydriodic acid (HI) is a
stronger reducing agent.[32][33][34]

Like other iodide salts, KI forms I3− when

combined with elemental iodine.

KI(aq) + I2(s) → KI3(aq)

Unlike I2, I3− salts can be highly water-

soluble. Through this reaction, iodine is used in
redox titrations. Aqueous KI3, "Lugol's
solution", is used as a disinfectant and as an
etchant for gold surfaces.
Potassium iodide and silver nitrate are used
to make silver(I) iodide, which is used for high
speed photographic film and for cloud-
seeding:

KI(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgI(s) + KNO3(aq

Organic chemistry E…

KI serves as a source of iodide in organic

synthesis. A useful application is in the
preparation of aryl iodides from
arenediazonium salts.[35][36] For example:
KI, acting as a source of iodide, may also act
as a nucleophilic catalyst for the alkylation of
alkyl chlorides, bromides, or mesylates.

History
Potassium iodide has been used medically
since at least 1820.[8] Some of the earliest
uses included for syphilis.[8]

Chernobyl E…
Potassium iodide's (KI) value as a radiation
protective (thyroid blocking) agent was
demonstrated following the Chernobyl
nuclear reactor disaster in April, 1986, a
saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI)
was administered to 10.5 million children and
7 million adults in Poland[24][37] as a
preventative measure against accumulation
131
of radioactive I in the thyroid gland.

Reports differ concerning whether people in

the areas immediately surrounding Chernobyl
itself were given the supplement.,[38][16]
however the US Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) reported, "thousands of
measurements of I-131 (radioactive iodine)
activity...suggest that the observed levels
were lower than would have been expected
had this prophylactic measure not been
taken. The use of KI...was credited with
permissible iodine content in 97% of the
evacuees tested."[16]

With the passage of time, people living in

irradiated areas where KI was not available
have developed thyroid cancer at epidemic
levels, which is why the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) reported "The data
clearly demonstrate the risks of thyroid
radiation... KI can be used [to] provide safe
and effective protection against thyroid
cancer caused by irradiation."[39]

Chernobyl also demonstrated that the need

to protect the thyroid from radiation was
greater than expected. Within ten years of
the accident, it became clear that thyroid
damage caused by released radioactive
iodine was virtually the only adverse health
effect that could be measured. As reported
by the NRC, studies after the accident
showed that "As of 1996, except for thyroid
cancer, there has been no confirmed increase
in the rates of other cancers, including
leukemia, among the... public, that have been
attributed to releases from the accident."[40]

But equally important to the question of KI is

the fact that radioactivity releases are not
"local" events. Researchers at the World
Health Organization accurately located and
counted the cancer victims from Chernobyl
and were startled to find that "the increase in
incidence [of thyroid cancer] has been
documented up to 500 km from the accident
site... significant doses from radioactive iodine
can occur hundreds of kilometers from the
site, beyond emergency planning zones."[19]
Consequently, far more people than
anticipated were affected by the radiation,
which caused the United Nations to report in
2002 that "The number of people with thyroid
cancer... has exceeded expectations. Over
11,000 cases have already been reported."[41]

Nagasaki E…

These findings were consistent with studies of

the effects of previous radioactivity releases.
In 1945, millions of Japanese were exposed to
radiation from nuclear weapons, and the
effects can still be measured. Today, nearly
half (44.8%) the survivors of Nagasaki studied
have identifiable thyroid disease, with an
editorial in The Journal of the American
Medical Association reporting "it is
remarkable that a biological effect from a
single brief environmental exposure nearly
60 years in the past is still present and can be
detected."[42]

Nuclear weapons testing E…

The development of thyroid cancer among

residents in the North Pacific from radioactive
fallout following the United States' nuclear
weapons testing in the 1950s (on islands
nearly 200 miles downwind of the tests) were
instrumental in the 1978 decision by the FDA
to issue a request for the availability of KI for
thyroid protection in the event of a release
from a commercial nuclear power plant or
weapons-related nuclear incident. Noting that
KI's effectiveness was "virtually complete"
and finding that iodine in the form of KI was
substantially superior to other forms including
iodate (KIO3) in terms of safety,
effectiveness, lack of side effects, and speed
of onset, the FDA invited manufacturers to
submit applications to produce and market
KI.[43]

Fukushima E…

It was reported on March 16, 2011, that

potassium iodide tablets were given
preventively to U.S. Naval air crew members
flying within 70 nautical miles of the
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant
damaged in the earthquake (8.9/9.0
magnitude) and ensuing tsunami on March 11,
2011. The measures were seen as precautions,
and the Pentagon said no U.S. forces have
shown signs of radiation poisoning. By March
20, the US Navy instructed personnel coming
within 100 miles of the reactor to take the
pills.[44]

The Netherlands E…
Distribution areas for iodine pills in the Netherlands
(2017).

In the Netherlands, the central storage of

iodine-pills is located in Zoetermeer, near The
Hague. In 2017, the Dutch government
distributed pills to hundreds of thousands of
residents who lived within a certain distance
of nuclear power plants and met some other
criteria.[45][46]

Belgium E…

As of 2020, potassium iodide tablets are

made available free of charge for all
residents in all pharmacies throughout the
country.[47]

Formulations
Three companies (Anbex, Inc., Fleming Co,
and Recipharm of Sweden) have met the
strict FDA requirements for manufacturing
and testing of KI, and they offer products
(IOSAT, ThyroShield, and ThyroSafe,[48]
respectively) which are available for
purchase. In 2012, Fleming Co. sold all its
product rights and manufacturing facility to
other companies and no longer exists.
ThyroShield is currently not in production. The
Swedish manufacturing facility for Thyrosafe,
a half-strength potassium iodide tablet for
thyroid protection from radiation, was
mentioned on the secret US 2008 Critical
Foreign Dependencies Initiative leaked by
Wikileaks in 2010.[49]

Tablets of potassium iodide are supplied for

emergency purposes related to blockade of
radioiodine uptake, a common form of
radiation poisoning due to environmental
contamination by the short-lived fission
131 [50]
product I. Potassium iodide may also be
administered pharmaceutically for thyroid
storm.
For reasons noted above, therapeutic drops
of SSKI, or 130 mg tablets of KI as used for
nuclear fission accidents, are not used as
nutritional supplements, since an SSKI drop or
nuclear-emergency tablet provides 300 to
700 times more iodine than the daily adult
nutritional requirement. Dedicated nutritional
iodide tablets containing 0.15 mg (150
micrograms (μg)) of iodide, from KI or from
various other sources (such as kelp extract)
are marketed as supplements, but they are
not to be confused with the much higher
pharmaceutical dose preparations.

Potassium iodide can be conveniently

prepared as a saturated solution, abbreviated
SSKI. This method of delivering potassium
iodide does not require a method to weigh out
the potassium iodide so it can be used in an
emergency situation. KI crystals are simply
added to water until no more KI will dissolve
and instead sits at the bottom of the
container. With pure water, the concentration
of KI in the solution depends only on the
temperature. Potassium iodide is highly
soluble in water so SSKI is a concentrated
source of KI. At 20 degrees Celsius the
solubility of KI is 140-148 grams per 100 grams
of water.[51] Because the volumes of KI and
water are approximately additive, the
resulting SSKI solution will contain about
1.00 gram (1000 mg) KI per milliliter (mL) of
solution. This is 100% weight/volume (note
units of mass concentration) of KI (one gram
KI per mL solution), which is possible because
SSKI is significantly more dense than pure
water—about 1.67 g/mL.[52] Because KI is
about 76.4% iodide by weight, SSKI contains
about 764 mg iodide per mL. This
concentration of iodide allows the calculation
of the iodide dose per drop, if one knows the
number of drops per milliliter. For SSKI, a
solution more viscous than water, there are
assumed to be 15 drops per mL; the iodide
dose is therefore approximately 51 mg per
drop. It is conventionally rounded to 50 mg
per drop.
The term SSKI is also used, especially by
pharmacists, to refer to a U.S.P. pre-prepared
solution formula, made by adding KI to water
to prepare a solution containing 1000 mg KI
per mL solution (100% wt/volume KI solution),
to closely approximate the concentration of
SSKI made by saturation. This is essentially
interchangeable with SSKI made by
saturation, and also contains about 50 mg
iodide per drop.

Saturated solutions of potassium iodide can

be an emergency treatment for
hyperthyroidism (so-called thyroid storm),
as high amounts of iodide temporarily
suppress secretion of thyroxine from the
thyroid gland.[53] The dose typically begins
with a loading dose, then 1⁄3 mL SSKI (5
drops or 250 mg iodine as iodide), three
times per day.
Iodide solutions made from a few drops of
SSKI added to drinks have also been used
as expectorants to increase the water
content of respiratory secretions and
encourage effective coughing.[54]
SSKI has been proposed as a topical
treatment for sporotrichosis, but no trials
have been conducted to determine the
efficacy or side effects of such
treatment.[55]
Potassium iodide has been used for
symptomatic treatment of erythema
nodosum patients for persistent lesions
whose cause remains unknown. It has been
used in cases of erythema nodosum
associated with Crohn's disease.[56]
Due to its high potassium content, SSKI is
extremely bitter, and if possible it is
administered in a sugar cube or small ball
of bread. It may also be mixed into much
larger volumes of juices.
Neither SSKI or KI tablets are used as
nutritional supplements, since the
nutritional requirement for iodine is only 150
micrograms (0.15 mg) of iodide per day.
Thus, a drop of SSKI provides 50/0.15 = 333
times the daily iodine requirement, and a
 standard KI tablet provides twice this
much.

See also
Elephant toothpaste

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External links
"Potassium iodide" . Drug Information Portal.
U.S. National Library of Medicine.
 World Health Organization's guidelines for
iodine prophylaxis following a nuclear
accident

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