i Pe ORCHESTRATION by Books by Walter Piston ae WALTER PISTON LONDON VICTOR GOLLANCZ LTD 1989)Sean ingen Jue “tins iy cod oth mp Stent hs ‘mprenon y a : CONTENTS ONE - THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA tun wou ” a 6 . 4. THE VIOLONCELLO Bo $e pounteass 6 woogie NSTROMENES 4 {ob me nore ss 8 me ome 6 se cuanner % | co ae mass ES tn, mss seTREMENTS 195 | 12, THE HORN aay, | 3, sue moserer 246 9 age rae montane 6 ss. HE muna a or en | s& rmoiston mers ia so. me mane 18, ReYBOARD INSTRUMENTS 340‘9. 2B. oa 2 a 28. 29. ORCHESTRATION TWO ANALYSIS OF ORCHESTRATION ‘THREE - PROBLEMS IN ORCHESTRATION 55 368 a4 382 388 396 45 as a 48 460 aay FOREWORD of composing musi, The sounds made bythe orchestra are the ultimate external manifestation of musical ideas germi= ated inthe mind ofthe composer. One skilled in the technique of or Chatration may practice a somewhat leer are of tansenbing for frchestra mas otiginlly writen for another medium. This canbe a $e thovgh difiul art, provided the orchestratar sable co put him self momentarily in the composer's place, and, s0 to speak, to think the composers thoughts. Failing his the eesl is unlikely to amount to more than 2 dplay of sll and raf, often of «superficial and src nature ‘Orchestration, inthe sense here employed, refers to the proces of writing muse for the orchestra, using principles of instrumental om bination esenialy those observed operating in the scores of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. It is a commen cechnique, employed in presen day symphonic mie at wel as in ehae ofthe clasical and omanti periods For the present purposes i will not be eonidered to embrace extliee processes based on improvisstion, fortuitous instr ‘mental balance, and the stabilizing influence ofa keyboard instrument, ‘with bar continuo "The eechnical equipment of both composer and orchestrator must ince » thorough Fnowledge of the indvide istrumens, thet capabilites and characterise, and a mental conception of the sound of each, Then the effects and resources of instrumental combination ‘must be learned, involving Such mactersasbalance of ron, mixed tone ols, larity in texture, and the like, Finally, the orchestra is to be Sensed as ise an individual instrument, lesibly employed to present the musi, in oom and conten, with deli and effectiveness. T: true art of orchestration is inseparable fom the erentive ata oncHESTRATION A multe of oiler and used problems fas revested the sable of + since of orhetaton. The perfection and ‘aguenes of our masa eaion maker inpesible endows wih secuseydymanie and syne quan well pc, wo my tothing of shade of tone clr, warmth and inesty, One cose. uence ofthis ithe prepondersnce ofthe role payed by the per tSoners nd the candace int ton af wen nts ee sound Iisa welown fac that no to perfomance of war sound alk, an we Bnd plese and station ins verity of inst s writen, Bt fo she sade amas to know the elec i sound of wht he fas pot on pps, te unknow guano the pesformer's understanding hao bescnowiedgd in hs ealedatons “There are abo chanel py inne ht cus es ans in the Sond ofan ere sore, No evo sche sound Ake They ay fer inthe number of sing nthe uty and ina ofthe inaument and quite arly the epee of the payers. A wie diferene ent inthe acoustic properties of the "ros cdi in which she indore haba ply tnd the same arches wl ood dferetin a ifeen pace Because of th rey the ond produced rm the same gen tes and obese th sadn of fcheseton ldam a oop portniy to heat hoe notes played a al the stdet works under Severe fandicpe in svng to clive a expat forthe ment fearing of orchestral sere, me Tn the even shri oppor ae Lind oberg phono raph rece and radi road he muse be cation ht the "starces often hve sro and ideding defies I spoil 1 doe ta he al commercial ering of phone work an tnd th est of conan with he pint Sore Atle nit ‘rer experince alos eery recrdng pout some sound tat Ao next in he cor, and fale pace some ofthe nts pte therein, bier showing numerous ether dbrepanciee. The phon raph record vale a4 meas of conveying the overall eect 8 compaiton, bot i a ice median through which Sore pirat sounds nthe memory, ott scr hesaund fos of x pried pug of orchestration, “The shoreomingy of radio brondeaing of music are top well FOREWORD i known ro need description here. The complesviisiudes suffered by ‘rusia tone from the time eaves the orchestra unt tis perceived by the ear ofthe lene ll have thir effec upon the quality ofthe tone, When recordings ate broadcast, the efceney of the iil pick "up" is improved, but often the ecords sre worn, and frequently the pitch is clearly not the same a the pitch of the performance from Thich the recording war made. This means tht vain in speed fas been introduced at some sage of the recording or reproducing proces, Thi, ia turn, means ales of fidelity not only in pitch, but tls in tempo and in che tone color ofeach nseament “Through a realization ofthe existing conditions, a philosophy of musical experience canbe formed, so that conclusions are drawn not fam one or two examples of sctal sound, bu from the cumulative evidence of many experiences, and even then held subject co subse- The thee sential aspects ofthe ty of orchestration ae tented inthe thre divisions ofthis book. Tn Pate One, the inseroment and their playing techniques ace stoded in dea In Pare Two, an a proach tthe analyst of orcheeaion i soggested, and in Pare Three, typical problems in orchestration aze given wit some examples of their solution. ~ “Throughout the bok emphasis placed on the method of sed, the orientation of che seadent’s program of ason, to help him in eon tinuing further suds along the paths suggested. ‘The materia cov fred i designed for a yea’ cooree in orchestration atthe college level, bat i is che author's convition thatthe subjece materi 190 Aesible ro be presnted as a course of graduated steps and exerci [A presentation i elled for hae will be adapable to varied musical backgrounds although ic will aways be dffcule for persons lacking a knowledge of harmony and counterpoint to work out problems in ‘orchestration. The stodens shouldbe simulated to male aequsintance ‘with scores and to develop self-reliance and initaive in seeking @ Aeep knowledge ofthe instruments and how they ate combined. Soch ‘a presencation wil be found, is hoped, in his intoduction eo the artof orchestrationONE ‘THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRASTRINGED INSTRUMENTS ‘tring group—voling vio, ‘ellos. and double-bases—has maintained poston as daminane clement ofthe symphany corchests! Countless scores fom all pesiods bear evidence that their ‘composers regarded woodwind and brass rather as acessories and were hesitant to entrust mich of chs esenil msi material to any but stringed ineraments. ‘Such an atieodeis prey justifiable because ofthe superiority ofthe strings in so many important respec. String are telss and ean play virally any kind of misc, They havea greater dynamic range than ‘wind instruments and far more exprsive capacity. The tone color ‘of the ating group i fir homogencous From top co bottom, vai Sone inthe differen registers being ch moresubte than inthe winds. “tthe samerime stringed insruments te the most vest in prod ing dtferene kinds of sound. As string tone is rch in overtones all manne of ese and open spacings practical. One does notte of hear- ing sting tone 38 soon as one tres of wind tone; in fact there exis A saable erature of compositions writen for string orchestra withovt ‘wind inscroment “The srng section of eypical symphony orchestra sully consists of sinten firs voling, fourteen second violins, ewelve viol, ten ‘ioloncelos and eight double-bases. Variation in these proportions ‘may be found, reflecting the predilections of individual conductors, oF pethaps determined by some such excamstance asthe sie of the con- coreeage Pieris of orchestration the‘ INSTRUMENTS “The fou strings of exch of these instruments are tuned follows Fig. Inthe ease ofthe double-basthe seca snd san octave lower than the writen nots. "The pitch of a vibrating tring can be exprese in terms of the frequeney, or rapidity, of vibrations. For instance, the upper sting ‘of he viola sounds the A which in present-day cuning has a frequency of ge vibrations per second. A cetched string ean be vaied in pitch by varying the tension Scringed instruments are tuned by curing the rang pegs to which the stings are attached. Tightening a string increases the frequency of is vibration; hence assis pitch “The weight ofthe sting has sn inportane influence onthe fequeney ofits vibration. Tha the fou stings on the same insrument may be identical in length but may dtfer widely in pitch because they are rmade to differ in weight, Furthermore, by making wse ofthis principe, the strings can be tuned to their various pitches without the necessity fof too grata difference in their tensions. The lower-pitched stings fre no only thicker but chey are made sil heavier by winding the gut ‘orstel with fine wite of copper, silver, aluminurn, or other metals ‘Variation in the length of the string preduces proportional variation inpitch, A longer string vibrates more slowly than a shorter one, other ‘conditions being equal Ie found, for example, tha halving the sting Tength doubles the fequeney and raises the pitch an octave, “The action ofthe lefchand fingers topping ce string firmly aginst the fingerboard shortens the sounding length of the string, thereby ing the pich. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 5 Fig. Viet Inthe dngram, note tha che sounding length of che ting, to beset in motion by the bow, i that between the sopping finger and the bridge. The reminder of the string wil of couse be silent. ‘Since having the string legdh ass the piteh an oecve, che point st which astring i stopped to round the oceve above is open or n= stopped ich willbe exedy one-half the distance from nut to bridge If we with to ras the piteh another octave we wil ind the poine of sopping one-half the distance frm tis middle poi tothe bridge, or thize-fourth dhe total srng length from the au. Fs “The principle demonstrated ie chat Gngering a given interval does not imply covering axed length of serng, bor lengeh that diminishes {asthe hand moves toward the bridge. When playing a succeson of tui intervals on one string, the Fingers messure off not equal divisions of string length bat proporonal divisions. For example, onthe viola 44 mjor second above an open string means a distance of about 1% ince, wheres che same interval ina very high postion measuts less than inch. A major second above an open string on the violin meas- ‘res aboat 1% inches onthe ello about 2% inches, and onthe bass sour 4% inches. "Another characterise of etxng fingering is that when the hand isin 1 given poston on one string the fingers ea realy stop tones on any ff he four strings, without the necessity of moving the hand. Each‘ INSTRUMENTS poston isidentified by a number derived from che numberof diatonic eps berween the fist niger and the open sting. In string technique, “nd also inthe Fingeing of wind instruments, the index finger, noc the ‘thumb, scaled se inger. Fig 4 Desiled description ofthe fingering systems ofthe several stringed inscruments willbe given in sezeeding chaps. Ieis posible tostop notes on ewo adjacent stings in such way that, the bow ean sound both notes at once, Thi called doubletopping. ‘Triples and quadruplestops (chords) are also feasible, although it will presenly be sen thatthe simultaneous ound of three or four notes ‘aot be prolonged by the bow. oa. sed ida. ee is tte se Fig. 5 Inthe orchestra, double notes are estomarily divided berween the two players reading from the sume desk. The pare should be marked tin, Kalin for divided (Fr, dest; Ger, geet), most often sb- brewed to di. ‘The right-hand player at cach desk takes the upper rote. When the pat returs to single notes it should be marked unison (eum; Gets nicht gti) wssly abbreviated wns If double notes are writen, and the composer wishes each player co play all the note, ‘sing double-stope, he verites a precautionary non div. (in German sors wally Doppelerif). This indication is used only when there ismere than one note, to prevent dividing. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 1 A division ofa seetion into more than two parts would be marked dion 5 (Pr dio. 33 Ger, drefec gett), necesitating indications in the individual players ase to show which pare each is to play. Sometimes the divided parc are given separate ins in the score, for legibility. H the parts ate comple, beter results may be obtained by ving by desks (Its da lege Fe, par pupires; Ge. pulcire) the ‘od-numbered deka taking the upper pt Tf only half che members ofa seeion are co play the pares masked bral (lesa mets Fr be motif; Get, die Hilfe). The players on the Jefe at ich desk wil chen remain sient until given the indication a (le, tts Fe, 1015 Gee all). Inthe playing of ssingedinstroments the cone is given life and warmth throug the use of vibrato of the lfe hand. This isa eombina- tion of impulses involving the muscles ofthe hand, west and arm, snd its effect atthe fingertip an almost imperceptible osilaton in pitch fof the nove The vibrato is employed onal stopped rones except those fof short duration and needs no indication for is use. However, there fre times when one prefers the peculiar tone quality obainable only by suppresing the vibrato, in which ease the direction senza eibraro shouldbe given ioe tettnnns $$ 4 Ss i Bon hr Fig. 6 Vilin Bow “The bovrtick is of fin, ight wood, generally Pernambuco, which is temarkable fr is elastic quality. The stick is curved inward roward the hae, and, when the airs tightened by means of the srew atthe hee ofthe bow the resulting tesson brings into ply the resilience of the sick, an important factor in che various bow stokes. The bai s horse although in recente oer materials such a5 nylon, have. NSTRUM been tried. There te overahundeed hits of sting players to sub a specially prepared rsinon the bow hrs help in securing che right amount of ition onthe strings, “The bow held ily, yer lightly, beeween the fingers and chum ofthe right hand, shown in Fig. 6. The fist finger is in aposiion to exert varying presure on the bow-sick, while the Tile finger is ‘ted mainly to balance the bow, according 0 jrs postion onthe sting. (The socalled Geran style of bowing forthe double-bas will be eseribed later) “The bow is drawn ac rght angles tothe string ordinaiy ata place sboochalfway beween the bridge an the end ofthe fngerbourd Fora fous and more biline tone, and for the normal production of high rote, the bow played nearer the bridge. For softer tones itis moved inate tothe fingerboard. The hai may be placed Aa, so chat all the fairs rein contact with the string, bue usally che bow is turned on cdige so that only prt ofthe hai is engaged. This enables the player fo contol the amount of bar being used. For the von and viola che tik isaway from the player; forthe cello and bass the oppose is more "The part ofthe bow nea the poinis called the upper part of the bows har nearer the hee, the lower part. When the bow is dawn stare- ingatthelower parcand proceeding toward the point staightening the clove joint, the stoke i ealled down-bow. The opposite i wp-bow. Both ate more clearly expressed bythe French rg (drawn) for down- ‘bow, and powsé (pushed) for up-bow. The signs m (down-bow) and y (op-bow) aren univers use, 1 no slars are marked, each note ells fr change inthe direction of the bow. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS ° x. 1. Franck—Sympbony ee nae ee a See — phe ac be tp iets parsed. Eulenburg, “These changesin the direction of che bow are made bya good player ‘with practically no break in the continuity of the tone, by virus of {Toupple wrist and sill coediaton ofall moseular movements. “When slits are marked all ores under ane slur are to be played “none bows satis, with nochange in drcetion of the bow. 1x 2. Schubere—Syuuphony no. 5 p- 24d: Eslenburg [A violinist would instinctively begin dhe phrase shown above with an-up-bow. The up-bow, i ring eye i asocaed withthe up-beat, ft ahacrass whereas the dowa-beat, asin Ex. suggests a down-bow fo the player. eis impossble, and often inadvisable, ro appy this Principle to every up-beat or down-best, but the principle is con- finually in evidence in good bowing. For vigorous attack on along note, fe fllowed by a down-bow chord or accent, itis well begin dowa-bow, changing immediately to up-bow. This change of bow will not be perceived by the cif properly performed, and wil permit the wse of the more energetic ‘own-bov fr boeh sacks.0 INSTRUMENTS x 3.Beethoven-—Corilams Overture p, tyed. Philharmonia Ainge cng a SS = “Thereisa natural sendeney towards crescendo the up-bow, due to the inereaing leverage of the length of bow to the lft ofthe string and likewise a tendeney towards dimiauendo in the down-bow. While these tendencies are guarded aguinse by the player, its advisable ro recognize them when plinning the bowing ofa passage. Teas evident thatthe bow must move up a= much at moves down. Buri he up and dawn motions are of unequal ime value fe means that thebow mustmove aan uneven speed hus making i difiulco main tain an even dynamic Ive. The bowing indicated in Fig. 7 will n- tvitably cause the thd and sith beats co snd Touder chan the hers, Since te same length of boww must be wsed to pay ewo ssteenth notes in up-bow a was used ro play four sistecahs in down-bow. Fg [A mote even tone willbe achieved by a bowing which resores the balance of up and down, both in quantity and rate of motion. en Aen ee Fig. 6 Ina legato phrase the changesin direron of the bow ae determined by combined factor of intensity, dynamic level, tempo, the length of| the bow, fingering, ee, Aay melody canbe bosted effectively in many Giferent ways and itis no wonder that conceremasers often disagree fo STRINGED INSTRUMENTS n sto the bes way t bow a given phrase and are seen even now mark ing changes in the bowing of such well-etablshed castes a the Beethoven symphonies, x. 4. Bethoven—Symphony no. 4 peated Kalas Peshaps the commonest bow stroke is that which changes direction for each nore. As mentioned shove, the change ean be made witho ‘bree in che tone. But this stroke, known by dhe Peench term detach, is usually performed so tha one hears the atcuation of the bow ‘changes The nore are noo detached fom one anther that the effect ‘oul be caled staccato. The étaché canbe deseribed as nonlegat. (Ordinarily iis played inthe mide or upper third ofthe bow. 1x. 5, Schubert—Sympbony n0. 8 sre Philharmonia ae “This nonlegato bow strokes sometimes used atthe point of the bow to take advantage ofits extreme lightness there, and atthe heel forthe added weight occasionally wantedB INSTRUMENTS -Aethe point (Fe la pointes ia punt Parco; Ger. a der Spice) x. 6.BartékConcerto for Orebesra _p.79, 4 Boosey & Hawkes ‘Acche heel (Fe. at tlon; Ie, al tlle; Ger am Froseb) ex. 7 Stauss—Dom Quitote 1.56 64, Philharmonia STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 8 For vigorous emphasis and equality of esa series of down-bows can be sed ear the hel of the bow, the bow being ited witha swift ‘uprbow motion berween the notes, 8, Stravinsky —Le Sacre du Printemps pried. Ruse Teagpyge de - 5 7 et 7 Serra | 7 aor [A combination of legit and nonlegat is found in the bowing -esown a louré. This indicated by a dash over each note, with slurs te show the bow changes, The fst finger reglaes the rather gentle ‘rel in the continuity ofthe roe by eontoling the pressure on the stick, sided by a sbele slowing ofthe how with the writ.“ INSTRUMENTS, 2.9 Sibeline—Symphony no. 2 P32. Beeithopf ct mre 4 a a et — Staccato bowing i of two types—‘off the string” and “on the stzing.” In moderate tempo and a¢a dynamic level fom piano ro mezzo forte, the bow i dropped on the string with a sore of semicitcul ‘motion athe middle of te bow. The bow rebounds, although i pary lifted by the writ. The Italian word spiccate (detached) is "ppled by string players to bowing tht makes use ofa springing ot bouncing ofthe bowstck. eis ako elle alendo (jumping). There is much disagreement over the exact aplication of these terms, But fortnaely the eompaser or orchestrator isnot called upon 0 indeate more precisely than by dots over the nots, together with dynamic signs and tempo marks, the quality of mesic tht means to 9 string player pica, salando, or off-he-sring sacexto STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 5 x. 10.Besthoven—Symiphony no. ¢ -38,ed. Kelas Sraccto playing in fast repo doesnot cll for lifting ofthe bow, but the shor, quick down- and up-bows made by the wre alone, in the midale ofthe bow, cause the stick vo bounce, sn thi intr cases the hit wo spring of the string with each stroke, x11, Rossini —Overere to Willan Tell, agsved. Kalas Another ype of bouncing bow is usally called by the French jeté (iow). eis played near the point, andthe bow isnot thrown but Aropped upon the string with asighe down-bow motion, ad allowed ro bounce ofits own accord, Groups of tra to st notes can be played in this way, she indiaton being dots under a slr, sometimes withthe word saltand, or stato, to make sure ofthe bouncing effect.6 INSTRUMENTS ex. 12, Rimsky-Korshotl—Capriceio Espagnol p73, 6d. Kalmus sag ae ‘The bowing ciled marelat (hammered) isan onthestring sac- ‘ato (Fr, martel). The bow isnot peed to leave the sing and the stroke f very svi with abeope stare and stop. The sound of the ‘ote, whether in piano or forte, might be imagined in the shape of an {Oblong block with auaze ends Alehough ic is usually played with the ‘upp pate of the bow, the martellto stroke may be used atthe heel, whete the added weight ofthe bow contributes tothe vigor of the STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. ” rx. Bruckner—Symphony no. 9 -143.ed. Philharmonia Vinee Eis enim 7. “When several notes under slr are marked with dos, the intended ssaceato may be accomplished with 3 bouncing bow, usally up-bow, 4s in Ex. 14, of with che bow held frmly onthe string, sharp stops being made by the wes, asin Ex... The ler bowing is known a5 slurred saceato. x. 14. Mahler—Sympomy no. 4 1.3.04 Philharmonia8 INSTRUMENTS x5. Stavnsky—Orphews P-4osed. Boorey & Hawes Antenne Doot ‘The shythen of dotted eighth and sistent, in fast temp is most often played a slurred saceato, even whea not so marked, This bow ing is indiested by a slr with ado on thesisteen note, Is he fst ‘ote that is shortened, however. The sie bowing i used for the ‘quarter nore followed by an eighth insx-cight time x. 16 Belin-—FantasticSympbomy i ts3,¢d, Bulenborg. SERVE, ate For a igh, erp effet, ths may be done a the point ofthe bow, with up-bow on the bees STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. » ex. 17, Weber—Euryanthe Overture p.23sed, Philharmonia ‘The various bow stokes described ate to be found in countless com- binaions. Troe knowledge of their appropriate use comes from long sudy and experince in playing 2 srnged instrament, co which most be added real understanding of the moss. The nudent of orchestration should begin early the practice of marking che bowing of sing pars Whenever he thinks of a phrase for sings he must always imagine how ie would bese be bowed, within the limits of his knowledge “Through esl and observation much can be learned about eis most important aspect of string wekng Te shouldbe realized that bowings mated in printed scores are not always literally followed in performance. Composers are seldom eae- fal indicate all bowings, and some markings ae the resule of editing ‘What the composer actully wrote is evidence of his wishes, and this forms the bas for study by conductor and concertmaster as co the ‘best way to realize the composers intentions. ere, asin all matters of sar, theres pleny of room for differences of opinion and interpretr Accents ae made principally withthe how, buran accent may abo be imparted by the lf hand, by means of a sudden quickening of the vibrato, by + more forefal finger stroke, o hy both. fe depends on whether the accented note is made by lifting the finger (Fig. 9), or by Aropping onthe string (Fig. ob). This lf-hand accent is nary a- ‘ways combined with the bow acentin vigorous and hythmic passages.Fa INSTRUMENTS Figo Accents ae of cose eave tthe general nuance of a parclar sone whether sof orld Thereare dierent kndsof ace created by diferent modes of acack. The following figure atemprs to show sraphialythe shape ofthe tone inthe most importan of these forms. ¥ OvtT Fig. 10 ‘Compesers in general sem to have been iniferen o these distinc» ‘ions one reason being perhaps that they are imposible ro produce on the pianoforte. Therefore it becomes responsibility ofthe condue- tor to decide which type of accene is meant by the composers sgn, and tosee chat is propery executed, “To obrain atone of very sft floating quality the strings may be isected vo play onthe fingerboard (Fr, sur la toucbe; Ue sulla asters cor sul tsi; Get, am Griftrete). The bow is paced 0 far fom ‘bridge that eis arly over the upper pac ofthe fngerbuar, where ‘there is greater amplitude in the vibration of the string. x18, Debussy —Rondes de Printemps Met gm ot agua -36,ed. Dorand CSS STRINGED INSTRUMENTS n In this bowing, care mus be taken that roo much presue is aoe put upon the bow, lest i strike more chan one sting. Paying over the fingerboard i impractical onthe E-tting of che violin, since che curve ofthe body of the instrument interferes wit the proper placing ofthe bow: Its often indicated, nevertheless, for pasages running up to high positions on che E-tring, although the directive cannot be Followed Ines, it serves to sugges the tone quality dered, laying with te bow very clon othe bridge, or even upon it (Fe, chev; esl potiello; Ge. am Steg), produces a special kind of sound, due tothe bringing out of upper partials nor usualy heard “The sound has been eile gery and metallic, This effects generally combined with the bowed tremolo, 2 19, Seraus—Symphonis Domesticn 67. ed. Associated Musie Publishers Binge When sila tater ors pontielo sno longer w marked modo ordngio,o: nates ‘The bow may be turned over, so that che sings are struck withthe ‘wood insted of the ai (Ie, ca legno). This isa bowing used for dry acca effects, the how-sick tapping with a kind of off-chestring ed, the pare is2 INSTRUMENTS x26. Briten—Pusacaglia from Peter Grimes 1.16 ed. Boosey & Hawkes 1 Prone Ee sere ane Powe tag ome on Obviously, one can expec litle sound to come from drawing the wood aos the sting since che amount of fiction is very small, There s1¢,nevertheles, some instances in score of emo and legato bowing 0 egno eis imeresing that Gustav Mahler fle i necessary toad a fooenore inthe score of hi Fist Symphony to explain tha he indice sion col egno and the bowing marked were no errr. Bea Mahler—Symmphony no. poised. Univeral a teh hes ‘These fess, though nor common, are much better known today. Some composers write ol legnabartate (Ger, geteblagen) for the ap ping, and col legna rato (Ger, getrichen) to indicate thatthe wood STRINGED INSTRUMENTS a isto be drawn across the string. The rerurn to normal bowing after ol egno's indicated by aco, ‘The sings are frequently packed, instend of bowed. The direction pizsicao (abbreviated pix) indicates chat shis manner of playing sto bbe continued ntl the word aro signs chat playing with che bow is tobe resumed, “The right fis finger plocks the tring, over the Fingerboard, and he other theee ngers hold the bow aguns the palm of the hand. The ‘thumb may ses on the edge ofthe fingerboard to steady the hand al- ‘though this postion i noe always necessary or pestis The paying positon of 'xllo and bass permis pizicato abo with the thumb, e5- pecly for chords arpeggited from the borcom note upward (Changing fom arco to pnvcato requires an appreciable amount of time, varying according tothe potion of the bow atthe instant. A larger interel mast be allowed ifthe pizieato follows a dow-bow at the poin, whereas afeer an up-bow atthe heel the change can be practically inrtantaneous. sx. 22, DebussyPelléas Mélisande p-s31,ed. Durand ‘The rerum to aco after pzzcato is slightly more inconvenient, at itinvolves the quick adjustment ofthe bow into paying postion. Ae sity ike hari the following example isnot uncommen, however,INSTRUMENTS, x. 35-Berlon—Haroldin aly -14s,ed. Bulenburg ge cine fee aE a i iv - 7 = 7 “The pizicato is by its nature a form of staceato. The sound dies away quite promptly. Diferenes are to be noted in this respect be "ween small nd large struments, violin and double-bsy, fr instance. “The longer and heavier strings essin the rone much beter than the shorer ones. Open stings are more resonane than these copped by the Fingess ‘The sound of the fingered notes canbe prolonged a litle by vibra, “The quality of tone in pazicato an be vatied by plucking a dif {erent points onthe string, and by the manner of plucking, from a gentle aking with the fleshy part of the fingertip toa tvanging of Such violence thatthe string sites agains che fingerboard. There is tbo diference according to the postion of the lef hand. In higher STRINGED INSTRUMENTS s positions the sring iso shore tha the pzzcao i of «had, dry quality, ‘whieh at imes may be used to advantage. x. 24, RavelDapinis et Chloé p.z,ed-Dorand min gn yD Get Eek “The rapidity of passages in pizicato is necessarily limited by the Aiesity of continued placking by one finger. The trek of aerating Fis and second Fingers in fase pzzicato, acquired by some players, by no means univer Pactors affecting the practicability of fast piz~ leat playing inclde the Size of the instrument, the dynamic level of ‘theme, the amount of continuous pizicato demanded and the com- plications in the psig fom the sandpoint of changes from one string oanother, The following isan example of successful pizscaro writing at rapid kempo.6 INSTRUMENTS STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 7 x, 25, Dukas—L'ApprentSorcier P.sised Kalmus 2x. 26,Suavineey—Symphony nC p.tiedSchoet Mae art) Chords of three and four notes in pizicato are arpegaaed fom the bottom vp, unless otherwise marked. A seris of quickly repeated chords may be more effectively played by alternating back-and-forth ‘ovement, sing one or several fingers. The direction ofthe stokss may be shown by perpendicular arrows, or by she usual igs for op- anid dowa-bow. Someries quasi guitars is added. x27, Ravel-L'Bnfont ler Soridges .8ed. Durand sree ome Piazicato may also be performed withthe fingers of the lef hand when the note ares arcanged that anger i free to pluck the string, etn ey Den Pid ren a Pap Pe for whena finger iso placed thatitcan pluck asitisraised after stopping {note Left-hand pizscato is inicaed by a erss over or under the ‘The arpeggate effect can be held co minim by a sharp, sud- py den finger stoke. Two notes can be plucked simultancously with ewo finger. A staghtbracke isthe accepted indicaion for his.8 INSTRUMENTS, x 36, Straviosky-—Regeine posed. Chester # 7 “ibe > ‘Aldough paisa ew muda ote ype be nate ley compan gene one sew etc tse Cdn po online pene wher tgenafnew heard napbg ic arap psa Aetckcwekn Te accel iy he eo x29, Bartdk-—Violin Concerto sted. Boosey & Hawkes ih 8 re 5 ak STRINGED INSTRUMENTS » ‘The vibration of a string isa composce of a umber of separate sinultaneous vibration, whose frequencies vary in the rato 153, 3,45; ‘exe. These vibeations ate represented inthe following dugrams. Points smarkedn are called nodes. Fig. Le us assume the string to be che G-string of violin. Fig. 18 could then be tale inco musical sounds, chus: 1 — Fig Teil be noticed thatthe rato ofthe divisions of the string shown in Fig. 11 ithe stme ar chat ofthe frequencies shown in Fig. “These sounds presen in single tone are called harmonics. Number one isthe fist harmonic, or fundamental tone. The others are called second, thied, fourth, and fifth harmonic, overtones, oF partials [Higher harmonies than thes represent als, in diminishing strength, “The number and comparative strength of he harmonies making wp a tone giveieitsinividal tone ole, osbre, enabling os to distinguish0 INSTRUMENTS, ‘he sound ofa carne fom that of ‘elo playing {donot hear this combination of harmonies ta chord. The fundamental tone isso much stronger than ts upper parti chat we ae regularly ecsived into assuming thar alone what we he. I a vibrating string is touched very lightly atone ofthe dividing nodes shown in Fig. 3, 3 willbe prevented from sounding its funda mental, bu ie wil eoatine to wbrate atin the diagram, according to the node chosen, andi will sound the corresponding ote shoven by Fig. 12. For example the G-string is touched lightly ata point one- thied ofits lengeh From the nu, while maintained in vibration by the bow. The enite sting vibrates ain no. 3 of Fig. 1. The note sounded is that shown as no. 3 of Fig. 12."The sime resol is obtained by touch- ing the other node ofthe same number, two-thirds ofthe way from rut to bridge. ‘Tones producedin thismanner ate called by string players haroonies (Fe sons bormoniques; I, armoniei; Ger, Fageolettane), Thee tir bre is quite diferene from normal copped tone, since only those pals are vounding that have 2 node a che poe touched. They ae Indicated in notation by (2) placing a snl circle over the not i tended to sound 26a harmonic, or (B) writing a diamond shaped note atthe pitch where che node producing the desed not is found on the string same note, We Feo ‘The indication sul G means that all ito be played on the G-tring (Ger, G-Saite). Another means of designating the string tobe vied, preferred by che French, ithe of Roman numerals the highest sing being always I (eg, IV* corde), (On the violin and vol eis posible to stop a tone with the fst Sager and athe same time touch 4 nose withthe Fourth finger. Tie STRINGED INSTRUMENTS a cam also be done on the cll, sing the dhumb and thied ager. The rode which has been found the most dependable i that ofthe fourth harmonic, one-fourth the new string length, ata point represented in notation by the interval of a porfece Fourth above the ote stopped by the free ger. The rerlking tone is therefore two octaves above the stopped tone. These harmonics are called artical harmonies, 5 tiferntnted from nacueal harmonics, which have open sing fone amnearal tones, Aificial harmonics ae indiated in notation by (3) placing small circle above the not to be heard 3s a harmonic, or (B) ‘writing the fundamental to be scoped by dhe Bis finger 262 normal fate and the node a fourth above as diamond-shaped note (Fig. 1). “The seua pitch ofthe cone intended is often added above a5 (c)- Figs (Compose Frequently use the notation (e) forall harmonies, leaving the method of production to the player, whether 35 artificial or as m- tural harmonic. The nortion(B) is somesimes used when the lower tone i an open string. This i incorece bur easly understood “Tls ae performed by the motion of one Finger, since the inger stopping the lower of the cwo tones is held down throughout. Both major and minor ells are good in ll ranges, thecal excepcin being those on the loiest note ofthe instrament, where che alteration of open string and stopped note docs not produce as effective a ell those on stopped notes. [should be remembered that a string til athe orchestra means a trill played simultaneously by + whole section. Sateen first violins will not ily agree on the hythmic quantities of aril on along note, and the effec wil not have the clea articulation ofthe sme til given ‘ay tothe first ft, played by asingle player,2 INSTRUMENTS A cil witha harmonic interval lager than a major second is a fin- gered tremolo. Ifa rel wemol isinended, rather than an aeration ‘of two notes ata stipulated sped (somecimes alld measured remot), it isadvzable vo wrt time values fas enovgh to insure areal emoo, ‘or toad the word trenola, of emolando. Slursarenecesary show the legato movement ofthe bow. nx 30, Debusy—LAprissnidi dn Fae p.s8,d. Kalmus “The division ofthe fist violins in the frst measure of Ex. 30 would sem on fis glance to be only theoretical, uric sa way of making se that both notes ofthe interval sound a each change of bow, ‘When the inervl exceeds the limit of extension ofthe fingers on STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 3 cone string, the ewo notes are held as a doublestop; and the tremolo effec as tobe made by an undulating motion af the bow, alternately touching the evo stings. This type of tremolo i not che same a the ‘ve fingered tremolo, since it lacks the clear artiulation ofthe Fnget serokes x. 31 Brahms—Symphony no. p-t0s,64. Kalmus Tn the precoding example sme of the groupings, such as Violin I rmessure 4, canbe played as fingered temolo (measured), while others require wo strings, ike those in the se measure. On the other han, allare posible sr double-stops, with undulating bow. ‘Thebowed tremolo is made with quick up- and dova-bow strokes, ‘the lf hand holding the note of nots. Ie ea characteris orchestral effec, capable of grea dynamic range and variety of accentution,M INSTRUMENTS x. 52, Debussy —Le Mer 18 ed Dorand 5 ce PDP AE cts Equally omic n orchestral writing isthe continued repetition of bow stokes, détac, ona svies of nots, co give more energy and volume tothe sing tone ex 33. Mozare—Sympbony, K. 543 p-8, ed. Phiharmonia ferent STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 5s ‘The mute ia thre-pronged device made of wood, metal, bons, of ‘other tera, which can be ted ono the bridge for the purpote of alorbing sme of the vibrations before they can be eransmited to the resonating body of the instrument. Th tone quality of mated strings i diicule of description, but, once heard, is characterise sound ie ‘easly remembered. While on of the rele of mating sto reduce the dynamic power af the Body af rings, the radial change in tone color is far more important. Muting should not be regarded a the primary means of geting the strings to play sofly. A fine pamsvina ean be achieved without mites, and, furthermore, the speci effect of forte with nated strings may somcines be jst whats wanted ‘Time must be allowed for puting on and ring off mutes, a least «couple of measures in moderate tempo, The more time the beter, (0 {void confsion and gsturbance. Numerous inventions ro false a ‘uick change have speared, such ak mates with spring lip, or mates ‘permanently isaled onthe seings bac of the bridge, o be pushed ‘op again the bridge for musing. Ic cannoc be sid shat any of these hhave mee with complete aecepance by string players. ‘A gradual change co muted tone ean be managed by directing the player to puron mutes one by ove, or by des, making the pot st ‘which al are eo be muted “The indication to put on the mut isthe Italian com cording, of com sordino—plral sordine, of trdini (Fe, svee sowdine; Get Mit Diimpfer,or gedit) “To call for removal ofthe mutes the pasage is masked sens sordid (Fe, sens sourdines; Gee, obne Dimpfer), oF vi sori (Pr, dre les sourdins; Get, Dimpfer eg). ‘A change from the normal saning of the strings ie called sordatra. ‘This hasbeen employed to extend the downward range of bases and “eellos on rare occasions. In Don Quirote Seraus sks the slo vila vo tne the C-sring to B, anda similar change is asked of the ‘ell in (Casella Paria for Piano and Orchestra, The sings do no give thir6 INSTRUMENTS tes tne when akered ore than amor cond and the inconven- Sic inddrrbance sed by ning ring peforance se overaane te gh avenge pine “Thane of corde fors change of tne color ante mater. tn Maher's Fourth yon he sl inn the second movement WeeRcrstingstned op stl one omesound “ie chexp Pui! cocereaser pops yond itament we For thisoveen oi ening oie THE VIOLIN Fe, tol; Ie, eolng; Get, Fine tz overall length oft violin i 23% inches, Minor vaiacons I in proportions and size are found in different modes. The body ir inches long, the neck ie under 5% inhes, and the sounding length of the sringe—that is fom nut to beige slightly over 133 inches. The engl ofthe bow i 29 inches "The top, or belly, ofthe iesument is usually of pine or spruce, the back of plein one or two pices. Ebony is used forthe talpeee, fingerboard, aut, and runing pegs Inside te body, the ached bely reinforced by a strip of wood called the bass-bar, glued beneath the [Gearing edge of the Fingerboard. A wooden sound pos ished in place by tension between top and back a a carefully chosen rpot neat the Earing side ofthe bridge, having the double fonction of suppor and ccommnication of vibrations. The f-les are characeeriic openings of tadsonal shape a either sie ofthe bridge (Plate on page 38) ‘The vila is supporeed berwcen che chin and the left shoulder. A ‘hin rest atched a the lft of he eipiece helps hold te estuent so thatthe let hand i fre to move up snd down che fingerboard. The neck of the violin ies besween the thumb andthe palm of the lef and, and the lee elbow i held far co the righ, enabling the fingers to fall slmos perpendicularly upoa the sings.| | | THE VIOLIN x» [An important featare of articulation in sting playing is thar some notes ae made by deopping the ner onthe sting, while others are made by lifting she ger If de scale fragmene in Fig. 15 fone legato bow, the ascending nots ae articulated bys descending nots by iting. Alo tobe noted is that, afters fingers rain onthe string until there ecesity for moving them, ssshown inthe figure. larg, rhythm, and tone quality ofthe sounds produced: The finger action varie From exceedingly energetie strokes (ES. 34) t0 an ex ‘emely ight and eet arcalation (ES. 38) 1 34.Schumann—Syarphony no.2 po178sed. Philharmonia e 12x 35. Mendelsohn—Ieslion Symphony pgp, ed ulenburg° INSTRUMENTS “The following diagram gives the locaton ofthe fingers forall che rata] notes inthe frst position, oe Fig 6 [Nore that the fs fingers drawn back close othe nur for F on the Earing, the interval being a minor second, inead ofa major second 6 on the other stings. The diagram shouldbe studied also for elation ‘hips involving more than one string. For example, frm fis finger on (one sting to second finger on the next higher sting i a minor sith; fom Birt finger on one string to fourth finger onthe next higher string fan octave; from second Snger on one sing to tied ger on the next lower string isa perfect fourth, exe. Perfece fifth ie arose the xcs at righ angles Duplication by the fourth inger ofthe open string notes A, D, and B isan advancage peculiar to the Ses potion. There i however, marked difference intone quality beeween the open sting tones and those stopped by the Fingers. The former sound clearer and richer in overtones, becase the string vibrates beeen the brie andthe ba ‘wood ofthe nue rather thn the Ash ofthe Fingertip, But without the contol ofthe finger the open tone is sosceptible to lle modiestion by the bow, and ir ends to sound with undue prominence, Futher- ‘more tpitch cannot be adjusted while playing (consider the note at subdominant of E, and then a leading tne of B5). These dierepances of intonation are generally tolerated as a necessary evil, notably in the te of naturel harmonics, whase pitch is Jependent on that of the open string fundamental, and also in enharmonicaly notated pasages. Ia THE VIOLIN a Ex. 36, open Gis assumed to bea susfacory equivalent of F double sharp. ex 36, Wagner-—Tonshinur: Bacchansle 8, Kalas (Open string tones are usally avoided in epresive mele phrases, ‘ba hey are ragularly employed in fast cles and igus, Their sound ischarscteritie of stringed instruments, and may even be exploited a such (Ex. 37) 15x 37. Brahms—Symphony no. 4 pots4,ed Kalas A note affected by an acidena splayed with the stme Ginger as ‘hematural note. On the G-string, the ise inger plays Ab, At, and AZ. ‘Alto the first finger must play the sharped open sting note Ge. The student should make a diagram similar to that in Fig 1, mating the locaton of che fingers on the strings forthe playing of the following paige.2 INSTRUMENTS are 3 “Two notes in chromatic sep relationship are by tain played swith the sme finger This requires a more of les rapid shift ofthe in tern the string; hence, with a legato bowing «certain amount of portamento is unavoidble, Fig. 8 “Musically, the difference between (2) and (B), in Fig. 18 i one of tonalty. The feagmene (a) is undertandablein the key of G, and (#) in the key of Ab to mention two posible interpretations. The un- txthodor fingering shown in (c) 8 enirely feasible, and the principle fusing a separate finger foreach chromate step has in practice par Sally superseded the ime-honored one, asby this means amore dint arccolation is obtained, without siding r portamento. “There ean be no doubr ofthe superiors of Eagering (c) fo rapid pszages, but ie shouldbe recognized tht ata slower tempo the di ferentiation in harmonic meaning suggested by (e) and (b) may be setfced, not to mention the elimination of certain sides fly etab- Take in what we know as “violin tye” eis true that harmonie de ‘velopment in the ewenteth eenrury often demand complete accept nor ofthe eaharmonie notation ofthe tempered eae, But the choice fof fingering should be governed by mosical rather than by mechanical considerations “These two tlcernative fingerings are showa inthe following see ‘Obviously the sound ofthe finger sides is eliminated if détaché bow- ing used, but the lower older fingering cemains awkward even then, THE VIOLIN o Good intonation (hati, playing in tune) i a perpetual preoccupa- tion with al instrumentals, wind as well a sting players. Ie not nabsolote but a relive valus, however, Observation and experiments Ihave demonstrated tha in practice performers donot adhere ro any of thescenifeally codified tandardeof ich, ch sequal tempecament, Pythagorean, js, mean-toe intonation. Nor deste player accept the toes he produces by ting the proper fingering ere, withovt sab jecting the to constant contol and correction theoogh the eat (ex feepe, of cour, inthe case of instruments ike the hatp or the pian, -whot pitch eannot be adjusted while playing). Iecan be sid that lead- Ing-tones and chromtiilly ried notes are played sharp and very lowe othr melodie desinacions whereas fitted nots are played low in pitch, and chat there operates continual harmonieadjustmen: to the sounds of other instrament “The peclaevibraney noticeable in the tone of «group of stings playing in unison i due in pare ro the minute diferences in pitch that, ‘een throughout the group. osmox TEcHauE ‘As the hand is moved higher pos under the fingers. ions new groups of notes ie” INSTRUMENTS ons Fig. 20 “The series may be continued upward, withthe qualifation that on ‘the lower strings high notes ae increasingly dficule of production be- fuse of the shoranes of the ating in proportion to ie thikness. On the E-string, tones canbe played wp tthe end of he fingerboard and teen beyond where dstonieftervals become smaller than the thick ‘es ofthe fingertip. The Ge writen by Seraus in the following ex fmple les in he thirtsnth posion, and has a sounding string length ff lle more than an inch and three-quarters. I is played by «wo tess of violins, doubled tthe unison by piccolo, and supported athe ‘octave below by fs, By catner, and two other desks of violin x. 38 Sera —AlsoSprach Zararbustra posted ADL dst ‘THE VIOLIN 6 Fingering a the top of the fingerboard is dificult not only because ofthe smallness of che intervals and the extended position ofthe hand, but also because he sting ate spaced farther apare a the bridge chan ax the nu, to feiiate bowing. “The E two ocaves above the open E-string may be recommended a 4 good practical upper limit, exclsive of harmonics, for orchestral ‘olin par “The hand is ssid ro be in half potion when the fist finger i half sep from the nue and the second fager plays notes usually played by the fs finger. Certain combinasons of mores are more conveniently Fingered in this eater eramped postion (EX. 39) sex 9. Siravnsky—Apollon Mazagtte 18,04: Boosey & Hawkes In the first postion the lefe hand is capable of a stretch ofan ag mented foarthy and even perfect Sth, from fs o fourth finger. In higher positions, extension of the fourth finger beyond the range of the postion is common procedure (Fig. 2). — Fig. at“ INSTRUMENTS In changing from one postion to another,» siding finger act a guide co the inrervl of change. ‘The hand may move 1 any of the Peston, bur the commones shift i tha fom Risto third eird ro fifth postion, ete, involving a slide ofa third, usally for che fist finger (Fig. 12). tee pte yy pt Fip ss “The guiding finger ie not necessarily the stopping Ringer in the new postion Fig. 33 (a) isa charteteritic postion shift The fst Finger slides from B to D, but the fourth finger stops G before Dis hear ‘The side can be nade so quikly asco be inal, bu ie i often peimited to sound for exprenive intention. Othor shifts are Shown in (8), (€), and (d. song eof ee Fig. 33 ‘When taste and the syle of the music allow, the finger that i 0 play the second note may make a sight portameato on the string jst before reaching the nee. In a descending shift, the portamento on ‘uiting the upper note pe co a minim, the thumb acting as @ {Bide fo the lawer positon. “The sliding sounds canbe reduced to near impercepebily, or they «an be eliminated altogether, by skilfl manipulation ofthe bow and fingers However, they ar idiomatie in string playing, and sometimes a particule fingering shar will produce them is deliberately chosen. TRE VIOLIN ” ‘Suppression ofthe porcamento in the following example would cer- tainly be imppropric. x, 4, Strause—Der Rorenbavaler _ p. 330,¢d. Boosey & Hawkes see tece ‘A true glssando is made with one fnger, on oe string, with legato bow, and when i is properly executed al intervening stages of pitch are sounded between the indicated limits. x. 41. Ravel —Daphmi et Clo 297, ¢& Durand “This glsndo is cored as nivon and ocsves for fist and second iolns, vos, half the elo, and basses, all on their open stings sliding up and down two octavesin fat tempo,« INSTRUMENTS, tn Bx. gs, Gating and A-stcng are designated, alchough the gli sandos written could not be made on any acer strings ex. 42. Bartok —Dance Suite p.Aved, Philharmonia zit Ol an. stot 19 yh a at I's evident sha composers fil to distinguish between portamento and glinando, and iis unnecesary that a pedantic dsinetion should ‘be made, Portamento seen ro imply a manner of connecting melodie tones and one thinks ofa glssando as covering a fily wide interval, ‘bu these conditionsare not mutually exchsive. Cae should te aken in ‘he notation ro show as accurately ax posible the exae effect intended. "A seagit line from one noe to anothers commonly used a8 2 sign ‘of portamento, hough there is often doube as to how complete a slide's wanted, In Ex 4 el lissando with oe finger could be made ‘where the lines ae marked, but, oa theater handy che lines may be taken simply a suggesting a musia style in which more than wsual phasis given tothe portamentor azociated with postion shift [Ex gg ismore problemaial. A complete portamento from the C down ro the Ei out ofthe question, since the upper note i too high to take ‘on he Gestring. The ox the performer en dos to make asl slide ix the beginning and end ofthe desent. ex. 43. Mahler Symphony no. p-18,e4- Philharmonia THE VIOLIN » x44 Mahler Syonphony 10.4 possg.ed.Phiharmonia Tri FER Likewise the glisando inthe next example cannot be lcerllyexe- ‘ented, Afr the open E is reached, something like a rapily fingered ‘chromatic sale or prt glisando on the lower strings must be sub sued x45, Revell Vale ap. ed: Durand “To judge the dugree of dificult in fingering wide leaps one con- sider the tings involved an the poston displacement necessary. The ‘hip of two octaves and aaj nth in Ex. gf pases from the Gating tothe E-strng, and the hand muse move from fist poston (third finger ) to seventh poston (fourth finger A). This is equivalent toa side from C upto B for the third Singer, a terval af 2 major seventh on one sing 12x46 Brahs—Symphony mo. 3 pegred-Kalmosso INSTRUMENTS Similaey, ics necessary to eros ver two strings in che next example, brie happens tha che let hand doesnot have to change poston to ply the ewo lower noes onthe G-string. All ae inthe sith postion, ‘xcept tha the iia Bis better played on the more biliane E-sting in third positon sex gy Holst The Plante 1.19.0, Boosey & Hawkes we aE A 7 —— Skipsmade on one sng ae ape to demand more displacement ofthe hand: Inthe following example the leap ofaenth fom Fw A means shift fom frst to sevetch poston, just sor che much grater interval in Ex ex 48.Mahler—Symphony no.g _p.118,e4- Boosey & Hawkes IF the ewo notes are co be slorred che ncerval muse be arranged 0 ‘that itera singe string, oF two adjacene strings, can be employed, since the bow could nae pay legato andar the sume time jump over inerveing stings x gp: Reger A Romantic Suite, op. 125 p. 480d. Bote & Bock. A sf payer can give fairy good impresion of legato skip acrou inervening sings by lightening and slowing the bow atthe THE VIOLIN 8 inant, mas be amid, however, tha heen et ae na on ed x. 0. Berg—Lyre ute .36sed, Univers — (Open srngs may’ take par in passages in which the hand remains in 1 high psion sx 51. Hindemith Symphony in B Flat 126, ed Schott bye i 2 7 Ys 7 o ‘More than one fingering i posible for any sucesion of noes and the one elected isnot altays that whichis most convenient forthe fingers. Simplifeation of bowing, by eliminating string changes, i sometimes a predominant consideration. Often a fngering with more ‘Position sift is adopted in order to preserve che unity of rone color And special quality of single string, orto give a particular expesive turn toa melody. The student’ attention ie cle tothe imporance of developing an appreciation of these differences in the sounds pro- duced by sringed inseruments. Tn recent years one notes a seong tendency toward a liberation of violin fingering technique frm the eradtional system of postions. Te ‘eannot be denied that many foreed and unnatural finger positions are the result of “correct” Fingering, and tha these produce bad intonation. ‘Accomplished and experienced players find tha they preferto discover fingerings mos suited wo the shape ofthe hand of thee own individual than, without eeference ro conventional pateras sn postions, so that the notes tobe played He conveniencly under the fingers that ae to2 INSTRUMENTS play chem, Doubeles these principles will one day be incorporated into the teaching of violin playing. While theres uch more unity of time i a sringed instroment ‘than ina woodwind, here exes inthis espect within the homogeneity ‘ofthe von a eriking variety and even contest of eolrs and dynamic range. This is agely because of the differences in sound berween the four ating, Since the pitch ranges of che strings overlap, the posi tis for varey are lipid, nd we canna designate characteristics of low medium, and high repstes, 25 we do for wind instruments. “The E-strings ade of eel. The radial change to this atria from gut in te interests of greater brilliance and durailiy, occured in the fis quarer of she preene century and was flt by many to bea disaster because of the los of a certain silky and mellow quality. ‘Acstings are of gu, although some orchestra players now vse a metal |A. The Dating iscitherof got or gue wound wih aluminum wire. The Gostcng always wound string, silver or copper wire over gut being the commonest materi. D- and Gestengs entirely of mee are aso ved, “The tning pgs to which the strings are attached are held in poston by the friction of» good fi. A knot oF loop attaches the other end of ‘the string to the eipice. Metal srngs require a special screw device tn the talpece fr tuning ine diferences "The Estrin has the most carrying power. Forceful and even sri dene at times iis also capable of an ehereal quality, luminous and clear, when played sfely (Ex. 2). x. $2, Mlhaod Second Symphonic Suite 65,6. Durand Sexe ne ~ EEEE SCE E certs ¢ FF piterece f fbr’ THE VIOLIN 8 “The Acsrng is fairly strong in the Kirst positon, losing some bse Fiance and power asthe string Becomes shorter in upper postions. For a soft expresive phraze in thatrange, iti generally preferable wo move tp the A-ting rather than pas over tothe E (Ex. 5). ex. 55. Brakins—Symphony no. 3 cae pérved. Kalos “The lest powerful string i the D-sting. Ie has a quiet, subdued goality in contrast to the G, and is especialy suited co certain calm types of expresion (Ex. 54) sex s4-Besthoven-—Piano Concertono. 4 p.2,¢d. Philharmonia “The G-srng i exe to che E-tring in sonorous strength. Iti excel- lene for broad melodies rising ss high asthe severth or eight poston, although it has a tendency to hoarsnes in the extreme high tones. A ‘autous lini for melodies onthe G-string would bean oczve and a fourth above the open sting (ES. 55).s INSTRUMENTS: sex 55.Mahler—Syauphony ne. 3p 243,00. Boosey & Hawes ‘The nese ample illustrates a way of avoiding lone of volume and force by using the Gscing instead ofthe weskerD. 5x 6 Bark—Concertofor Orchestra p s6yed. Boosey & Hawkes fey ey Bare Ln tnt nn Loud accented notes onthe G-string canbe forceful othe degree of ferocity. x. 57- Rowsel Symphony in G Minor 396d: Dorand ‘Tosignify that a pasge i tobe played ona certain sting the pas- sage may be marked sul G (ot Dor A), with a doted line eoncinaing 1s fara necesury. One should realize, however, that violins selects his fingering according to the musial and technical demands of the ‘momen and ordinarily such indications are needed only when a speci effect i intended ‘THE VIOLIN 5% [Mose violin music will require the use of more than one sting for given phrse. The passing from one string to another is dane in away to reconcile thee diference and as far a posible to preserve con- ‘inuity of color and intensity Fig. 6 “The above representation of bridge, strings, and bow shows how lie change nthe clevation af the righthand i necstary forthe bow ‘toplay on diferent strings. The bow can be drawn na plane o engage two strings a ones, whatever the postion ofthe lef and (Fig. 25). Tecannor be dawa across thre sting t once, ules enough pesire is pur upon ito depress the middle string ofthe thee into the sane plane with the other two, This is done i three-part chords that ae loud and of shore duration (Fig. 356). Otherwies, in both thre-pare and fourpat chords either che top note of the wo top notes ae held after paying the lower notes a grace notes (Fig se and). Iti the ewscom to pay de lower noes infore the beat f sach anticipation is not desired, a notation like th shown in (e) should be employed C Soess INSTRUMENTS, “The notation in Fig 35(€) mses for fusiness inthe score, and com poses generally have been content o write the pln chord, eying on the musical inteligence of performer and conductor for a proper ‘hythmic execution Inthe opening tat chords ofthe Eroie, che ist violins must sound che four sengs 2s nearly simulkancouly as chey| fan o march the saceto of the othe instruments. (The example i five in condensed score, ll nstrumentsare arated a acral pitch.) ex. 8. Besthoven—Syyphony no. 3 ted. Kalmus ’ 7 “The student can bes determine the practieabilty of any moltiple stopping by the method of making diagramsshowing the location of the fingers atlas until he gain enough experience to be able co pierre these positions in his imagination. The practice of making such dia- ges will go far toward giving him tat experience. The following pins wil be found urful in weking chords forthe violin, THE VIOLIN o One finger can stop two adjacent srngs at once (che interval of a perfect fifth), bu ie eannor scp three or Four. “The es awkward andsrined the hand postion ee beter the chord will sound, and the less Hkely that ie willbe ou of tune. One good rule isto ty to ave the higher-numbeced fingers on higher strings ‘The following two conerascing cases will illustrate this | == Fig. 26 “The hand postion for (2), with ts ouewatd slant, practically that ‘ofthe rlved hand when the forearm held upwards. In (2), not only _must the hand be forced ito a twisted postion, bu aso the fee vibra- tom ofthe E> and A-strngs ap ro be interfered with, Te ne that ‘the chord isunplayabe but chat (2) ismuch more cereain and effective. (Complex and awkward finger combinations need more time to set in place than simple and convenient ones. ‘Open strings are frequently used in chords and doublestops. They ‘may be combined with stopped note in higher postion (Fig. 27) Spe Toke FE i ‘The unton of stopped tone and open string i very resonant, pesaly in tremolo, 1x 59, Prokofef—Chowt p.125,ed, Gutell Pin can, ch nd Be eese INSTRUMENTS ‘The finger postions for tres- and fosr-pre chords ae often the bss for arpegpo figures across the strings. The Dow may’ play legato back and forth (Ex. 60), oF may bounce lghdy by its own elasiciy Ex 60), Die Walkie: Siegmunds Licbesled .t5ved: Eulenburg xo, Wagner Pe een ras esaceas cra x, 6, Rimaky-Korakosl—Caprccio Espagnol p 9,68. Kalas i Although harmonies ae primarily a eoloritic resource, the octave harmon e frequently employed a anormal rone inthe melodic line, ‘whether or not the composer has 2 indicated. 12x 62 Schubert—Sympbony no. 5 Posdved.Bulenburg THE VIOLIN ° ‘The upper limit for natural harmonics on the violin is generally plced atthe fifth harmonic, thae is two octaves and a major thied ove the open string. In pectic, the higher harmonies wold prob ably be taken as artificial armanies, up tothe fourth a ffth postion on the Estring, although stil higher harmonies have been writen (E53), x. 6. Copland-—Syampony ne. 3 Bocas 151.6. Boosey & Hawes Examples are aumeroos of high pedal noes in aemonics, feequendy ‘with bowed remo, Theis eect is enhanced by mts, and in sfe ‘nuances chords in harmonics for divided violins, muted, make an a= tractive background of atmoephere colo. “Arteial inrmonis in quick succesion, with either legato or de «aché bow, involve continual siting, much like paying a melody with one finger x. 6. Milhand Symphony no. 2 210d. Heugel ty ‘The glisundo in natural harmonic i effective witha body of sing. “The upper hal ofthe tring is brushed lightly wick the third or fourth finger, the hamonics sounding ae the nodes. ‘There i no sound of portamento berween the noes.« INSTRUMENTS, x 6s. Seravinsky—L’Oleau de Few 12, Beoude Bros. aE yas o eke Bu oeten 3 33 ‘Aa unusual, delicate effect ie obtained with an aepeggio across the strings in harmonics, 2x 66, Ravel LHeure Espagnole = praised: Durand “The arial harmenie exeaed by touching a perfect ffth above the stopping fist finger sounds 2 twelfth above that fundimental. It is rarely weed in orchoral scores, but some instances ate found in stern musi. x. 6. BareskDance Suite steed. Philharmonia Tn score reading ti sential to bea in mind that sting pare is played by a numberof players, 2 whole section of siaten first violins, THE VIOLIN a {or instance 2 opposed to one player toa pain the case of woodwind ‘or brass. The eva sections of violins far outnumber any other group, ‘while preening onthe printed page a look of equality ‘The pat for second violins, inasymphony orchestra, differs lle in technical difculty from that ofthe firs olin. Indeed, one ofthe ‘commones fneons ofthe second violins sco double che fra he ‘unison or oeve. This war necenary in the clasial period because of ‘he comparatively small numberof violins valle to balance hors and tamper, But loin modern times we find that over ewe a8 many ‘line are sil not adequate to cape with the sonoriy ofan enormously ‘expanded bras section "The fst vain pares usally the cop voice of the strings and carries the largest share of prominent theme mater. Seated the lef of the conductor, athe edge ofthe sage, the Best vols play with their instruments in the most advantageous position relative tothe audience. Tf the second violins are seated onthe right, in traditional fashion, hei intruments are turned away from the audience and some sotnd is lost. If they ae mased with the ist wos, ome condactors prefer, they are stl dominated by the fst violins who are beeween them and the listeners, and the effece of independence and antiphony often ‘imagined by the composer is much reduced. Ths one of the many sconsial problems standing inthe way ofan exact science of orche'- “The secon violins may have secondary melodic par, or they may, for variety, be submitued fr the fist vols. They may engage ia 26 companinent figures of every soe, ether by thenselves or asociaced with fs villas or other strings In Ex. 6, in the fist and third meas res, the wo sections alternately play figures from a single line, giving iemore security and energy through the simplification ofeach part and ‘the overlapping tnisons at the joints.a INSTRUMENTS, 5 68. Bahs—Symphony no. 4 35.0 Kalmus Fees other instuments. In che following excerpt, the stings are reduced 0 four frst violin, sa. x. 6, Liset— Faust Symphony 148, ed, Eslenburg Ss Divided violins paying in parte ny be employed unaccompanied by THE VIOLIN o oe Many sores ofthe nineteenth and twentieth centuries contain parts for solo viola, robe played hy the concertmaster. These slo pues ‘ary in importance from the ocesional phrases in Wagner and Mable toa developed obbligato of concertlke proportions and vitwesiy, 35 in Ei Heldenlebon, by Richard Steno. The reson for choosing the sound af soo violin snot merely thataredetion in volume is sought A single instrument possesses an intimate intensiy in its tone quality and expresion; by comparison the complete section sounds formal and impersonal, This sone of the motivating factors in the end toward the small orchestn in the twentieth centory, ‘An acoustic phenomenon to be noted when the solo violin playin the midst of a latge orchestea i its surprising silty to make felt hard cis wellknown thar eo instruments playing the same part do not create rice the sonoity of one. Their overrones ae dulled by minute pitch difeences and, mreover, hse individual expressiveness is eaecled in favor of 2 composite level. The sola violin, plying an independent par, cn inno way be looked upon as merely thesxeenth pare of the fs violin eeion. Performers are cognizant of dues attudes, oF spproaches, adopted inthe playing of mosic. These are the orchestral styl, the chamber« INSTRUMENTS susie style, andthe solo style: Playing in an orchestra, the individual Allows himzelf ro be absorbed in the mass. In chamber music style the performer resins his individuality while sharing icon an equal basis ‘with his astoiates. The soloist i properly assertive and aggresive, striving to project the msc with all the vigor and authority 2 his ‘omimand, This ate contributes tothe dstinetion ofthe soo violin pare. THE VIOLA Fy alos I oles Ger Brascbe proportions ofthe vols cannot be nearly defined as those I ofthe violin, which can be said ro havea standard sie within ‘quite sll mts of vtiaton. Fine vols exe, and are being played, whose measurementsshow variations of 13 ro inches in body Tenge and comparable differences in sounding string lengths Ie tems that evry imaginable combination of messurements hat Deen tied in the as yet unfinished evolutionary proces, the goal of which is to achieve a instrumental desgn that will anne ta common ideal of the vil’ sound and eapabies. This common idea is beng delayed ines crystallizing by an unusual divergence of opinion among per- formers, composers, and listeners, both as 0 what kind af tone the viola should produce and what kind of muse i shouldbe expected ro play ‘The viola presents an especilly marked example of the continuity of the evolutionary proces, which we cannot assime to be completed ia the cae of any of our instrument. ‘A hypothetical norm or average may be given for the principal measurements: length of body 16% inches; lenge of neck 6% inches; overall length 27% inches; sounding length of strings 154% inches Eventhe args violas are no big enough in comparison withthe violin to correspond ro the pitch a peefece fifth lower, and this diserepaney doubles responsible in lrg pare forthe unique tone quality of the viola The larger the instrument che more dificul ie to handle, e- pecially when playing in upper postions “Thebow is somewhat hicker than the violin bow, and hence heavier.“6 INSTRUMENTS “The viol’ heavier strings speak with more relactanee, and tone pro- Auction requizesacerain amount of “igeing in.” Light and airy eypes fof bowing are therefore less natural to the viel chan to the violin, “They are not ro be shunned, but ne should realize that only skilful players with good insruments can make them sound effectively. “The two lower strings are wound with wire, the others being pain gut. Some players ure wound strings forall four, and metal A-srings ae also ured, “The Fingering syste of the viola ie ideoicl with ths of che violin Since there isa difference of some 23 inches in dhe wo sting lengths, ‘the major and minor second iterels between the fingers are propor- tionaely large, Plying the viola requires lage hand and strong fin- ‘gers, particularly the fourth finger, which fe held in a moe extended poston than on the violin, Tae extension of he lef forearm inthe ist peston proves tring afer long playing. Positions above the third a inconvenienced by te awlowardnes of geting around the shoulder of the viola with che lle han. THE VIOLA o “The harmonie abtsinabe by extesion of the fourth finger in the seventh position is shown in the diagram, ase represents 2 practical ‘upper line for orchestral writing. Except as harmonics, notes higher than ths are rarely writen, and nearly always they are doubled by violin x. 70, Prokofef—Chout pes ed. Guthell SS “The norma lef forthe viola ig the ato clef (mide Con che third line, The treble clef (G clef) is employed when the pare les sub- santlly above the range ofthe alto clef fora length of time. Too many. clef changes should be avoided. A vols is quite accustomed to reading two or three leger line above che sa, and he woald prefer todo so rather than change clef for jst afew notes. Because ofthe wide paces between fingers the half position s more ‘convenient on the viola than onthe won and is more frequently used ex. 71.Brahme Symphony 10.2 Alege co gio p-oned Kalas rr Adjecives used to describe the tone of the vila, or of any ather ‘nstrumear, cannot do more than diet the students attention to cer tain admitedly general and vague aributes, Thete is no way othera INSTRUMENTS, ‘than actual hearing to ore up the memory impresions that make pos sible the mental hearing ability indispensable forthe practice ofthe ar of orchestration, One must develop che capacity «0 call ro mind the Sound of exch instrunen, comparing it to oter instruments, but it i also important co diinguish differences in tone quality present in cach single instrumenr. “The top string ofthe vols presents a striking contrast ro the other the stings. stn has been described as maa, piercing, penetra ing, and sandy, Ie has 2 tendency to sound undaly prominent, but it {oes without saying that a good pecformes keeps a smooth Balance in psig from the D-ring tothe A. The A-string’s individuality is well Eshibited inthe following example. ex. 72 Shostakovich —Synipbony no. § pita. Mesias “The D-ring ie unoberosive and gente hough ic has more tone ‘vsight than the D of the violin. le, withthe Gstring, the best part Of the viola for che many kinds of accompaniment figure commenly Slloted tot, and it excellent for melodies ike the following. Here the vols playin octaves withthe oboe fortwo measures, and withthe fle For the test ofthe phrase x. 73 Brahms—Symphony no. 3 p.9.08, Kalmus iat THE VIOLA o While the G-string is subdued in comparison with the A~ and “Csttngs, ie gives a richer and warmer tone than the violin’, x. 74. Debusry Nocturnes: Nuses roe, Jobert ttl Yo eM hi nt “The C-sting of the violas the only one beyond the range of the violin, I is powerful and ditineive in cimbre, Although coinciding with pat of che range of the ‘ello stones ae in sharp conta € ‘the sound ofthe Dring of ee elo. These who lok for subjective ‘uals find it foreboding nd menacing. lathe following example, with vigorous déaché bowing in the lower half ofthe bow, i gives ‘uch solidity and energy tote sing unison. sex.75.Bartdk—Concerto for Orebesta p89, ed, Boosey & Hawkes ro = ‘The Cetrng x alo expale of soft, delicate cones, asin this 2c- ‘companient igure for divided vious.0 INSTRUMENTS, ex. 76. Straus—Tod und Verklirang er potted. Kalous “The situation of the viola inthe middle of the pitch range of the stvngs seems to Have made tthe busest member of the group. It isnot only appropriate for melodies ofits own, butitis constantly called upon to double violins tthe otave of unison, or it may dooble the ellos or fren the basses The character and the sound ofthe viola are more ‘suited ro singing melody than to the performance of agile figuration. Teas always fallen tothe viola to perform 2 great deal of harmonic filing up. Vila par in scores ofthe classical period and later abound ‘vith passages in double nots, often without indication as to whether ‘not these are to be played vir. The face that they are neaely always practiable a doublestope, by good players, suggests that this may have been optional, but tis ertain eat the results neater and the i tonation more secure when the parts divided. Example 77 shows that Mozare considered vols entirely adequate and suitable forthe im poreanaccompanimsnt athe beginning ofthe G Minor Symphony. x77. Morare—Sysnphony inG Minor,K. 50. 1,ed: Philharmonia = “The absence of double notes in the viola pare consbotes to the ‘tansparency and fests of the orchestration ofthe Overture to The ‘Magic Flue, wheress on the other hand the massive vibraney ofthe Beethoven tt shown in Es. is agely de vo the vols’ ehee-pare THE VIOLA ” tremolo on the lower strings. Held chords for winds are omitted frm she example 2% 78. Becthoven—Violin Concerto p.8,ed. Bulenburg An mason o + ‘at gern sea er tS 6 St a ‘When eo nots ie bth onthe Cstring, asin measure 2 of the next, ‘example, they must of couse be played dvs, 125.79. Wagner—Prede to Parsi p.s,ed. Bulenbueg mer nae eho mi tr a nn on Pe Co Ina modern orchestr there are usally twelve violas. In the period of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, the number was at most fre, with sto tea ist violins and six to ten second violins. Violas havea heavier {one than violins, and in clasial scores there i god evidence that the istaken by the second finger. All four fingers alinto aasequence of half stepsin (). The pater in (2) includes an extension ‘bse on the principle that a major second stretch is possible between fistand second fingers. “Transposition ofthese pater upwatd by Bths wil give the notes ‘obtainable onthe oser the sings. ‘The traditional dstonie bai forthe numbering of the left-hand postions on stringed intrumencs becomes somewhat logical when applied roche ‘ll, sine the spacing ofthe fingers would somo sg- igesta progresion by half eps. The following figure gives the pattern (@) from Fig. 25,38 the hand moves datonically in the direction of he bridge Fig. 30 Asin violin ingcing, these designations are retained even when the pattern i ised oF lowered by cheomatc alteration involving on the ‘ellos displacement of the enite hand. Some ‘ellis have Sought 2 more accurate terminology, sing such terms as razed fire poston, lowered second postion, itermedine postion, and one-mida-balf ‘postion, the las two being applied enharmoniesly. The half positon {s used a onthe violin2 INSTRUMENTS, SS Half position 7 Fine postion; lowered fst FSS cin First positon; rsd fst post SE oe cree tins imermediate position Second position; lowered sec- SSE 01 poston, encanta postion; imermediateposion Fig. 31 Because the compass ofa third docs not fill dhe interval of a fifth bexween strings the elt mus sift posion oftener than the violinist, ‘or viol. fw sales ean be played in ce first positon with the ad ‘vantage of open strings, while ethers cll for several shits mpeieipe (Stee fee ner Fig. 3 “The gle ofthe finger in shifting poston ismadein sucha way that ‘the slide i barely pereepble, alehough some portamento is purposely ured when appropriate, The longer distances to be covered on the string lead eaily to an exaggeration of portamento, the more pro- nounced when pariipated in by the enize group of ten ellos (Ex. on. THE ‘CELLO 8 2 94: Tehakovsky Symphony no. 6 tg con — 8 ed Kalmus (Chromatic sales ae fingered by sepein ofthe pattern 123 Fes “The celles et hand has the advanage of greqtfeedom of move- sent. The neck ofthe inserument being a che player's shoulder, al parts ofthe fingerboard are within easy reach, and since the weight of the cll eso the peg te lee hand is not called pon to sss in is support. ‘When the hands advanced tothe seventh pation, an octave above the opea sng it aches the body ofthe instrument, and the thumb hhas to leave its portion underneath the neck, The outer edge of the thumb may thea be placed on che string, serving to stop te sting a2 kind of movable mut. With the hand inthis postion, the third ager willbe found to reach greste distance than he fourth finger, withthe consequence thatthe hte licle used inthe thumb positions. Oc- ‘sionally the thumb poson is employed at lower pitches when the longer stech ofthe third finger ir needed. Thumb notes cannot be suddenly introduced in 2 continuous pastage of normal playing. Ane INSTRUMENTS appreciable amount of tine is necessary to place the thumb in its new poston. Tei important to remember thatthe string length of 2 given interval diminishes asthe hand moves to higher posicons. On the ‘ello, the span from thumb to thi lager is easly equal oa qoarer of an entire String length. Thi would be a diminished fifth ia the half postion, ‘whereas inthe seventh positon i makes possible the stretch ofan oc” ‘ave. The posites forextended finger acern in the upper postions In Fig. 34 are shown a few combinations wsing the thumb. orezetesd Speed ttt aE ooo Fig se “The normal lf for the clloisthe bss clef. The tenor clef (mide Con the fourth line) i extensively employed co reduce che number ‘of leger ines in high asoges, and the treble clef is used when the notes ‘are 00 high tobe easly read inthe tenor clef, Formerly, pars for the ‘ello in the treble clef were habitually ‘written an octave too hgh, except when the treble clef followed the tenor clef, This practice hasbeen abandoned, and today all nots are ‘written at their proper pitch, Ie is necessary to know thar che custom ‘vas once prevalen, since examples of ie may sil be found in nine teenth-century editions (Orchestral parts may go as high as ewo octaves above the open [Acserng, without eecouzee to harmonics. This practical upper imei THE ‘CELLO *s ‘exceeded bya fourth or th in pats For solo ‘ello, bat instance ike the following forthe ‘clio seeia, are exceptional 121.95 Briten—Four See Interludes from Peter Griner 65d. Boosey & Hawkes ‘The following glisando, up tothe twelfth harmonic onthe Dri can be taken a8 reaching the upper imi in the produetion of natu harmonics on any sting ‘This is intended as a colorist effec, the success of which doesnot require that every one ofthe noes shal e sounded by exch individual player. The series is posible beease of the progresive approach to the high ness. Ordinarily the eighth harmonics rarely exceeded, and the ‘celle may prefer to pay even that a an ata harmonic from6 INSTRUMENTS the fundamental two octaves below. The seventh harmonic i wsually| ‘voided a5 being co i. x. 97. Mahler Symphony no. 2 png posed, Univers (On the ‘cello, che greater sting length ofthe upper pats allows thm to sound with more security than can be had on che violin or viola, The harmonie node a minor tied above the nut en be used al- thongh few instances of ts notaron are co be Found. 8x 98. Revel Piano Concerto exer -29,e4. Durand Ravel’ indication of the actual pitch of the tone produced isan ‘octave to low. The E sounded ithe sixth harmonic, two oceaves and 2 ffh above he fundamental Anfcal harmonicr re played with the thumb and third finger throughour the range ofthe ‘cello, upwards From the low Dp on the C-tring. The third finger touches the node a perfect fourth above the fundamental sapped by the thumb. The harmonic sounded i two ‘oetaveshigher than che thumb note THE ‘CELLO # x. 99, Casella —Pupacctt 19, 6d: Philharmonia BB “The artificial harmonic fom the node 2 perfect fifth above the ‘thumb canbe sounded on the ‘ello uri infzequendly use, that of ‘the fourth beng exit to produce and of beter quality "This chor foe ‘ellos ad bases in harmonics, exch section divided in four parts 1x, 100. Ravel Raps Espagnole potted. Durand« INSTRUMENTS. “The cello bow i lide shorter (28% inches) than the violin and sola hows thicker and somewhat les springy. However, all the types. fof bowing previously mentioned are availble to he elit and are of exellent effect, The bow is hel in the same way a forthe other too instruments, excep that i i armed ro thatthe edge of che hai rneatst the player i the fst to engage the sting. Another difference tobe borne in mind is tha he lower-pitched strings ae nearest tothe bow atm, on account ofthe playing poston of the “ell. The tems up-bow and down: boro contin tobe used in the same sense as hereto fore, although less accurately descriptive. ‘Bowing over the fingerboard, near the bridge, and withthe wood, are effect in common se, 8 ae al kinds of temo. Special mention Should be made ofthe bowed eremalo sur Te taucbe onthe two lower serngs of the ello, Ie has « mysterious quality unlike any other tremole x. sot, Debussy La Mer p-tos,ed- Durand enn wee by Di oh nn Een Pa eh [A fingered remalo with an terval larger than a major third ean be played by using the thomb position. The amount of stretch possible ‘ates according to the position on the sting ex 103, Schmite—Amtain er Cléopatre -78, ed. Durand oy = is) a THE ‘CELLO » Excepting second, literals within the octave ae playable as dosbiesps inthe lowe poi widest sng th than Theme Second cat be reich fat fourth Snger, fom the thd poston Up. and the ior second from se forth pation up. The thn of coune a aldol suresh one catty ioc he thanb witht break inthe ms, Moreover cone stoped With he ‘hmb ar comparatively les exprsive ings ‘Chord foandin sae shoul be studied by means of agate sho me or vi corde fh way hcl pels in plcng the Sngers canbe judged, ad kaowlge of woking chords Foe eeloseyaeds eves ee Chord cotting one or mae open stings tthe most snorous The hs welsh ther gen can ops psec nace wpa in cepa chord are more fsicny wed van fur pr chords The fourpart chore ae gee fo hey, bse snc ap propre. Arpegio gues acrasthe stingy ae bs arranged to be fingered ike owrpur hore 12x 103, Strsus+—Symphonia Domestics . 106, ed. Associated Music Publishers is irc ea» INSTRUMENTS Bowing of chords follows the conventions of volin chords, the ower notes being sounded fist when no other indication s given, The direc= tion may be reversed, shown by an arrow placed before the chord, in fonder ro give emphasis co he bas. 1 104, Barthk—Second Rbsprody for Violin nd Orchestra 6 ed. Booey & Hawkes png © te ete cr eet th 8 an a “The “elo pizicata i expecially sonorous and vibrant and it finds frequent and varied employment in the orchestra. Ie is an everyday ‘medium for the harmonic bas, The plocked bas tones give both body dnd transparency to the accompaniment. Another common use of "ello pzzeao isin accompaniment figures like the following. 1105. Brame Symphony no.2 fo, od. Kalmus ar For the high notes, the tone qulty in pizicao remains good well ‘over an octave above the open A. Then ie begins to tke on a rather ‘wooden sound, suitable for special effects. High ello pizzcaois wed effectively inthis example. persed. Misicus x 106. Shostakovich —Sympony no. 5 Aggro THE *CELLO om Harmonies, when plucked, sound not unlike chose ofthe harp. They are best lied ro the natural harmonics of the octave andthe ocave and fh. 1 107. Moussorgsky—A Night on Bald Mountain 81, ed. Incemational Music Co [Nor all “lite have acquired the trick, borrowed from harp and guitar technique, in which the sight hand touches the node and plueks the string simultaneously, alowing the lefe to stop tones ocher than open ons. ‘Chordsinpizzicato may bearpegyated upwards by using the chum, cor downwards with one or more fingers. The fet way will be followed tnles dovenoaed pzaeat is indiated by an acow. Considerable v= sey of effect isto be had, fom softy rolled four-pare chords to short, sbrupe chords on che three upper strings. The following example is taken fom a psisgein whichthe entire sting section joins in an evace- tion of guitar playing2 INSTRUMENTS x, 108 Debussy Bria tag, ed: Durand “The Astring of the ‘cello is characterized by much expresive warmth and intensity, well dynamic power. Countless examples how how often the ells ae given melodies in this ester. The fol- Towing excerpt gives only pat of a remarkable passage for unaceom- panied ellos the entre melody extends over sy-six menses p31 ed. Heugel ex, 109, Charpenier Impressions of Italy THE ‘CELLO ” 2x. 110, Wagner—Siegried Idyll p46, ed. Eulenburg ‘There is lite dserence in timbre beeween the two lower scrngs. “Their cone isflland rich in overtones, the C bsing sighly more pon Alerous than the G, in forte. Insofe nuances, melodies ying in his range must be very lightly accompanied if they are no to be covered up. 1x, 144. Franck-—Variations Symphoniquer .38.ed. Enoch “The D-strng i smooth and unoberasive, les nasal than the A. et SSS = Inthe score the only accompaniment i dliate guration inthe ‘so plano part marked psnisino, Tis a regular daty ofthe ‘elo co play bass parts, either alone oF swith the double-bases. A common procedure isto write the same notes for ‘cellos and basses Since the ater sound an octave lower than wit- ten, the rrultie« base pact in otaves, in which the ‘ellos ace a ein- forcement of the octave overtone of che double-bases. The ‘ellos say occasionally be placed an octave lower soa to sound in wnizon with the basses, giving a more concentrated sonorty. "Cello pares contain much passage work ether ofan accompaniment ature of designed ro contbuce animation tothe general orchestral* INSTRUMENTS, texture, A wide range may be covered, and elaborate figuration often callefr technical vitosty. The student should lok through numer fous scores to observe the reat varcy in cis kin of writing forthe “ello, Some examples are given here. 2x 112, Besthoven—Symmphony no. 8 p64, ed. Kalous x. 113, Rvel—Repsodie Eypegnole steed Durand Trends IER x 144, Dulas La Peri .46ved. Durand ra ~ api passages inthe low register, with staceato or taché bowing, axe dicule to make clear beease of the inertia ofthe lower strings. THE ‘CELLO 5 Ic kes good players to perform figures like the following without seratchins. sex 15, Seravinsy-—Le Sere di Printemps ES p67, ed. Ruse “The powerful sonority ofthe ‘elo section and the intensity of the ‘ello Astring combine to justify the Frequent procedure of diving the group so that half play the mcody. The othe half lay the bas fora subordinate pare, or they may even be divided farher x. 116, Mabler—Syrmphony no. 4 115; ed. Univers9% INSTRUMENTS. “This Seraus example shows the division ofthe ellos carried tothe poine where each player athe four desks has a differen prt, eight in all x, 117. Strause—Alo Sprach Zartbusea p.7ed.Aibl THE ‘CELLO ” (One might describe the preceding excerpt as an instanceof the use of eight soo ‘cellos, akhough es the result of progressive division of the strings fo be noted inthe scores of Straus. In Rossin’ Overture to Willan Tel the opening is scored for Bve soo ‘cellos in addition toa regular pare forthe reminder ofthe section. Tehikorshy, inthe Ouverture Soleil, 1812, ells forfour soln conjunction with ew tolo violas. The mos frequcne and characteris use af the slo ‘elo Js than which a single player i given an oustanding melodie rol. ex. 8, Brahme—Piano Concertono.2 p.t25,ed SimrockTHE DOUBLE-BASS Be, comrebune; It, conmablaso; Gee, Komrabr ‘bas string bay, and bas, The at the most common. “The doublets presents a diferente appearance From the other members of the string group because of is sloping shoulders tapering into the neck, a characteristic of is ancestor the viol. Also noticeable are the cogwheel tuning devices on the pegbor, replacing the friction: held pegs ofthe other stringed insraments. "The bass stands on an adjusuable peg, and is supported in playing position by the body an eft knee ofthe player. Bas players sometimes fit ona high stool whl playing. Basses ate of differents. For general orchestral se thesie known | ss three quarters is preferred to the rather unwieldy follsied bass ‘Average dimension ofthe three quarcer size daube-bas area follow ‘overall length, 73 r0 74 inches; length of body, 4 inches length of neck, 173% inches thickness tse, 7% inches; height of bridge, 6% inches; sounding length of stings, 4334 inches length of bow, 26 2 inchs “The G-and D-stringsare normally of gut the A and Ef gut wound with wire, bur complete ses of metal strings are being adopted inereat- ingly by bass plyers. Although they bring some modication in the tone quality of the ast-ument, the meta stings seem eerainly tobe ‘supesior to others in durbily and dependability, and they respond tothe bow much more readily ‘As previously mentioned, the double-bass sounds an octave below O= English names for the double-bass are bass vol, conta THE DOUBLE-BASS » the writen nots. Awarenes ofthis face should becomes habiin rex {got writing bss part or playing them on the piano nthe examples ofthis book all noces for dovble-bsses sound an octave lower than printed, ules orherwise indicated "Notes as low asC below the E ofthe fourth ering, ate robe found in the sores of practically al composes, This is even more remarkable jn che sores of Beethoven's cme, when the three-ring bass, now ob- solete, wa in common use, The lowes string ofthat instrument was tuned 0 A ot G above the E ofthe modeen four string bas. in performance the player simply plays an octave higher what lies ‘below his range, ering, no doubt, thatthe change of octave matters lie at such low pitches. Granting that the octave difference wil be noticed only by attentive and discerning eas, especially when the Change covered by doublingin the ‘elo, it ost be realized that this procedure sometimes results in serious disfigurement of the musieal Fen, Compa, for instance, ee following phrase with its shape as per- formed on the four-sting bas. x, 119, Strase—Alio Sprach Zarathustra p.ssed: Abd “There are three ways to extend the range ofthe bass below These axe the temporary tuning (seordarur) of the E-string toa lowe pitch, the use ofthe ive-ing bas, and the adoption ofa mechanical appara- tus for extending the E-string to C. All shree are employed. “The frat of thes is the leas saisfactory because of che disturbance to the instrament by the change in toning, and even more because a proper tone cannot be produced with a string whose cension has been reduced to the poe of fabbines. Ii ently practical, however, to tune to Eb or even D. Sich alterations are more easily accomplsied ‘with the runing mechanism of the double-bass than with the pegs of other stringed instruments100 INSTRUMENTS “The fivesering bass snot common iastrument, and some orches- tras do noe possess even one Is fifth string is runed tothe low G, the body being eorespondingly larger to favor the low pitches. 'A marked inceese inthe use of the Estring extension attachment isappareneraday. In some orchestras che whole hs section is equipped ‘vith the device. Ieconsss fan arm acting aran extension ofthe Anger board upsracd past the pegbox on the E-string side, and an ingenions szeangement whereby the notes Ci, D, D3, and E ate stopped by re smote control aie were, by means of keysatthesde ofthe fingerboard reat the nu In norma posion the E remain eopped. Operation of the mechanism presents some fingering problems forthe player, but the results onthe whole ae stiefactory. Since thete sem tle doub ofthe establishment ofthe Four-tring Aovble-bas as the noel instrument, ie ollows tha bas parts should be designed accordingly. Uf notes below E ae felt co he indispensable, they shouldbe regarded as exceptional, andi shouldbe fully realized that they may be played by only one or two bases, or even not at all, Thebes procedure isto wete the part in cctaves where these low notes occur, showing clearly what is to be done by the player whose lowes note iE x, t20, Mousorgsky-RavelTablente Pune Exposition .35,ed- Boosey & Hawkes ‘To prevent transposon of the low tones up an octave «remark must beaded, such a “ive-sring bases only.” or "not an octave ghee” ‘ex 131, Mabler—Dat Lied vom der Erde 126, ed. Univers Go Pim oe Oe et te in Aer 0 by ie on THE DOUBLE-BASS vo “The compass of the hand, from fist to fourth finger i a major second in the lower postions. ‘The thd finger isnot used independ- nly buts placed onthe string together with dhe fourth finger, util the snth poson i reached. Then the postion of the hand and the leser string length of che half tep make ic convenient to ws the shird and fourth fingers separately. ‘Some players develop a wider wie ofthe tied finger and ofthe ex ended positon, srerching a whole rone from fist ro second finger but the shove are the basi principles of double-bs fingering. Fig. 35 gives the notes playable in the postions of the fist octave ‘onthe Gearing. Ir wil be sen that thee are really ewelve postions to che octave, one foreach haf sep, but thatthe sumbering 1st, 2nd, 3rd et, follows the daronic stepson which the fs geri located, the patton in between beng half postions. Jost as in the ease ofthe cll, there are other systems of designating the positions. “The thumb is brought into play above the seventh posicon. To find the notes playable on the other thie strings, che stent should waite out the eanspostions of ig. 5 down by fourths. ‘Scales containing open tig note canbe played with fewer postion shifts, 9 demonstrated by the following comparison of the scales of G major and B major.10 INSTRUMENTS Mets eet ee Fig. 36 CCaromatie seaes are fingered by repeating the patern 2 4 4 oF raging “The les employed ae the sume as forthe ello; namely, bus, tenor (iddle Con te fourth ine), and treble (G ele). High notes for double-bases are very effective, and not of grest Aiialry except for imonation, They are safer when approached by ‘sep or by sll inervals The D an oetave and fifth above the open G may be ten a5 a practical upper lint, exclusive of harmonies. This Timi is exceeded inthe folowing unasal example, in which the basses play in unison with ils, ’ellos, and basoons. x, 133, Shostakovich Symphony no. 5 vi ein oem 23,64. Masicus Afcial harmonics are possible on the bass ony in high postions and are impractical for orchestral purposes. Natural harmonies, on the other hand, are especially useful beease oftheir medium pitch THE DOUBLE-BASS 103 ange. They ae ely produced, because of the long strings, and are lof excellent quality. Those available onthe G-string are shown in Fig. $7. Transposition down by fourths will give the series on the other Strings. Nove cha harmonies in che treble elf ae notated at actual pate, to save leer lines. to ith of ing eget leg nt Fig.a7 ‘The harmonic from the node located 2 minor tied from the mut sounds mote clearly on the bass than on any other stringed insrament. x. 125, Rvel-—Le Torboaw de Couperin p.38;ed: Durand Inthe following chord of harmonics, one ‘ello contributes the Ch ‘unobiinabe onthe bas atthe pitch. The fourth bas pat eal for a tained by dividing the notes among two oF more players. The fllow- ing sequence of filth is unos x 125, Kodily—Galénta Dances, 53, ed. Boosey & Hawkes ese ‘THE DOUBLE-BASS 10s “There re rwo distinct type of double-bas bow, ually referred co ssthe German bow and he French bow. The German bow ished with the thomb on top of thestick the frog ting shaped so thatthe Ringers ‘ean grep it as chey might grasp a sae. The French bow i like a large "ello bow and is eld in che same way, excep tat some players place the thumb underneath the Frog for certain strokes. Iecan be seen that ‘the action ofthe ws i quite differen nthe rwo hand postions, and that withthe German bow the thumb exerts dowenward presure on the stick, as opposed othe Finger prasute withthe French bow. There are advantages in both methods, and the choice depends upon the sthooling and personal preference of the bass per. {All bow strokes employed onthe other tinged instruments may be used on the bas, withthe qalfeation hat these must be thought of in terms of ashore, heavier bow, thicker heavier strings, and a much more cumbersome instrumental factors in greater inertia tobe over ‘come in che production of rex Hence, oolong sursin legato bowing ‘Should be guarded agains, The student wil have to rely on observa- ‘ion and experience in this respect. Ie will help to remember chat the aggregate conarty of the whole bs section tolerates slower moving bow than dos the tone ofa single solo bas, and that longer tones are possible in sofe vances than in loud ones. x. 126, Wagner—Tritan wd Wolde 19, ed Breithopf For the log held pedal notes, sometines lasting for many measures and often seen in ninereenth-ceneury scores, the bases are expected to change diection of the bow at often a necessary. Continuity of tone ispreseved by sexing toe that ll do not change bow atthe same time. Double-bassacesto i preferably of che on-che-string type, but the contolled bouncing bow isentiely feasible and often wed. The mod> rm bass section ie caprble of considerable delicacy in passages like the following106 INSTRUMENTS x, 127. Steavss—Don Ja 58 ed. Kalmas Anexample of fst detached bowing in along, gradual erscendo 1x 128. Rimsly-Korskof—Scbeherszade pat, ed. Kalmus Sul toto and sul pomicello ae reglaly employed on the double bss. The bas col lego seaceato may be sid co be mote susical than ‘on the other instruments because of the greater rronance of the bas, Bowed tremolo is very common in bass parts and is frequently called {ors esto or sul pontielo. “The fingered temolo is not pracial in the lower positions, For ‘most hands the minor thied stretch becomes feasible above the second poston. All major and minor trilsare exellent, however. x. 129, Mahler—Syompbony no. 9 63, ed. Boosey & Hawkes ‘THE DOUBLE-DASS 107 ‘The bas player plays pazieato much oftener than the other string player. Th s nor only becuse ofthe superior resonance ofthe bass pizicato but aleo because i brings welcome elit and variety to the ‘as line, imparting lightness and transparency tothe whole orchestral texture. Sometimes the bases double in pzzeat the put played arco by he ells "The sng is usally plucked with the fist Finger, the other fingers holding the bove. The German bow hangs downwaed held by the lle finger hocked in he frog. Vacations in tone quality and dyaanie range ‘in be obtained by plucking a dserene places onthe sing. The low Tones pizicato demand carn ther execoion to aid booming oF dl ehudike sound. "As forthe igh nots, one aly excceds dhe B shown inthe follow- ing example 130 Stenos—Alo Sprac Zarate peste Ait ag. £ te te te oe ael e == => In the folloring example the bss prziesto isnot doubled by the “ellos, be the bas clarinet underline the aecented measures ex 151-Ravel—Repuodie Bipagnole ped. Darand ‘The double-base mute hasta be a heavy affair to be effective, since the vibrations ofthe lage bridge are not easly damped out. Mates ae10 INSTRUMENTS sed for homogeneity of roe color when the rex of the sting group {is muted, and also for the peculiar veiled sonority they give tthe bosses. The mysterious measures atthe beginning of Ravels La Vale ae scored for muted bases with no other instruments, ex. 152. Ravel—La Vie Mg Vie one pied. Durind “he commons dy the bases to perform it aural tha of supplying te harponi foundation. Thi acomplia in more than rinexy pe cet of al erchesrlmos by the dole bases play dette with sh elon When the ter are thers cp the faneon of octave doting maybe eke ove by othe names sucha basoons o hms the it.The clay ofthe bs pa seems to benef grey by th enforcement or cnimation, of the fezae overtone she rp fondant of hbase ce my Aho ec the inpreion of sn even dep one by ren of he dcouri phenomenon en tthe diferenc tone. The aper paras of tiorae base aan portant source of echnent the etre Ochs snort aloagh ernst be ded that hey are very often i confi with pper ead my ce damage ‘common eal fsck dageisherdins fly payed minoe erin paced in sch way ta he major hid overtone fom che bass ‘ay compte inazengih with ihe no hid (8). | THE DOUBLE-BASS 109 Fig 38 ‘The shove dilemma ean be resolved only by reducing the dynamic level of the basses and strengthening that ofthe second voli “The double-bass partis occasionally treated as an independent voice || -without octave doubling, bute issigifean than the prictice of com- posers this procedure cenly exceptional. x. 153. Beethoven—Symphony no. 9 65,08. Kalous Te isnot out of place to exuton the student that 3 common Flt in "wring for bases is excessive use of the lowest cones, a habit that tends tomake the whole orchestra sound heavy and overponderous, “The harmonic bass may be areal melodic bas, Fine examples ike the fllowing ae numerous.0 INSTRUMENTS, x54. Flanck—Sympbony pot17ed-Bulenburg ‘Modern composers have expleted the posites of melodies inthe high register for basses without doubling In che following exposition of a fugue subject, the double-bases deliver the opening phrase quite ‘unaccompanied xcept forthe group of cighth-notes at the sta sx 135 Ricgger—Symphony no. 3 81, ed. Associated Musi Publshess 7 ie tes in 6 Att Ma Pita Yo ye rok as suggested new posible forthe double-bases, using them 25 melodie doubling ofthe sol violin (Ex. 136). The entire scor- ing of che six measures is given here. The clarinets are notated a acral pitch, THE DOUBLE-DASS o x. 136, Prokoie Violin Concerto no. 2 p- 74,04 Baron ‘The deserity of base players has reached a very high degree of| viresoty, The cores of Mahler, Seats, Revel Stravinsky, and other ‘modern composers should be studied to observe the demands made ‘upon the buses for aplity of bowing and fingering, wide sips and complex yeh. 1157 Stauss—Bin Heldeneben bee Pea p.20,ed.Eulenburg1 INSTRUMENTS, ‘The double-bases ae frequently divided in wo parts, Ths practice is constent with the tendency of modern French composers to divide ‘each string section. The division in octaves furnishes the bass octaves ‘within the double-bss pare. lnervale smaller than Bhs or Fourche are les satisfactory in low pitches x, 138 Debusy—La Mer 83, ed. Durand Close intervals inthe bases help to provide che dramatic, foreboding suggestion in che pasage from which the next example is taken ex 139, Debusry—Pallisr ee Mélionde pe pei. -346,ed; Durand [Basses ate divide ro that half can participate in melody wile half remain on the bas; and so that half ean play pizicato and half play ‘oon che sume figure. Chords of three and four parts in low register tre likely to have a percusive sound, especialy if plucked (ste the G mminor chords inthe Marcbe au Supplic of the Symphonie Fantsique, bby Bein), To sound leary, choedsshould bein open postion, oF lo cated in the upper part af she range ofthe bass. "The following chord for bases ends an adagio movement, andi n> tirely unaccompanied. Although the notation indieates double sos, in performance the choré is divided in four THE DOUBLE-BASS us sx. 140. Dotik Symphony no. 726d: Kalas ie, A limitation inthe aumber of basses (“a mets “pbas? 1 desl only,” et.) sometimes called for to secure a better balance ‘The ue ofa single double-bas, solo, is not frequent. eis of nove effec beesse not often heard. The base solo ie urpisingly deficient in carrying power, considering the se ofthe instrument, and is accost- ppnimene must be delicately adjasted. The following slo i weten a3 {for fvescring bass bur ean be played vsing the E-string extension. It B unaccompanied. sex 1gt, Ravel L'Enfane tls Sorte 124, Durand 2 he teWOODWIND INSTRUMENTS osrcat and convincing definition ofthe category we all know 25 woodssnd & dificult to propose, Ite easier to say which instruments ae bass nstrmenss. Woodwind insruments have been constructed of material other than wood, and flues ae regularly rmade of metal at the present time. Rather than acempe to justify ‘nomenclature accepted by eustom, let us dicingush the brie instrae ments as being thase whose tones ate produced by vibration of the lips hel agains a cup-shaped mouthpiece. Other orchestral svnd in- struments are woodwinds ‘The woodwind secon of the symphony orchestra is divisible into our Family groups, 8 follows Flutes, piccolo, (alto ure) Oboes, English horn, (oboe amor, heckelphone) (Charines, bass lating, (E and D elaine, basset horn) Bassoons, contrabasoon ‘The instruments named in parencheses are only occasionally em ployed, while the others are standard equipment. Ths elasifcstion ‘oineides with ferences of tone color realy distinguishable by eat, brought about by diferenees of constraction and method of tone pro: duccon Inthe make-up of the woodwind section, thee basic formulas, or types exist: (2) Woodwind by wos: 2 flee 2 oboes WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS us 2 catness 2 bastoone (®) Woodwind by thre: 2 flues and piccolo + oboes and English horn 2 latnes and base clarinet 2 basoons and contabassoon (©) Woodwind by fours: 3 flues and picealo 3 oboes and English horn 3 clarnes and bass clarinet 3 bbasoonsand contrabason I wil be found wsefl eo tepurd departures fom these three types as variations from the norm, The second type, woodwind by threes, {susedso consistently in the vventath century cat tas become estab lished as the normal woodwind setin of che present day. “The vibration of sienclosed in pipe may be compared othe vibra: tion of aszing stretched between two pent. One importane difference fs thar whereas the pitch of «sting i affected by length, density of materi, and amount of tension, the pitch ofa vibrating sie column Aepends upon its length alone, This roe it not perfectly accurate in 3 scietifcsense, bu i isthe basis for che custom of speaking of pitches in tem of length. For example, the note produced by the C-tng of the ello is ideniied as 8-foetC being the note sounded by an open ‘organ pipe 8 fet long Ie is understood the this is Tength adopted for convenience, and that a fractional eoerection would have to be made to bring it ingo agreement with whatever andard of pitch is being wed, Doubling the length of the six column lowers the pitch an octave, and halving te length rises the pitch an ota.ue INSTRUMENTS, ‘These lengths will give the same pitches in all wind instruments, brass wel a woodwind, with one notable exception—the clarinet “The carne ie a cylindrical tube, closed at one end by the mouth- piece. Obes and brswons are conical larger ar one end chan at che ‘other. Flutes are in part cylindrical, bur the open embouchure makes them open pipes. Now the stopped eylndrical pipe has properties un Tike thse of the open eyindricl pipe or the cote pipe, and one of these is that for given pitch it requizes but half as much lengeh, In other words, if flste anda carner employ the same amount of eylin- rica cube length the clarinet sounds an octave below the Bute, only fundamental rones being blown, Let ws consider a primitive Ratelike wooden pipe with si finger holes forthe first, second, and tied fnges of both hands. The fourth Fingers are noe wed, since they do not narally fll into straight line with the others. The thumbs sopport the insteumeat in a horizontal positon tothe right ofthe player, and the lfc hand wil be nearest to ‘the embouehre, inthis case hole to be blown across The left end ofthe pipe is tightly closed with a stopper. This stole eube isthe basis forthe fingering ystems of ll woodwind instruments ‘Al ix holes must be closed by the fingertips ro enable the pipe ro vibrate ehrough its entice length and sound its fundamental tone. For the ske of further similarity to the Hate, ler us say the lengeh isa lide ‘over 1 inches, which isthe length of the uc’ low D. Fig. a0 now the righ hid finger is asd, uncovering its hol, the sound- ing length ofthe pipe isshortened by the dtance from the hole to the ‘open end of the tube, much at though the tube were cutoff 2 chat pling, and if the holes have been spaced forthe incervals of a major ‘eal, the note sounded wil be E. All he remaining five holes must be Tepe closed. WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS w ‘The entre scales obtained by succesvely ring the fingers, open= ing the holes from right cole, shown hee. the next hole ro he right of che sounding holes closed, the sound ing note wil be fatened by 2 half step. This isthe procedare called fork fungeving, ot forked fingering, and by its meas the following in- Derween noes become avaiable See = = = = Sos cao]ue INSTRUMENTS “There are aow ewo ways to finger Fe, but Ep cannoc be obtained by fork fingering ince there sno further hale o close. ‘The acquisition of aditionl fundamental rones requires the boring ‘of new holes and the invention of key mechanism. The lee thumb i abl to contol tone hole, leaving the sopporting Function to the eight ‘thumb, Both fourth fingers, however, ned the help of keys in order te control properly located holes eonvenienty. The history of the de= ‘velopment of key mechanism i one of incresing ingenuity in finding ‘ways by which the Fingers may cover and uneover holes beyond thei Teach through the use of Keys, levers, aves, and springs. These also ‘perm an extension in the lengeh ofthe cube, with the added lower hoes operted by keys. "The key systems of the various woodwind instruments willbe de- seribed in succeeding chapters, In hae On se mone ref iting sing wee dscoed’ A votng clu of at pone hae tie ca ete veal cool he fendntosnd estar lon Ofer ert rc nth frm oe sth ul irene Jos sng rms nade sand gh cuching «miso ina oodtind runes armoe Tprtiucdbyopsings hl locnedat or cra ode TRaRol re feed com voy bon of eon ed ose fradanene nes ose pec dag forte pp and tgupped wih ty clld sates y-ray ooo nfs and wh cont tones o thc ohare Seprodce won oe om shy con sd ope doc rome bie wes “The poco of armorial wind nome cl ae teat ovoing. The tno toed wnt oly ld Karri sin sing esq: Ty seeded srl oe Bang ly ens sble hve th tge ol he nda WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS 19 ‘The following figure shows how the octave Dis obtained, by finger ing for D and opening asa vent the hole from whieh Ct normally sounds. Note that this hole isstuated at a poine marking one-half the tube length of the fundamental D, jase where we know the node for the octave harmonic will be found, Again the carne is excepcona, inthe mater of overblowing. The physical properties of the stopped eylingrial pipe are such thie the Iacmonic hae divide ce air colar into even-numbered seeions, r= quiring s node atthe open end, cannot be sounded, The fist overblown, fote on the clainee is therefore the third harmonic, an octave and {fifth above the Fundamental, vented by means ofa reget ey. ‘The term enbouchure refers to the apparats for inducing sym- pathetic ubrations by resonance ia the ai column, and vo dhe method ‘of blowing. In paying the fue, che ip direct a concentrated steam of sirtothe opposite edge of an oval shaped hole inthe tube, For the abe, ‘wo thinly seraped rods ate bound together and Bxed to a sal abe which in tarn fs into hole inthe ead of the instrument. This double reed is held gently between the ipso ro void closing the tny aper- tore berween the reeds. The bassoon employs a similar double reed, lange than that ofthe oboe. ffs onto eurved metal pipe the leads tothe aller end ofthe wiagjoine The carne as singe eed, held by a meu ligatare ro the open ide of a mouthpiece iting the end of the instrument. The rod is eld agaist the lower lip, which covers the lower teeth, andthe wpe ech reson the beveled top ofthe mouth= ‘Doubles the principal factor in creating the characteriic tone ‘color of a wind instrament ithe embouchue, but i should nor be forgoten that ther are other moran influences, such athe propor- sions berween length and diameter of the bore, sze and position ofthe120 INSTRUMENTS, tone holes, material of constuction, and ofcourse the sound ieal and arzy of the player. "Tone quliy varies wth the player, and canbe varied by him for cxpresive purpotes. Human elements such a seasiviy, warm, and ‘atural vibrato are mysterious faccors in musical performance that ea ‘nt be produced by mechanieal means. The condiion of dhe reed es degree of pliblty, hasan effet on the tone ofthe red instrament ‘Wind players ate flly 2s much concerned with playing in cone a5 sare string playes. The pitch ofthe instruments can be altered slighly ‘by modifying ther trl length through various manipulaions of joints and ing, but since the tone holes have been Toeaed with eeference to fied pipe lengths, any change in che ler wil cause rouble. The ‘contol of intonation is managed bythe lip The wind player has not only co correc the pitch in terms of his own instrument (F3 and Gb have che same fingering, co mention one example), but he must con- sinuallyadjuse his pitch to the sounds of che other instruments ofthe orchestra, With good players, this forthe most par an instinctive and unconscios proces. {All wind instruments te senstive ro changes in temperature, A cold Snsteumene will be Mae until waemed by playing, nd a temperaure above normal wil ease a sharpness in pitch, ‘The tongue ie held forward in positon to preven che ar, under presae fom the lings from striking the eeed or passing through the Tips unt eis wanted, A tone isstrted by a sudden drawing back ofthe tongue, exactly 2 in speaking the syllable eu. This sudden action i= necessity ¢o overcome the inertia of the red or ai column. A. wind tone canna have an impercepible beginning, ike the gradoalengug- ing of string by the bow hairs, bu erin variations the attack ean ‘bemade, suchas dior t,o even be. The tones ended by the return ‘of the rongue to is orginal postion, WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS 1 When ns, or aber nat fatal, appears oer the nots, cach noes arcalated by the tongue with, x 142 Bess Veriton ona Thee by Haydn sed. Eaenburg Meee ss goa £4 F z.mm INSTRUMENTS, With practice these strokes eam he repeated with considerable r- pidiy, although noe for long period of time without a chance to rest the tongue. I tacato is wanted, dots ae placed over the nots, and the strokes are made 25 sharply posible ex. 145 elon Symphonie Fantitigne 4. Evlenburg iacharers WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS 3 ‘When the articulations demanded are to0 fas forthe rongue ro r- peat the tn stoke, the Formol fru Ais wed This called double- onguing. leis easly done onthe Bute, but while oboe, clarinet, and ‘bassoon players employ ie through neces, eis not for then awhelly sacsfaccory tonguing because ces formed back inthe mouth ot of| contact with the red. An unevenness besreen the note ie smetimes to be detceted. x. 144, Mozare—The Marriage of Figaro: Overture zed. Kalmus Infase triple hythm, sil anther forma may be wed tt 4 kor sometimes tu ku tu, ev ku t4, called teple-tonguing. Most players prefer the first way. There is also mach tobe sid forthe prac- tice of applying double-tonguing otripl chyths, otha the and the I alernately begin the group of three note fr ataa INSTRUMENTS 145. Wagnet-—Lobomgrin: Prelude to Act IM p, 20,64: Kals abba t. fez died antag ees ‘Asa special effet, the tremolo made by rolling the tongue, sin che Italian of Spanish, has bean asked for by some composes eis usually given the German name Flatersunge ansaced futter-tonguing, and {tis mote practiable onthe te thas on red instruments. The whi ring effect of a apdly fingered cheomatc sae, with Rxcer-conguing, Isa cerean pcruesgue quality. x 146. Ravel La Vale p.8,ed. Durand Flutter-tonguing eof rather poor effect on the oboe and bassoon, but somewhat better on the carne. In che score from which the fol Towing excerpts taken the carne are doubled by the harp, nd also by basoonsandsaxophone wsing ordinary conguing. The lavinee pars ae notated at acta pitch. WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS ns x. 147. Berg—Viin Concerto p-13,64, Univers 7 eR “Two or more notes covered by a slur are played with an vninter- rupeed flow of sir. [eis important to realize that ding the flow of ‘this continuous sir stream the length of the vibrating air column i continually changing with the fingering. Some notes are harmonics snd some fandamentas, some are more brane than others, so that ‘the embouchure hasta be adaped o each new situation n order to pe ferve contnsty of tone and intensity. “Toslar a wie interval upwaeds, which involves increasing the ten- sion ofthe embouchute, is easier than to sur the same incerval down- ‘wards, certsin amouneof reluctance hasta be overcome when the sircolomn is suddenly lengthened or asked to eur to ies Fundamental afer vibrating in paris The inertia is more securely overcome by ongoing. A teemole berween two noces a sich or more apart runs the rs of failure of che lower note ro sound on repeion, Phrasesnormally containsevera sus, oramixtae of sursand single rote. The player mntains «full and sesdy Row of at ant a new breath needs tobe taken, and meanwhile the tongue articulates the shychmic pattern ofthe music nthe fllowing phrase, the oboist will probably not take a new breath until aftr the Bp inthe Sth full16 INSTRUMENTS. x. 148: Beethoven Symphony no. 3 155. Kalinas “The function ofthe breath eto se up vibrations atthe embouchure, not eo blow into or through the inrument. Breathing indications ae fot writen int the par, but good weiting for wind instruments re squires sensiivty to tht sential physical aspect of wind playing. [Even though one doesn’t play a wind insrument, one an learn much by alee observation and listening to good players. The art of breath control isa fine art of distribution of wind power according c0 the Fespective need, both musical and mechanical, of the tones of the phrase. The dynamie design ofthe phrase has eo be taken inco account. Sometimes anew breath taken to give sharper definition to a motive. “The composers advised to cultivate a feeling for dhe naaral breathing quality in instrumental musi, Hike that of singing. In fase passages it Ssbeter to strifce notes than to force the performer to snatch fran- tially a minute opportunites o replenish his wind supply. “The woodwind intraments present remarkable contrast co the strings in that they poste far more pronounced individal vound characterises; alo each one hat is peculia variations within iself intone colo, iatensity, carrying power, and tone-weight, depending on the prt ofits ange being employed. Knowledge ofthese regsers tnd thet effect san indispensable par of the technique of orchesra- “The woodwinds are place a the top of the score in this order: WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS m Ficoolo fves bees English hora clariness bass carner ‘asoons contrabassoon Fre and second pasts for ena instrament sew Roe, ae veiten on one afl excep in ces where diferences in rhythm and ther completions might ese confsin in reading the two par ‘Then ascond sta is sed temporary forthe second player. ‘When to prt ae on these staf stems forthe is par poine up those forte second pr, down, Dots and accens are placed athe ends of the atens (Fig. 48). If both fist and second plyer are to ply che sme part, double stems may be wd (Fig. 448), oF the patt may be writen 2 or one Pliyer and masked a2 (Eig 4) TE thei player play soe the second prt maybe represented by rests (ig 44d), orth single paremay bemasked 1°01" (Fig ny ifthe second playerst ply son, the fe pare may be epresnted ty rete (Fig fo the gl pare maybe mated 3H 2% or I ig-ae)- Figs | "Theindicatons dst and uni are peculiar to string parts and are not ed For winsTHE FLUTE Fe, te grande ft; Ie, flo, flawto grande; (Gen, Flot, gre Fite the vireual obsolescence of the wooden fuce as an orcheseal Jntrument,an event which cannot be reported without some regret ove the los ofthe wooden Hut's mllowness and beauty of| tone. It vas to be ancpated thatthe evluton of musical taste roward a predilection for orchestral biliance and virtuosity would bring about {his radical change. Modern utes are made of silver, gold, and even platinum, and they surpas those of wood in ease of speaking agilicy, blanc of tone, and security in the uper ester. Their tones pure, clear, and serene, poten beaury of a different qulicy from that of theit predecessors. Some wooden fvtes wich slverlined head join, row in use, ae evidence ofa lingering wish to preserve qualities of both types “The overall length ofthe Altes about 264 inches. cork topper swith aseeew runing devices insered in the end near the embouchure, to thar the sounding length of the eube iia the neighborhood of 24 inches The lowes tone is foot C.Some futs are made with alow B,necesitating lengthening ofthe instrument by about = inches. The bore is eylingtical, with a diameter of % inch, narowed slightly a the embouchare end in a parabolic curve. “The late is made in thre sections, the head jing, the body joint, and the foot joint, The for joinerepreseas an extension to the sit-hole pipe envisnged inthe preceding chapeer andi furnishes che additonal T t present century has seen the adoption of metal utes and THE FLUTE 19 tones Cf and CA longer foot joie may be ached, giving he low B, for thse rae oceasions when that notes called fo. A The modern flute embodiesthe revolutionary constructive principles intzodced by Theobald Bochm in the mile of the nineteenth cen tury, with # few subsequent improvements What is known a8 the “Boch system” isbased on theee rin principles. Fs, holes were to ‘be Boted forall chromatic tones and these hoes were ro be located in their acoustically correct postions. Secand, the holes were to be as lange a posible or beter tone and intonation, and they were to stand ‘open. Formery, the sizeof the holes depended on the ability ofthe fingers to cover them, and abo on coreectionsin pitch necesitated by a ‘compromise inthe location ofthe holes. Third, the mechanism was to be arranged so thatthe fingers could contol all of the holes, by meas of key, hol covers, ave, and springs. The fllossng min features of this arrangement should be considered in rltion tothe basic sit-hole when deprese insted of FF, the scond and third paying E and D, ae before. By means of a rotating ale, the Ff hole is closed when cither the Restor the third fingor key x depressed. The right-hand fist finger key also closes the By hole above, proving analrermaive fingering fr By For the left hand a finger plate enables the ist finger to close the Cf hole feom 2 postion an inch below the hole. combination key and plate fr the ehumb allows closing ether the Cx hole or both Ck and By holes, I was found inconvenient to keep two of the holes opea, the Gt and the low Dz, The Gf hole is opened by the left lle finger lever. ‘A duplicate hole is bored, however, and this stands open ness the third finger is depresied for Ge, The right litle finger opens the Di hole in he foo join, and keep it open for practically all notes above. ‘The same finger controle spit key to play ether Cor C, the lowest ‘The remaining keys ar the high D and Dé rill keys, operated by the right ehied and second fingers, espetivel, and an added Bs ell,10 INSTRUMENTS, Fig 45: Pingeing Chart fr the Flte (Boehm System) THE FLUTE on key for the sgh fisefinge, duplicating the ation of the thumb plate ‘Keys are named forthe note sounding when the key is depressed. I isto be rcognized, however, tha whereas Gt comes from the hole ‘opened when the Gf key ie depresed, the effet of depressing the Gi ley is to close the hole from which A comes, the G hole being ro holes farther down, The low C hole is the end ofthe fue Fingering a note involves not oly pressing the key, uc also closing all higher pitched hols. ‘The entire cube down to the note being fin- igered has to be tightly closed, excep when vents ae opened to pro- doce upper partial tones. In playing postion, the face is supported by the right thumb, the fis eit of the lef Forefinge and the player's chin. The lowe lip paraly covers che embouchure hoe Is understood that enharmonie equivalents are fingered alike; the fingering for Gt and for Ab isexacly the same. “The fingering chae shows how the upper nots of the ute ae ob- ‘ained by fingering a fondamental and, except for the chromatic tones from E to Cs, inclusive, in te second octave, opening one ot more Iles as vens fr the production of harmonies. This process is summed pin bomlet tee f 2 © Reknierneimindesia page, Fig. 96 “The tonesof the fist half-oxave, especially the foot join notes have ‘warm velvety qulry of thee ow The sound i decepsvely heavy ‘when heard alone, bur ie enily covered by other instruments and by strong overtones from low bass notes. This is de, no doubt, tothe weakness of the upper partis inthe formanc of the low register of the fae,m INSTRUMENTS In the following example, the low Csounds clearly because isthe lowest of the thre voices. 1, 14p- Stravinsky —Syonpbony of Psalms 16, ed. Boosey & Hawkes det t et nay te at [A gradual brightening ofthe roe takes place a the sounding length decrees through the fist octave, although these fundamental cones ‘donot achieve the eaity and serenity charctrisie ofthe overblown, notes ofthe second octave, This comparison ean be noted inthe next, ‘example, for evo Htes x. 150: Ravel—Ma Mire Oye p.tsed. Durand THE FLUTE w “The thied octave i brilliant, with much earying power, without shila least fa 28 A, or even Bp rex 151-Sehumana—Symphony no.1 ——_ p.14aed Philharmonia ‘The highest Ce and D shouldbe considered a extremely exceptional ‘extensions of the flte’s sange, They can be included only in loud psiges andi i advisable co double them with the piecolo Insances ‘of thee use ae quite rare, 1x, 152 Straus—Symphonis Domesten 18, ed Associated Musi Publishers Ae In the production of nots above the staff, various harmonics are employed (Fig. 46). The fist Cf i harmonic no. + (octave), the D ro, 3 (octave and fifth), the Dg no. 4 (double octave). These a= sonics tend to differ intone and brilliance. The top Bp is clearer, smore manageable tone than the Bs, mosly because it harmonic no, ‘4s oppased to ano. 5. The finger combination for high A sometimes, ‘roves asvleward in passages. The reconciliation of these dives i fn esential pare ofthe art of ate plying, nd melodies may cover the entire range ofthe insrument, although should beaded thc the ddynamie range of the face is not wide. ‘The fllowingisa famous example of a modern slo forthe fe.ut INSTRUMENTS x. 153. Ravel Daphnier Chloé p28 ed: Durand sae eee eee ee bere “Pega me [No wind instrument surpasses the Rute in agile, leeness, and gen- cal virtuosity, Fut part contain all manner of rapid sales, arpeggios, snd bilan passage work. THE FLUTE ns 186, ed, Boosey & Hawkes x. 54. Stauss—Eletora scot ena eer Pe a ‘Wide skips between repsters are idiomatic forthe instrument. 1x. 155. Steuse—Ein Heldeneben 113, Eulenburg ‘ wB te TBA retnalte mame Oe Cts soe Lee Gopi Lovd passages in the high reper require more wind. Opporunties should be provided for taking a least a quick breath, either in the Phrasing of with are. ‘Two flues may divide a passage in alternate mocives, overlapping ‘on the aeented notes. This procedure makes breathing easier for both, and the rent isa more chyhmic performance than if both ues played ‘the whale prac in unison, x. 156 Stravinsky —[’Otenu de Feu .20,ed. Broude Bros == emt yin | Caan,6 INSTRUMENTS Double-ronguing (Ex. 57) and tiple tonguing (Ex. 138) are both lective and ecient for fase stacesto playing x, 157. Tehakovshy —Naerscter Suite no. p.sssed Kalmus .48,ed-Dorand ‘We have sen that onthe fue all oem res above the rst open Cf are harmonies. Boe the term harmonic, in woodwind parlance, is ‘sed to denote a tone produced by using » harmonie diferent From that normally wed, Ino fro Fe In Fig 47 (o are shown ere ways ply the high D. Fig, the normal D hermeic no from he Fonsamenal yw fe fe fingered, opening the Cx hole ata vere (ee Singering che) second, the she played withthe ven coed, and thir the Das ‘monic no. frmehe low D, without ven Sone fits areal o produce the enti harmonic ees (Fig sb) opto the seventh righ amon rm lw whoo pen "Nowe uly designated co be payed a harmonie ae thre ob- tinedunvened as Bamonic no. ofthe fourteen chromate tones THE FLUTE vr from low C wp to open Ce, inclusive. They are marked with «small ‘ree likestring harmonics. While shy poses certain veld qual, ies generally admiced tha they are inferior to normal ute tones ‘bath in clearness nd intonation. In Ex. 15938 extsordinary example of fue harmonics. 1x 159: RavelDaphnis et Chloé 1.60, ed Durand tne! =, Harmonies are wsful asa added resource inthe fingering of difi- culepasages.Sometines the inclusion of one or two notes in "harmonic fingering” wil simplify the excution without appreciably affecting the overall sonoriny. ‘The rapid alteration of wo tones may present dificlies of inge- ing and ako of enbouchure. A tll ay involve an exchange of finger ‘combinations requiring the mavemene of several finger, cogther with 4 quick adjustment of the embouchore to diferent harmonics, These ‘files can be smoothed ove by the eof harmonic Fingering or by ‘the addition of extea keys to the astument. The D and Df tal keys are examples ofthe later expedient. In any cae the effectiveness of «given til or tremolo, depends upon the expertnes of the performer Pratcailty sa matter of degre rather than a subject for elas ton inco posible and impose ‘The three keys in the foot one being contelled bythe eight fourth Snge lon, the ils C-Cz and Cz-Dz and the tremolo C-Df, are not playable excepe eather slowly. The itl finger ha to lie from one key to the other, ‘The woodwind version of the howed tremolo isthe reiteration ofve INSTRUMENTS single note by means of fter-tonguing, an effect not often vied ‘The more vial tremolo is ike the fingered temo of stings aerill with an inerval larger thn a second. If che interval s roo wide the Tower note may fil to speak, owing eo the inertia of the air columns sand if harmonies are involved there a rik hat ee fondamental may Sound where i not wanted, Within dhe fst oceave remolos having fn interval greater than a perfect Beh are uncertain, whereas in higher regiters a safer imi the major third For added tone-weight, the second fate often doubles the frst in unison, Lest often it doubles athe ocave below in which ease its 0c- rave overtone reinforess the fst flue. The lower instrument is at lige dadvanage, since the octave difference places i ina les bri Tne seg. Teis wise toasign seme ofthe dates of the fs player ro the second plhyer when bch are not needed. This allows the isto rest, and tends fo make the second part more inerestng 0 play “The two fut pasts may be melodies of equal imporcance. x. bo, Seravinsky “Orpheus .tted. Boosey & Hawkes ee oF cot tb ee pie Light accompaniment figures may be arranged for two flutes x. 161, Debussy —Premire Rbspsodie p-28, ed, Durand gots aS FS Bk THE FLUTE 19 In che nee example, an imaginative wse is made of two fues co supply evo inner voice ofa four-part texture, in which soprano and basa played by strings in octaves. 1x62, Mendessohn—tae Synpbomy p-rned. Eulenburg10 INSTRUMENTS, Another instance of inspized orchestration i the following chord from Mahlers Fourth Symphony. To be noted ae the sudden change ‘of mode the harmonic progression, the unvsvil spicing of the chord in measure 5, andthe placing ofthe perfect fourth in te to fats The effect e quite unexpected and magical x. 163. Mahler—Symmphony mo. 4 148, ed. Philharmonia Combinations of flutes with other instrament should be sudied| through perl of sores, THE FLUTE Mt ‘The grouping of woodwinds by threes quite often inelides three Ate instead of two flutes and pieolo. The more homogeneous color ia prefered for purposes like the following. x. 164, Veri—Alde -76,ed- Broude Bros at aie A larger orchestra may cll forfour fs. The follassing illretion is taken from the nal messores of Bergs Woszeck. Inthe score, the ‘utes are doubled at che unison by dhe eels, x. 165,Berg—Wozzeck (End of Act ll) cf. Univer presse a 1 dige aseseta a ‘THE PICCOLO ey pete ftes Wey flat piccolo, rtavinns Ger. Bie Flite In eich ofthe four families of woodwind there is one instrument thar is regarded at the tndard or normal inseroment of the type ‘These four are fate, oboe, Bp carne, and bassoon. They represent in each ease the size and proportions found to give the most nearly ‘characterise tone color, 5 wells oer feautes, answering roa morePy INSTRUMENTS ‘ores univers albeit transitory, conception of how these instruments should sound. The othe instrument in each group are airy insra- ments, adjunesstochenormal ypes “The ausbary instruments havea theie Rest vason tre che exten ion ofthe pitch range ofthe fails to which they belong The pic- colo extends the range of che ute family up co another octave C, the last note onthe pianoforce keyboard, However, the top Bs and C are quite diicul of production, ‘An auxiliary instrument, made for the purpose of playing higher note than the normal estrmene, i of smaller Size, favoring the upper pate fis range. The lower notes tend tobe of less good quality. This frllusrated by the piccolo, whore low tones ae decidedly inferior to ‘hot of the fe. Furthermore, the foot join is lacking altogether, 50 thatthe lowest nate ofthe piccolo sD. “Another peincple of ailiary instrument is exemplified in the pic- col, the principle of transposing instrument, The mechanism of the face being reprodvced in miniature (excepe forthe mising for joint), 4 fluc plays the picelo withthe same fingering to which he is ac- ceustomed. Since the insrument is but haf the sie of the flute (12% inches), the notes sound an octave higher. The piccolo par inthe Sore most be read ak sounding an octave higher than writen. “The interest of composers in che auxiliary instrament as give chem postions of imporeance nearly equal ro that ofthe standard eypes in ‘ich family. This development hasbeen strengthened by advances, 0 the poine of specialization, in the techniq of playing these ist ‘ments, and sillmore by the realization that what Were once considered defects are really qualities, co be studied for their advanages, and to bbe recognized at addons ro the coloritie resources ofthe various fanlis of woodwind. The pecelar hollow sound of low tones of the piceolo can be very effective inthe right surroundings. THE FLUTE 8 1,166, Shostakovich —Symmpbony no.7 at pissed. Leeds ‘The upper tons ofthe piccolo are bright and piercing, easily heard shore the maximum sonoity ofthe full orchestra. The instrument i fete unsuepasie in penetrating power. Is highest octave should there fore be wsed sparingly. In high-pitched chord, the dtee upper noces may be given to two Bute with che piccolo on top. The piceolo adds highlights to the orchestral ruc, strengthening the upper parils of the harmony. “The piccolo wil be found most useful ints mediom range. Hes i combines more feibly with ocher instruments and contributes Tes ceginesto the sonority eis ofen beter, when doubling the Mut with piccolo to write the latter an octave below, so thatthe ro will sound {in unson, especially when che re isin ts upper octave. Solo pat for ‘the piccolo inthis register are mamerous,Me INSTRUMENTS, 1x, 16) MilzudSymphomy no. ped. Heugel Common erorsin wing forthe piccolo ate the to0 consistent plc- ing of the part inthe highest octave, and the misconception chat i is fan instrument for load music only. The piccolo is effective in inverse proportion tothe amoant ofits use. Is capable of delicacy, and it ean {Contribute much with few noes slflly peed ‘Sometimes ewo piccolo are employed fo the duration of a move- ment, ofr a special pasage. On these occasions, one ofthe piceolos is played by the second or third fxs. ‘THE ALTO FLUTE Fr, fie on tls Hy fluo eomaato; Gee, Alpte “The alto Bute ie an auxiliary instrument that has aoe yee become sealed sa tegular orchestral instrument. Many orchestras do not ‘ven posse one Tei found in very few scores, but the significance of Such works a5 Dept et Clog and the Saoe dx Printemps give the tlk fea certain standing and importance, ‘Wiha length af 3s inches, the alo ues pitched a perfect fourth below che wandard Roe, I is therefore a transposing instrument, all, ‘tes sounding a perfect four ower shan writen. If the fingering or Con the flues taken the rsuant sound willbe G. esas ealled the Flute in G, and somines called, erroneously, the Bass Fut. “The mechanism of the alto fue isthe same as that of the reglat ure, except for modifications due ois size. The Ife hand is placed sovthatithas to reach ao farther ro the right chan on che regular Ate, the holes being conlled by finger plates and asles. Fist and third fingers ofthe right and ae enabled 1 reach cei key covers by means ‘of eics placed atthe near edges ofthe covers. “The range ofthe Aue, upto he high C isavallabe onthe alo ute, THE FLUTE Ms bur the upper half-oceave is lacking in beilance, and suffer by com- parton with the fue ar che same pich. The lower rones, onthe ozher hand, are extremely rch and warm, and stronger than the low notes of the flute. The insrument is responsive even to active double- and trple-tonguing e requis litle more breath than the eegule ue. Ta grouping of four fue, the alto fate is useful in extending the range downve x, 168, Holst—The Planets e131 ed. Boosey & Hawkes eee “The most indvidoal par of the ako fut’ range i, of cours, its lower octave, To be heard to the best advantage, t should be Highly sccompanied, o, beter stil not tall sin the following example x, 165, Ravel—Daplns et Choe p- 243, ed, Durand In the medium register, the alto Ate differs from the Bate more subly, in timbre. The comparison mst be experienced by ear to be spprecited, x, 170 Stravinsky —Le Sacre du Prntempe p.8ed, Russe eng pte Jo aos o ry Ln ae ate ek yinTHE OBOE Fe, habe: I, oboe; Ger, Oboe, Hoboe thee sections called upper, lower, and bell joins. The diam ter of the boremessures Se inch atthe rop, and 5 inch at the begining of the bel joie. The bell aed alle and Sished wich a metal ring In the sl end is insered the eed tube, o “staple,” fed ‘with cork and the duble reed, inch wide, bound co ie by winding ‘with tread, The length of the instrument, including the red is about ase inches the eed andstaple protruding 24 inches, more or les. The pitch of che aboe ean be varied bu very slighty, only by pushing in ‘or palling ou the red tube. ‘Oboes aze usually mide of wood. Favorite woods are grenala rosewood, and coeus wood. Some are of ebonite, which has 2 leas the advantage of fedom from warping. TT ody ofthe oboe ea gency tapering conical re, made in “The fingering system ofthe oboe is based on the fundamental six- hole D major scl, described in Chapter Six. Unlike the fue the oboe sounds Fy when the right fist ger is depressed, bu che owo inst ‘ments ae similar in thatthe ight fourth finger control Kes for low C.Chand Dp, The lef fourth finger operates keys for Gz, a duplicate Tow Clow By, and Bp, the lowest aot onthe oboe. The rghe thumb supports the instrument, while the lef thumb works an octave key and a Bp pa THE OBOE "7 EL “EL: E “i laters and monbors indicate Keys tobe deprsed ig. 48 Fingering Chart forthe Oboe (Conserstry Sytem)us INSTRUMENTS: ‘The tone holes are quite small compared to those of the ure, A feature ofealer types isl sen in some abocs,the tone hole under the lef thied finger consing of two seal holes bored close together. ‘When one hole is closed the aote sounded is Ap. With bot closed, the note is “This hall-hole principle is made permanent in the perforated key- cover onthe Ce hol, for the lef ist finger. A ab provided onco| which che finger may lide, leaving the key-cover down and the small, perforation open for venting certain notes. Levers for upper Bp and Cs, presed with the side ofthe right frse Anger, across Fy key, and the ‘upper D and Dz eri keys, ae standard equipment. Further key work varies with different models, The French Conservatoire system, gen ‘nly regarded as the bes, has from thirteen to sisteen Keys, iv adai- tion to plates or cing keys on the fundamental six hoes. Special keys ate added to individu instruments ro faltate the execution ofthis forthat el or fgure. In consequence,» great many alernative finger ings exis, Only common fingerings ae given inthe char, which ean- not second all the vasians in use, and hence most remain incomplete. Tes intended to presents general view of oboe fingering. Keys «and 1 on the chart are called fre and second octave keys Like the half-hole device, their function i to induce the sounding of ‘upper harmonics by venting. Some instruments have an automatic second octave key thet goes nto action when che ist octave key i depressed and the fingering i taken for the A above che staff and up- ward sense odie SS fe Bt = ial eet THE onoe w Fire 49 shows the scheme of armors employed forthe higher eves. ‘The Lat st armois are all sharp, restive to thei fads tment bya east a half tone igh F being whole con sharp. The famonien name 3, 4 ans esice farther venting ses the talf-hole and octave Key, and this venting i largely response for the sharpness ofthe harmonic which necesita the adoption of lower pred fundanenasosound the noes wanted “The octave and fifth harmonic (a. 3) canbe produced From she ots ofthe fist octave ptoand including By Fk and are normaly fo overblown, Compote ave not thas far mde a practice onda jing these baronies, bur obvi onetines ue them a teane of achieving an expecially Sine planiino. ‘An accepted part of abe playing ie the preparation ofthe reds. A seleced piece of eane is folded double when wer, che ends bound around a tube che double reed cu othe desired length, and then the ew ends are seraped with special tool to the required thinness. “The ree must be very’ thin vibrate feely, but if too thin the tone {sof poor quality If the reeds to thick i is dificul o pay staccato and the low tones donot speak ely, A sf reed causes the tone robe harsh and serene. “The red pays sucha viel part in the tone quit of reed insra- iment tha the fact ofthe performers preparing the red males ofthe oboe a peculiarly personal instrument. ‘The sound reece to a high degree the nivel tare ofthe player. Before playing, the eeds must be moistened. In playing postion, the ‘ends are held between the ip, which gently contal the vibration and prevent de teth from touching the reeds, Becaue of the sibility of the sel comideblevriton in pich a be caine by the pe10 INSTRUMENTS “The tiny elliptical orice berween the reeds opens and closes with their vibrations, and these in tor setup vibrations the air eoluma of the instrument. The oboe requires by far the last amount of wind of any wind insrament. This means that long phrases may be played ‘without taking a new breath, but means also hac the player jn a constant sate of holding back the wind presure, For this reason, 26 ‘well as for the purpose of allowing relaxation of the lips and tongue, frequent revs shouldbe provided inthe oboe part. “The tongue contol the airstream a the orifice erween the reeds All the tongue acculatons previously described are feasible on the oboe, wth afew reervatons. Double- and eiple-conguing are in the ature of emergency resources, used only when the tempo demanded i too fst for single-tonguing. They ate not idiomatic features ofthe instrument, a they aren the case ofthe fle. On the other hand, the Tighe cboe saccao in single-onguing ean achieve a surprisingly fast delvery, vx, 171. Rosini—La Sealed Sete Sinfonia _p. 3,64: Bulenburg THE OBOE 1s “The oboe staccato i superior to that ofall the other winds fries sharp, dry, lghe quality, a point to realize when wing woodwinds in combination “Another important characteristic of the oboe embouchure i that tones have to he started with a definite atack, noticeable tothe eat. If he red is imply blown upon, without the stroke of the tongue, the moment at which the tone begins to sound is unpredictable and imposible of control, Flacerronguing as ben employed on the oboe with no more than moderate effectivenes. ax. 72 Seavinsky-—Le Sucre di Printemps P-88,ed. Ruse Ci ‘The sound ofthe oboe hasbeen called pungent; tangy, nasal pene tracing, biting, piercing, and rxpy. These adjectives represent the more obvious ques of double-recd tone, quaiesehatdiinguih the oboe sharply from the Hue, for example. There isa noticable dif- {erence inthe kindof cone produced by differen schools of oboe play ing, such asthe Preach and the German, and by indivdoal players. Te is generily believed thatthe oboe tone of the present day is mach thinner and much ighter than when the following melody was writen,182 INSTRUMENTS, x. 173, Bach—Brendenburg Concertome. 1 pessyed. Kalmus In direct contas to the fue, the oboe increases in intensity 2 it Aescendstheough the lower fifth of its range, and the characteristics ‘referred to become more pronounced. Here ics the problem ofthe ‘boise to subdue the naval tendeney to loudness and even coarseness. “The low Bp ieldom found in scores. Ie cannot be atcked sfey, and itis more appropriate for music of a robus character than forthe ‘nuance called for in Ex. 79. The By more manageable, x, 174 Prokofefl—Chout i119, ed: Guthel (OF she highest notes shown on che Bngesing chart, Gand A ae i= practial for orchestral writing. They ae insecure of production and lacking in oboe quality. Fg and Gr are not often vsed, but they are ‘more playable and they are considered anormal pat ofthe range of the ‘oboe. They had better noe be approached by skip, and should noe take parcin active legato gration. The following slo in the upper register fs very dificale but very effective when well played 175. Ravel Daphne Chloé sed, Dasand potprerts epee Pe non me ‘THE OBOE 1 Upwards from A above the sea the oboe tone gradually becomes ‘thinner, and above D begins to sound les ike an oboe. These high tones donot poses the warmth ofthe range below A, but they are ‘very useful for adding brillance to the woodwind and the upper strings. The oboe parts in Ex. 176 double che sting. 1176. Chausson—Symphony in Bp -93,€d. International Music Co, td etd belt pee ‘The ditnetive tone color and expressive capbilies of the oboe rake it favorite solo instrament. Below ae two wellknown oboe melodies. ex. 177, Schumann Symphony no. 2 154178. Brahms—Symphony ao. 21s INSTRUMENTS, [Melodies of fllcsong characer are especially well sited to the simple plaincivenes of the oboe. The fllowing melody is contained within the range of an octave. The obee repeats it several messes Inter an oerave lower. x. 179, Bastsk-—Concerto for Orchestra p. 6, ed. Boosey & Hawkes “The oboe intensies the suggestion of a strange exotic pipe, imparted by the next example x. 80, alla Amor Brajo 640d. Chester Generally speaking, fas sored arpeggios and fg recommended for the oboe, unless a special effects intended, Is not thar the instrument i incapable ofthis kind of virwosy, Duc eather tha agility doesnot sem suitable tothe double-red tone, atlas ia ‘comparison with furs and clarinets. On the other hand the oboe can friculte thythmic paterns with superior neseaes. The folowing ‘quite diicule phrase proves eainendy succesful as oboe writing, THE OBOE us x. 181, Ravel Le Tombeau de Couperin pte. Durand Even more than in the esse of the ut, a tabulation of oboe tails and temolos eanaot be definitively made. There ate the same variable factors of skill ofthe performer, and degree of rapidity in the alterna tion of che wo notes, further complicated by diferences in mechanism ‘between indvidval instruments. Also, thet soften more than one way to finger one ot both the nots involved, Ie canbe sid that ll major and minor will are posible, nd that most temolos wider than a fourth are undependable. Tremolos on nots above the sa are ape to be of Poor effec. ‘The oboe group commonly consis of two oboe oF two boc and English hora, thre oboes and English horn, o, less commonly, three ‘oboes. Other combinations, like the four oboes and English horn in Suevinsky’s Symphony of Piha, ae special and unusal cst, ‘Apare from the melodic uses deserved above, the oboes may cei force valns or violas by doubling atthe unison. In combination wich other woodwinds they give incsvenes co wind chords and sharp dei186 INSTRUMENTS, nition to rhythmic figure. The wson doubling of oboe and clarinet ieforcefl A harmonic effec of extreme pungency is obtained by placing to- gsther three oboes and Engl hor, all in thei low registers. x, ,Stnuss—Til Eulenspiegel 8, ed. Philharmonia se “Two aboes in thicds, or cher close intervals, have s tangy quay of tone not posseed by the other woodwinds. x. 185. Debussy La Mer p.83,ed, Dor In the closing measure of Sibel’ Fourth Symphony, the oboe re pests a simple major seventh motive in diminishing nuances, with changing harmonies in flue and strings. Wich economy of means, maximum effects obained. THE OBOE, 157 P68, ed Brciopf c x 184 Sibelins—Sysnpbomy mo. ¢ To.obeain a more strident sonosty, Gustav Mahler often directed the oboes and clarinets to ase che bel ofthe instrument so a8 to point stright atthe andiznce, The instaetion in German is Scllriheer auf! a marking more wsually seen in brass pars. ‘The opposite proces is that of asking for moted oboes. Muting ie accomplished by stung a handkerchief in the bel,ase INSTRUMENTS x. 1B, Seravinsky—Pérouchies passed Ruse 1 agg ‘THE ENGLISH HORN comno inglete; Gt, englse Horm Fe, cor angi "The mechanism ofthe English hor is similar in all details co that of| ‘he aboe, excep that the low By i lacking. Ie ffers fom the oboe in Sve (length 317 inches, including ceed), in the bulb-shaped bell, and inthe bent metal crook extending from the top end of the insrument tohold the reed cube The double reed is lrg chan that of the oboe "The weight of the English hom is sopporced by a cord around the player's neck, “The English horn transposing instrument, an instrument “in ." “This designation means that when the player fads C, eking the fin- geting for Cas onthe oboe, che sound produced will be F, because of the diference in sizeof the wo instruments. Since the English horn i larger than the oboe the sounds will be lower in pitch (it will be re- called tha the piccolo sound higher than the oe because of its salle Size). All notes writen for the English hor, therefore, sound a perfect fifth below. hough often used in cighteenth-centary chamber music and the ivetimento, the English horn has been anormal member ofthe or- these, an ausiliary instrument ofthe aboe family, since che middle of ‘the ninetecath centory.Iewas at fis ntoduced only ocesionally for 1 featured slo melody, and was usally played by the second obo, we THE ODOE 19 sho resumed plying the oboe after performing the solo. This could be easily done, since the two instruments weve identical in playing technique. Arthe importance ofthe Englsh horn grew, ad ics nivid= val capabilices were more appeecated, tis process of interchange of instruments gave way ta che enablisiment ofthe specialist on the Eng Tish hore, who now acessonally plays third or fourth oboe ‘As an auiiry instrament,» piary function of the English horn isto extend the range ofthe oboe faily downward, Since the iste ment ha no low Bp, che exterson in sound is to Es below mile C. Tis lower fifth does noc have the tendency to coarseness noticed inthe lowes nove of the oboe. The larger size sens to favor the low noes 1186, BarthkSecond Rhsprody for Violin and Orebestra Pe ved: Boosey & Hawkes Another service performed by the English horn iso play the notes ‘ofthe oboe’ lower ith when a softer and less penetrating tone is de- ‘Seed, A three-part chord for three oboes sounds smoother and more homogeneous if the third cboe i epaced by the English horn, For singing melodies che English born brings a new tone color. I is clot related tothe oboe sound, yet it posesses a quality that i highly diinesive and individ, owing, a less in part tothe peculiar bulb thas for bell. Orchestral literature abounds in solo phrases for the English horn, Two of thee ae given below.160 INSTRUMENTS, x.y. Berion Overture: The Roman Carnival ied Philharmonia aes x 186, Srss—EinHeleicen parse Eaesng “The English horn provides new colrisicresourees in combination “wich oer instruments, winds as well a stcings. A perfec example of ‘mixed timbres seen inthe fllowing melody whichis played in unison ‘vith solo ello, The two insruments blend as one, and neither pre~ Alominats at any time. The accompaniment consists of widely spaced Iarmonies inthe scrngs, held pianissimo. ex 185, Debusy—Le Mer p38 ed, Dorand ‘THE OBOE 1 nd ce he nnn Tn common with al auslary instruments that are designed to ex- tend the range dvenward che upper tones ofthe English horn are the Teast effective pare of is range. It is unwise to write above E in the orchestra, unless doubling by other instruments i provided. The F in the folowing example is produced by good players. 1x. 190: Roueel—Brecu et Arone, Second Suite. 16, ed Durand ‘The English horn is equal tothe aboe in agiley and can participate inal acive woodwind figuration. THE OBOE D'AMORE Fe, haweis amour; 1, oboe damore: Ger. Oboe amere, ‘Leberaboe Larger than the oboe but smaller than the English hora, the oboe amore i pitched in A, a minor third below the aboe. Its notes there- fore sound a minor third lower than weiten Its mechanism ike that ‘ofthe English horn in cha it des noe poses he low Bh, and ic also has ‘the bulb bel The tone is gentler than that ofthe ether two instru- ‘ments and subey differen intone color. “The oboe d'amore was a common instrument in che baroque period, and was much wed by 5. Bach In modern orchestration iis known chilly forts important part in trast Synuphonia Domestic, where its writen range ascends to high F- Among oer insances of ies we1a INSTRUMENTS: are the Bolero of Ravel, and the following example by Debusy. The Solo fest sppears unaccompanied x. 91, Debussy —Giguer Peed: Darand THE CLARINET ern clarineto; Ger Klarinete ‘THE HECKELPHONE. Get, Hectelphon Invented by Wilhelm Heckel, in 904 the heckelphone wae in- lode inthe scores of Blebira and Salome by Richard Staus. Tes sorcof baritone oboe, buileto sound an ocave below the ordinary oboe tnd furnished with an addtional semitone taking ie down to A. The leys are azanged high onthe instrament, with the fingering of a Ger- rman oboe. Theres bulb bell peefrated on the side, ‘The heckelphone has rch and fll redy tone in the lower oeave, ‘making an exellent bas forthe oboe family. Ir canbe played atleast as high a E above the sa although it wowld hardly be used for its ‘uppee tones Tastances ofits use are so rare chat few orchesras are pe= pared to supply the instrument. ‘The heckelphone is a transposing instrument sounding an octave below the writen notes, wr clarinet isa eylindscal ube, witha bell expanding slghay ‘more than tha ofthe oboe eis most often made of grenadila _wood les expensive kinds of ebonite or metal The key work 4s nickel sve. The body is in five sections, called mouthpiece, barrel jeint, top joint lower joint, nd bl “The clarinee mouthpiece i usually made of ebonite or crystal Ie ‘ssometimes referred ro ea “beak mouthpiece on account of i shape ae Ligaore Assmbiy Garnet mouthpiece Reed Fig. 0 ‘The single cane reed s bound tothe ope side ofthe mouthpiece by ‘means of a metal ligature with chumbserews. Thus che far side ofthe ‘eed becomes par of the inner surface ofthe clrinc tube, and isin direct conte with the air clara. The upper end of the reed i scraped very thin, and the orice berween icand ee ip of the mouth:164 INSTRUMENTS, piece is carefully adjusted, A metal capi placed over the reed when Tn playing postion, she red is hid on the lower ip, which covers she lower eth. The upper teth res onthe bevel af the mouthpiece, "Tone quality and volne aeaffeced by the anount of red within the ‘mouth andthe pressure of the lower lip on the reed. The congue touches the ip ofthe zed with each areulation. “The clarinee family is a large one. The Is of ies members, with approximate lngths and thei transposition, isa follows: Lenged ramen intneber eral Sond (Soprinino) clarnetin Ap 14 minor Suh above writen noes {GSepranine) caine in E> 19_—_-minor third bore writen notes (Sepeaino) chitin 30% ssjrsecond above writen noes (Soprano) chvinein@. 334) swrten (Soprano) clrnerin Bb 23434 sjrsecond below wren notes (Soprano) crinctin A’ 373 minor hid below writen noes Alto clarinet in E> Shor sith below wosten notes Base hoen iF) $234 perfor th below waiten notes Baceclainein By $5 ajo ninth Keow writen noes Bacelarinetin $5 ore and miaae third below CContrabasclsnetinBh 196 twooeavesand mjorsecondbe- Tow written notes (Of these, only four may be sid tobe regular members ofthe orches ‘ta; the small Ep clarinet, the pe of carne in Bp and A, and the bass clarinet in Bp. The picelo carne in Ap is rarely seen even in bands. Part writen for D clarner are most often played on the Eb. [Many seores of the eghteenth and nineteenth centuries eal for C arnet, but today thee pas ae played on ether the Bp or the A Clarinet, The alto carne is sometimes used to play base horn pars, and it finds some employment in military and dance bands. The bass lating in A i virally never seen excep on pape andthe contr bas clarinet his yet to be adopted by composers. The alo and bass instruments are ditnguised from the others by uprurned bells, and ‘bene met pipes to which the mouthpieces are aached. THE CLARINET 6s “The clarinets furnish complete object lesion in the evolution of ‘ansposing instrument, All of the instruments ted have the same Fingering system, 0 that one who lata this system can ply them all Inthe act of playing any insturen there i avtomati,iastinctive translation ofthe pried note nto the proper postion of che fingers tnd it would obviously be impractical to lara diferent fingerings for tach of the pitches listed under the Carnet Family, The plhyer reads his pare as though for C elarzer, and the instrument eransposs accord ing to its sie. Since the C clarinet is now obsolete, a clarinet’ notes are always diferent in pitch from those writen, in the discusion of fingering, eginers, et, the notes mentioned will be the notes at read, hence fingered by the player. The normal, oF standard, clarinet isthe Bp clarinet, coresponding to che fuce and ‘oboe, and exemplifying the ideal clarinet as preferred today. The A. rine is somewhat les extensively used Referting to the elementary sichole, si-finger scale described in [Chapter Sin, and used aa bas for studying the fingering of foe and oboe, we find that inthe clarinet eis scale starts on G instead of D, and tives che writen notes shonin Fig. 51 (2). Fig 52 “The eylindical ube ofthe clarnes produces only the odd-numbered harmonies, when overbloen. The series shown at Fg. 51(8) repre sents the ist notes available by overblowing from (a), 2 he twelfth shove, leaving a lrge gap berweea the ro seis. This gap was filled by (1) boring a hole forthe lefe thumb, giving G when open; (2) boring holes sl higher on the cube, for Gy and A, with keys operated by the left fre finger; (5) sizing the register key (provided for over- ‘blowing) to sound the Bp, this key being placed close ro the G hole so thatthe thumb ean depres the key and close the hole ar the same66 INSTRUMENTS. ‘THE CLARINET 19 ‘ime; and (4) extending the dowaveard ange co E, wih keys so that the ise overblown notes Bs, The ls step involes the we of bath fourth finger. The right chunb suport the instroment "Te Boe sytem and ate improvements were applied with ue- > cess tothe caine, although some ater systems ae abs in we. The Boch clarinet has up eo seven ring keys, and from seventeen «0 twenty-one other Key, Many altemate fingerings ae provided expe- | Gy for doping the accon ofthe Fourth inges | | Fig, 52 Fingering Char for the Clarice (Boehm System) _[fecng] Te isto be noted that the thumb hole is kept closed, except for the se-caled throat tones G, Gf, A, and Bh and for one Fe fingering: and | that the register key, also called the speaker key, is depressed forall | ees upward from he fine overblown not, Bs | Side keys 9 and 10 (eight hand fs finger) are used to till Bp-C, | and Bh-Cp, respecsively. Fingerings above Fy are not standardized, excepe for Ab, and no arcempris madein the chat to st che many alernatives wed by clari= nets. The practice is to dscover by experimentation those finget | combinations which produce the bes results in terms ofthe individual player andthe individual instrament. hin fun == ee = Sth ei ra aie Fig. 53 “Thelow register ofthe clarinets called che chalumeau reste, frm the name of one of is ancestors. The tone coor inthis art of the18 INSTRUMENTS ange as been called dat, menacing, and dramatic. There can be 90

laine ha the sari mechanism asthe Bh itt more Aificae co play well and intone, especially ifthe performer i asked to change quickly tothe smaller instrament fom the larger. The sll red and the rather cramped finger postion need time for adjustment. ‘Usually one member ofthe caine section makes specialty of playing the Ep carne. “The need for more strength inthe high-pieched woodwind soften fel in the large symphony orchestra, and this che small clarinet ean supply. Ie has 2 penetrating tone, an incisive staccato, brliance and sagily. Ie x wsed to reinforce valns and faces s well as the upper tone of the other clarinets hence the most used par of is range isthe high egiter. The high G, sounding Bp, can be considered a safe upperme INSTRUMENTS limi, akhough Gf and A are writen for the Eb clarinet more fre- suently than forthe By carne. “The following ia characteristic Ep clarinet passage x 212, Ravel Daphnis er Cho 263, ed. Durand ‘The entire range is playable, down to the low E. The tone of the two lower octaves lacks the waemth and exprsive quality of the BB clarinet, and the instrument has often been used here fo purposes of parody and imitation, As inthe cae ofthe piccolo, however, it should bessidaguin thar auxiliary instruments bring new colors in thei "weak" registers, addconal resources needing ony tobe employed in the righe way. Below isa wel-known solo for D carne ex. 345.Stnuss—TH Eulenspiegel 1-8 ed. Philharmonia ve es it 2E ne om aa = THE CLARINET ro ‘THE BASSET HORN ‘The bast horn may be described as clariner with extension to low G, pitched to sound 4 perf ffth lower chan written, i in FIs lowes sound ischerefore F, a fourth above the ‘ello Csr. Is bore is narrower than that ofthe alto and bas clarinet, sometimes wsed a8 substitutes and this gives the instrument a distinctive timbre In ealy forms ofthe baset hor, the rube made a sre of S-rur in- side box, 5 means of gaining length ofr eoarma withowt lengthen ing the instrument. This device isnot found in modern basset horns. ‘At presen, the significance ofthe base horn derives fon a few notable instances of we. Morar wrote imporcan base horn parts inthe opera, especially Die Emeubramg and Die Zauberte; seo in the Requiem andin the Serenade, K_361. Beethoven gaveita prominent slo in Prometheur, thas been revived by Straus inthe operas letra and Die Fru obme Schatten ‘Serass writes the base horn pats generally inthe tebe lef, even when enecessiaes the eget lines for low C. Sometimes, however the ‘bas clef is used, and on these occasions the pare i written to sound a perfet fourth higher. Thsis practice tha wil later beeen in writing Fore horn. The procedure shown in the following example. ex 214. Strves—Eleira 253, ed. Boosey & Hawkes ng