Expatriate Adjustment During Early Phase of Industrial Adjustment

NEWCOMERS ABROAD: EXPATRIATE ADAPTATION DURING EARLY PHASES OF
INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENTS
Author(s): BRADY M. FIRTH, GILAD CHEN, BRADLEY L. KIRKMAN and KWANGHYUN
KIM
Source: The Academy of Management Journal , February 2014, Vol. 57, No. 1 (February
2014), pp. 280-300
Published by: Academy of Management
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/43589256
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° Academy of Management Journal
2014, Vol. 57, No. 1, 280-300.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.0574
NEWCOMERS ABROAD: EXPATRIATE ADAPTATION DURING

EARLY PHASES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENTS
BRADY M. FIRTH
GILAD CHEN
University of Maryland
BRADLEY L. KIRKMAN
North Carolina State University
KWANGHYUN KIM
Korea University
Integrating work from the expatriate adjustment and newcomer socialization litera-
tures within a motivational framework, we propose that motivational states and stress
cognitions impact expatriates' work adjustment patterns over time, which in turn
influence important assignment attitudes. In accordance with our theorizing, analyses
of longitudinal data collected from 70 expatriates during their first four months of
international assignment indicated that cross-cultural motivation and psychological
empowerment related positively to initial levels of adjustment, and indirectly and
negatively to work adjustment change. Challenge stressors positively related to
changes in work adjustment over time. In turn, changes in work adjustment signif-
icantly related to expatriates' assignment satisfaction and premature return inten-
tion, explaining variance above and beyond that explained by average levels of
work adjustment. These findings extend understanding of how and why expatriate
work adjustment evolves over time, as well as the unique influence that differences
in adjustment change have on important expatriate outcomes.
lead to financial, professional, and personal costs

Firms in today's global economy rely on interna-
tional work assignments in which managers (for reviews, see Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaf-
are
fer, and Luk [2005], Harrison, Shaffer, and Bhaskar-
expected to identify and manage new global oppor-
Shrinivas
tunities. The number of expatriates is estimated to [2004], and Takeuchi [2010]).
be close to one million worldwide and is likely to
However, it has been widely argued that it takes
continue to increase (Mercer, 2009). Although timein-
for expatriates to adjust to uncertain and novel
ternational assignments can provide firms and inherent in international assignments
challenges
managers with unique growth and developmental (Black, 1988; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991;
opportunities (Yan, Zhu, & Hall, 2002), they also
Takeuchi, 2010). Scholars have suggested that ad-
require expatriates to adjust effectively to justment
novel occurs over time as expatriates exert and
work requirements, responsibilities, and expecta-
sustain effort to navigate their new work conditions
tions, all while learning new cultural norms that& Mendenhall, 1991; Farh, Bartol, Shapiro,
(Black
impact work tasks (Shin, Morgeson, & Campion, & Shin, 2010; Maertz, Hassan, & Magnusson, 2009;
2007). It is perhaps not surprising that work adjust-
Torbiom, 1982). Further, Maertz et al. (2009) ar-
ment (i.e., the extent to which expatriates feel com-
gued that adjustment changes as a function of the
fortable handling their jobs during an international
extent to which expatriates meet and effectively
assignment) is strongly positively related tohandle
bothassignment challenges.
expatriates' work attitudes and effectiveness. In
Although theory and initial evidence suggest that
contrast, lack of expatriate work adjustment can
expatriate adjustment changes over time, Bhaskar-
Shrinivas et al. (2005: 273) observed that "fewer
The authors wish to thank Jason Colquitt and three anon-5 percent of the existing studies are longitu-
than
ymous reviewers for their helpful comments throughoutdinal." Harrison et al. (2004: 237) more strongly
the development of this work. noted that " almost no longitudinal research has
Copy
writ

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2014 Firth, Chen, Kirkman, and Kim 281
uniquely influences important

been conducted regarding organizational out-
expatriate e
comes (i.e.,
in the last 20 years . expatriates'
. . we assignment
assatisfaction
a discipl and
clear data on the intention
natural to complete their assignment [Bhaskar-
course of ad
Shrinivas et
(emphasis in original). Inal., 2005;
the Harrison et al., 2004]). follo
years
strong statements, Finally,
virtually we provide a deeper no understanding
work of ha
expatriates' worktheadjustment
adjustment process by integrating as the new-
it un
comer socialization and expatriate
time. This gap in expatriate research adjustment lit- is
problematic becauseeratures. The processes of newcomer socializationide
relationships
previous cross-sectional
and expatriate adjustmentresearch
both involve work role m
plain how expatriate adjustment
transitions and new work role development, which un
require
time, meaning that manycorrespondingofpsychological
theand behav-
prescr
ioral adaptation
enhancing expatriate (Ashforth & Taylor, 1990; and
adjustment Louis, p
need further examination. 1980; Nicholson, 1984). The literatures on both
Accordingly, our purpose is to examine the na- phenomena describe a learning process through
ture, antecedents, and outcomes of changes in ex- which employees overcome challenges by directing
patriate work adjustment. Our primary contribu- and sustaining their work effort (e.g., Bauer, Bod-
tion is articulating the nature of expatriate work ner, Erdogan, Truxillo, & Tucker, 2007; Chen, 2005;
adjustment change by building on a work motiva- Harrison et al., 2004; Wang & Takeuchi, 2007). We
tion framework (Carver & Scheier, 1982; Kanfer & thus examine antecedents and outcomes common
Heggestad, 1997; Kuhl, 1985). We focus on why to both literatures - which also fit well within our
and how expatriates' motivational processes, trig- motivational framework - in explaining expatriate
gered by motivational states and stress cognitions, self-regulation processes (and adjustment) over
lead to differences in initial levels of, and change time. As a result, we provide a more complete
in, work adjustment. We also rely on control theory theoretical account of how and why employees, as
to explain the relationships between motivational either newcomers or expatriates, adapt to novel and
processes, initial work adjustment, and work ad- challenging work demands.
justment over time. Initial evidence suggests that
expatriate and newcomer adjustment is most likely THEORY AND HYPOTHESES
to change during the first three to six months on
assignment (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005; Chen, Upon being relocated internationally, expatriates
2005), and an industry benchmarking study re- face a challenging and uncertain environment i
ported by GMAC Global Relocation Services (2004) which they must obtain new knowledge and ski
indicated that expatriate assignments are becoming in order to learn specific job roles, performan
increasingly shorter, with 70 percent being less standards, expectations, and leadership respons
than one year in duration. Thus, we specifically bilities (Black & Stevens, 1989; Shin et al., 2007).
focus on explaining work adjustment during this As expatriates accumulate feedback on how we
early period. they apply their new knowledge (e.g., managin
We also extend prior cross-sectional expatriate employees with different cultural norms), their pe
research by explaining why work adjustment ceptions of work adjustment are shaped (Li, Harris
change has unique antecedents and outcomes rel- Boswell, & Xie, 2011). In this study, we focus o
ative to initial levels of work adjustment. As George work adjustment, as opposed to other forms of ad
and Jones (2000: 658) indicate, "time can totally justment (e.g., interaction, cultural; cf. Takeuch
change the way theoretical constructs and the rela- 2010), as it has been identified as one of the stron
tionships between them are conceptualized and gest predictors of expatriate effectiveness (Bhaska
therefore change the propositions that derive from
Shrinivas et al., 2005) and is most closely linked to
a theory." By examining whether there are uniquethe type of adjustment typically considered in new
antecedents and outcomes of changes in work ad- comer socialization research (Bauer et al., 2007).
justment, we generate knowledge of how expatri- However, work adjustment is not a static phe-
ates might more quickly reach and maintain satis- nomenon; rather, it is reflective of a subjective pro-
factory levels of adjustment. We argue that cess through which expatriates compare current
accounting for time enables a richer understanding experiences both to prior expectations and antici-
of the motivational mechanisms underlying the ad- pations of future events (cf. George & Jones, 2000).
justment process, and that adjustment change Perceptions of work adjustment can be formed

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282 Academy of Management Journal February
quickly, but they tend pact tosubsequent

change job attitudes regardless of later
gradually and
systematically over time changes.
as Newcomer
a function adaptation processes
of are espe-
experi-
ences accumulated in assignment (Bhaskar-Shrini-
cially evident during early phases of organizational
vas et al., 2005; Black & Mendenhall, 1991). Thus, entry (i.e., the first three to six months; Chan &
work adjustment perceptions capture a "sensemak- Schmitt, 2000; Chen, 2005; Harrison, Sluss, & Ash-
ing" process that takes time to unfold (cf. Louis, forth, 2011; Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000;
1980; Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 2005). Wang, Zhan, McCune, & Truxillo, 2011).
Unfortunately, empirical support for the notion
that work adjustment changes over time is sparse.
Explaining Work Adjustment Change:
The limited empirical evidence available is based
A Motivational Approach
on comparisons of the mean levels of adjustment in
samples of expatriates with different tenure during Scholars have long recognized the importance of
international assignments (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., expatriates' motivation for attaining international
2005; Harrison et al., 2004). Such comparisons may assignment goals and handling the stressful chal-
confound assignment tenure with a host of other lenges such assignments pose (Ashford & Black,
expatriate and assignment attributes. However, fol- 1996; Chen, Kirkman, Kim, Farh, & Tangirala, 2010;
lowing theories of newcomer entry (Boswell, Bou- Gong & Fan, 2006; Harrison et al., 2004; Wang &
dreau, & Tichy, 2005; Boswell, Shipp, Payne, & Takeuchi, 2007). More motivated expatriates are
Culbertson, 2009; Louis, 1980), we expect that, on likely to seek new relationships to garner valuable
average, work adjustment levels decrease during social support (Farh et al., 2010), put in extra effort
the first several months of assignments. Newcom- to learn their new work responsibilities (Wang &
ers ' view of the reality of their new assignment is Takeuchi, 2007), seek out information and feed-
often less positive than their initial expectations back, and positively frame situations (Ashford &
were (this is termed "the hangover effect" [Boswell Black, 1996). When expatriates believe they can
et al., 2005]). In support, levels of both job satisfac- proactively act as causal agents, they can cope
tion (Boswell et al., 2005, 2009; Chen, Ployhart, with stress more effectively and demonstrate
Cooper-Thomas, Anderson, & Bliese, 2011) and or- stronger performance (Greenberger & Strasser,
ganizational commitment (Bentein, Vandenberg, 1986), and thus perform better (Chen et al., 2010).
Vandenberghe, & Stinglhamber, 2005) decrease sys- Further underscoring their roles in expatriate ad-
tematically following newcomer entry, at least dur- justment efforts, meta-analytic results have identi-
ing the first year or two following entry. These fied both motivation (e.g., self-efficacy and sense of
studies detected negative trends in job attitudes in autonomy) and stress-related (e.g., role conflict) con-
different time frames (e.g., two vs. six months) and structs as predictors of expatriate work adjustment
also showed significant differences in both initials (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). Extending this
levels of, and changes in (i.e., slopes or trajecto- prior work, we delineate below a motivational frame-
ries), attitudes. Although we expect this negative work that explains how motivation and stress-related
trend, we focus on explaining differences in the factors contribute to changes in adjustment over
extent to which work adjustment improves or gets time.
worse during this period. According to Kanfer and Heggestad (1997; see
Accordingly, we delineate a theoretical model of also Kuhl, 1985), as individuals strive to achieve
antecedents and outcomes of both initial levels and goals, they enact self-regulatory motivation control
rates of change in expatriate work adjustment dur- and emotion control strategies. Motivation control
ing the first few months of international assign- strategies, such as self-setting goals and focusing on
ments; Figure 1 presents this model. We acknowl- attaining specified outcomes, enable individuals to
edge that work adjustment may change beyond persistently exert effort toward desired outcomes.
these first few months and demonstrate different Emotion control strategies, such as reappraising
patterns of change at different phases (Bhaskar- negative events or tasks as challenges rather than
Shrinivas et al., 2005; Black & Mendenhall, 1991; threats and suppressing negative emotions, are ori-
Torbiom, 1982). However, changes in expatriate ented toward minimizing and overcoming distract-
adjustment are most pronounced during initial re- ing negative emotional responses. Enacted in con-
assignment, when expatriates first learn and make cert, both control strategies enable individuals to
sense of their assignments (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et overcome challenges by directing and sustaining
al., 2005; Nicholson, 1984), which in turn can im- effort toward goals, as opposed to distracting stim-

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FIGURE 1
Hypothesized Model of Relationships8
Psychological
Empowerment
(level 2; time 1)
Hla
X i
- ^ "ļ
Cross-Cultural Initial Work
Motivation
(level 2; time 1) (level 1; time 1) v
/
/
H2a
&
'/
X
H4a H2bļ H5a '
Challenge / Work Adjustment ^ Prema

Stressors
(level 2; time 1) / H3 (level 1; times 1-3)
/ ^
/ H4b
Hindrance
Stressors
(level 2; time 1)
a Level 1 is within-individual; level 2 is individual. Times are time points at which data were collected.
uli (e.g., work and nonwork stressors [Ashford & current states serve as input functions that are com-
Black, 1996; Kanfer & Heggestad, 1997; Keith & pared to reference values (i.e., idealized percep-
Frese, 2005; Richards & Gross, 2000; Wanberg, Zhu, tions of what those states should be [Carver &
Kanfer, & Zhang, 2012]). Both motivation and emo- Scheier, 1982]). Reference values are a function of
tion control strategies are triggered by individuals' past experiences, current goals, and perceptions of
cognitive states, which capture perceptions of, and demands within expatriates' new contexts, and
reactions to, their work environments. These states they are thus uniquely tailored to current demands
include beliefs regarding their assignment chal- (i.e., they need not be directly comparable to pre-
lenges and threats, their perceived capability and assignment performance levels [Carver & Scheier,
opportunity to meet assignment goals, and their 1982]). For example, expatriates may compare the
interest in doing so (Carver & Scheier, 1982; Kanfer, results of work delegated to subordinates (i.e., the
1990; Kanfer & Heggestad, 1997). Such cognitive input function) with their expectations (i.e., their
states also link environmental feedback regarding reference value) regarding how effective they be-
goal progress with subsequent choices of action lieve they ought to be at delegating tasks in their
(Kanfer & Heggestad, 1997). new assignment. These internal states are moni-
Kanfer and Heggestad's (1997) theorizing can be tored and regulated over time relative to (a) recur-
integrated with control theory to further explain ring environmental feedback that indicates the
how motivation and emotion control strategies op- level of discrepancy between the input function
erate over time. Per control theory, perceptions of and reference value, and (b) external disturbances

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that further affect discrepancies (e.g.,

uals with stronger cross-cultural changes
motivation should
be more
subordinates' ability to likely to positively
handle delegated frame challenging
work).
These mechanisms lead and/orto a negative
negative feedback
events or job characteristics, en-
gage additional motivational resources,
cycle , whereby an individual decreases and ap-
subsequ
effort on a task when feedback
proach indicates
work flexibly (Ang et al., 2007; Chen etperfo
al.,
mance is above her or his reference value or in-2010). Further supporting this logic, meta-analyses
creases task effort when performance is lower than
on expatriate and newcomer adjustment processes
that reference value. Building on control theory,
indicate that self-efficacy, which is captured in part
Vancouver, Tamanini, and Yoder (2010) argued by cross-cultural motivation, has a strong relation-
that newcomer information seeking increases whenship with adjustment (Bauer et al., 2007; Bhaskar-
knowledge is low and decreases when it is high, Shrinivas et al., 2005).
since newcomers do not need to exert as much
Psychological empowerment reflects the extent
effort toward learning when they already possess
to which individuals: (a) feel competent to perform
information relevant to their new assignments. Like
work tasks well, (b) are free to choose how they
Kanfer and Heggestad's (1997) theorizing, control
perform tasks at work, (c) perceive their work as
theory has also been extended to suggest that cog-
meaningful, and (d) believe their work has broader
nitive states, such as perceived progress and self-
impact in their organization (Spreitzer, 1995;
efficacy, influence subsequent effort in additionThomas
to & Velthouse, 1990). Like cross-cultural
environmental feedback (Vancouver & Kendall,
motivation, psychological empowerment captures
2006; Wanberg, Zhu, & van Hooft, 2010). self-efficacy (i.e., perceived competence) and in-
This framework suggests that motivational states
trinsic motivation (i.e., perceived meaning). How-
and stress-related cognitions trigger efforts to meet
ever, unlike cross-cultural motivation, the four psy-
work challenges over time. Using control theory as
chological empowerment cognitions pertain to
a guide, we also posit that initial levels of work
work design and assignments and are not specific
adjustment capture important comparisons be-
to cross-cultural encounters (Spreitzer, 1995). Im-
tween expected and actual experiences in an as-
portantly, psychological empowerment includes
signment (i.e., comparison between referent and
cognitions not captured by cross-cultural motiva-
input values), which leads expatriates to alter the
tion which also drive expatriate and newcomer ad-
amount of subsequent effort they direct toward
justment, including work autonomy, work self-effi-
adjusting (e.g., as reflected by the level of infor-
cacy, and personal control at work (Ashford &
mation or coaching they seek from others in the
Black, 1996; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005; Chen,
assignment). Below, we focus on motivational
2005; Takeuchi, Shay, & Li, 2008). The combined
states (i.e., cross-cultural motivation and psycho-
dimensions of psychological empowerment can ex-
logical empowerment) and stress-related cogni-
tions (i.e., perceived challenge and hindrance plain work-related performance and attitudes bet-
stressors) that (a) fit our motivational framework ter than each individual component separately
and (b) have been identified as important predic- (Seibert, Wang, & Courtright, 2011), and they posi-
tors of adjustment in the expatriate and new- tively relate to newcomer performance (Chen & Kli-
comer socialization literatures. moski, 2003). Thus, psychological empowerment
likely uniquely triggers motivation control strate-
gies that enable expatriates to effectively adjust to
Motivational States as Antecedents of Work
work challenges.
Adjustment over Time Although we do not directly examine the specific
Cross-cultural motivation includes two subdi- control processes suggested by the work motivation
framework introduced above, our logic suggests
mensions: cultural self-efficacy (i.e., individuals'
that as a result of being more intrinsically moti-
belief in their capability to be effective in culturally
diverse environments) and cultural intrinsic motivated and confident in international environments,
as well as feeling more empowered to engage in
vation (i.e., individuals' inherent interest in other
cultures [Ang et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2010]). Cross-their work, expatriates are more likely to immedi-
cultural motivation positively relates to work ad- ately devote their effort toward work-related goals,
justment and expatriates' motivation to engage in reframe negative events, and experience fewer neg-
proactive behaviors during international assign- ative emotions. As a result, we argue that individ-
ments (Ang et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2010). Individ- uals higher in these motivational states are more

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
Carver & Scheier,

likely to experience 1982; Vancouver &initial
higher Kendall, le
adjustment. Thus,2006).we
Supporting this logic, higher initial work
expect:
attitudes experienced after job changes tend to be
Hypothesis 1. Expatiates ' (a) psycholo
followed by subsequent systematic work attitude
powerment and (b) cross-cultural motiv
declines (Boswell et al., 2005). Thus, we expect:
tively relate to initial levels of work adju
It is less obvious, however, how motivational Hypothesis 2. Expatriates' initial work adjust-
states might relate to work adjustment as it unfolds ment mediates a negative relationship between
over time . On the one hand, expatriates with higher expatriates' (a) psychological empowerment
levels of cross-cultural motivation and psychologi-
and (b) cross-cultural motivation and changes
cal empowerment may sustain adjustment levels in work adjustment over time.
over time as a result of unflagging persistence. On
the other hand, in line with control theory, higher
Stress-Related Cognitions as Antecedents of
initial levels of adjustment may result in reduced
Work Adjustment over Time
work adjustment over time (Carver & Scheier, 1982;
Vancouver et al., 2010). Specifically, perceptions of In addition to cross-cultural motivation and psy-
work adjustment, informed by feedback obtained chological empowerment, we also expect that stres-
from interactions with peers, subordinates, manag- sors experienced in new assignments trigger self-
ers, customers, and the broader work environment regulatory processes, which impact expatriates'
(Black et al., 1991; Harrison et al., 2004), serve as work adjustment (Harrison et al., 2004; Kanfer &
inputs that are compared to an internal reference Heggestad, 1997). When expatriates first arrive in
value of desired levels of adjustment. Because ex- their new assignments, the quantity and intensity
patriates higher on cross-cultural motivation and of novel stressors and experiences are expected to
psychological empowerment likely experience be relatively high and serve as disturbances which
higher initial adjustment levels than those lower on impact the extent to which effort is exerted (i.e.,
these motivational states, they are more likely to impacting input functions; Carver & Scheier, 1982;
detect positive discrepancies between actual and Harrison et al., 2004). Stressor types are often clas-
desired levels of work adjustment (i.e., feel more sified according to whether they challenge or hin-
content with their initial adjustment). As a result, der individuals and have been labeled accordingly
more positive discrepancies result in reduced sub- as "challenge" and "hindrance'' stressors (LePine,
sequent effort (i.e., stronger decreases in work ad- Podsakoff, & LePine, 2005; Podsakoff, LePine, &
justment levels), as expatriates divert their effort LePine, 2007). The theoretical framework we have
toward other areas in which they experience less advanced suggests that both types of stressors may
favorable discrepancies (e.g., focusing effort in- trigger the extent to which expatriates employ ef-
stead on adjusting better to cultural demands fective self-regulatory strategies that enable work
[Schmidt & DeShon, 2007]). Conversely, expatri- adjustment.
ates with lower initial work adjustment likely Challenge stressors reflect work conditions that
strive to increase their effort over time so as to provide opportunities for personal achievement
achieve acceptable levels of adjustment (i.e., re-and growth, such as high levels of assignment
duce negative discrepancies between input func- workloads and responsibility, or "stretch" assign-
tions and reference values). ments that serve as stepping stones for promotion
Thus, we expect that the same motivational(Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000).
states that positively promote initial work adjust- Such challenges lead expatriates to become more
ment (i.e., cross-cultural motivation and psycho-fully engaged and embedded in their work and are
logical empowerment) may also lead to steeper sub-ultimately likely to result in positive outcomes
sequent declines over time in work adjustment,(e.g., raises, improved status, promotions). Chal-
owing to the negative relationship between initial lenge stressors positively relate to both motivation
work adjustment and allocation of subsequent ef- (e.g., allocation of effort, persistence, performance
fort. This is not to say that effort suddenly ceases expectations) and performance, suggesting that in-
for those higher in initial levels of motivation.dividuals exert extra effort in the presence of such
Rather, we expect a gradual decrease in effort and stressors to cope with stress, overcome obstacles,
subsequent work adjustment levels for those with and attain associated benefits (LePine et al., 2005).
higher levels of initial work adjustment (e.g., However, challenge stressors also negatively and

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
In contrast
indirectly affect performance to challenge stressors,
through their hindrance
positive
relationship with strainsstressors are work emotional
(e.g., conditions likely to thwart and
exhaus-
limitLePine
tion, frustration, anxiety; personal achievement
et al., and2005).
growth (Ca-These
vanaugh
findings suggest that, on et al., one
the 2000). They include factors
hand, such as
challenge
low job security,
stressors may initially trigger organizational
both unfairness, and in- and
motivation
terpersonal
emotion control strategies andand role conflicts
thus be at work. Hindrance
beneficial to
initial work adjustment. On
stressors the
directly other
interfere hand,
with obtaining desired the
goals and outcomes,
presence of challenge stressors early leadingon
to heightened psycho-
in interna-
tional transitions likely logical contributes to levels
strain (LePine et al., 2005). Higher already of
heightened levels of psychological hindrance stressors trigger the enactment
strain of emo-
(Harrison
et al., 2004). Thus, we expect that
tion control strategies the
aimed motivating
at reducing distracting
and stress-inducing effects of challenge stressors negative affective states (e.g., psychological dis-
may not relate to work adjustment initially tress, anxiety). These emotion control strategies are in a
predictable (positive or likely negative)
to reduce strain but alsomanner
require effort that (cf.
LePine et al., 2005). otherwise could have been directed toward learn-
We do, however, expect that the effects of chal- ing new task responsibilities. Thus, we expect that
lenge stressors on work adjustment will gradually expatriates experiencing higher levels of hindrance
manifest over time, given the nature of challenge stressors will experience lower levels of initial
stressors and the manner in which they influence work adjustment.
the enactment of control strategies. Specifically, it Over time, hindrance stressors may continue to
has been suggested that early job challenges can drain regulatory resources and limit subsequent
improve individuals' performance competencies goal pursuit (Keith & Frese, 2005; Muraven &
over time and thus lead to improvements in atti- Baumeister, 2000), by diverting effort away from
tudes and performance (Kaufman, 1974; Taylor, behaviors that enable improved adjustment (cf.
1981). Further, challenge stressors were found to Kanfer & Heggestad, 1997). Accordingly, hindrance
promote the development of leadership and self- stressors are expected to continue to direct effort
regulation competencies, which facilitate adapta- away from goal accomplishment (i.e., toward re-
tion in challenging contexts (DeRue & Wellman, ducing distracting negative affective states), mak-
2009). Thus, as expatriates continue to engage in ing it more difficult to adjust. Over time, we expect
control processes, we expect that they will be able that high levels of hindrance stressors will divert
to mitigate the strains associated with challenge enough attention away from central work tasks that
stressors through the use of emotion control strat- work adjustment will be negatively impacted. It is
egies and attain their associated benefits through thus possible that owing to their sustained negative
the use of motivation control strategies. Conse- effects on self-regulation processes, hindrance stres-
quently, the decreasing exertion of effort that initial sors contribute to more pronounced declines in work
success in work adjustment may ordinarily lead to adjustment (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005; LePine et
can be mitigated for those who experience chal- al., 2005; Perrewé & Zellars, 1999). Consequently, we
lenge stressors, as they gradually increase their ef- predict:
fort to attain the positive benefits associated with
Hypothesis 4. Hindrance stressors negatively re-
them. In sum, although challenge stressors may not
late to (a) initial levels of and (b) changes in
promote initial levels of work adjustment due to
expatriates' work adjustment over time: Expatrí-
initial strain, we expect that they will later lead
ates who experience higher levels of hindrance
expatriates to direct and sustain effort toward
stressors are likely to exhibit lower initial levels
achieving associated incentives, resulting in more
of work adjustment and more negative changes
positive (or less negative) changes in levels of work
in work adjustment over time.
adjustment over time. Thus, we predict:
Hypothesis 3. Challenge stressors positively re- Outcomes of Work Adjustment

late to changes in expatriates' work adjustment
over time: Expatriates who experience higher Prior work has consistently indicated that work
levels of challenge stressors are likely to ex- adjustment relates to important individual-level
hibit more positive (or less negative) change in outcomes, including expatriate attitudes and per-
work adjustment over time. formance (Bauer et al., 2007; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
al., 2005; Chen et Bhaskar-Shrinivas al., 2010). et al. (2005)

Whiledemonstratedimp that
work has only examined the extent to work adjustment positively predicts job satisfac-
levels of adjustment tion, and Bauer
predictet al. (2007) demonstrated
suchsimilar out
out addressing the positive relationships betweenimpact
potential newcomer social- o
adjustment. Our ization processes and job satisfaction.
arguments above Premature in
in addition to initial levels
return intentions ofreflecting
are cognitions adjustm the ex-
in work adjustment tent to which individuals
are expected plan on withdrawing
to res
engagement of self-regulatory from their assignment before it is completed contr (Black
We argue that both & Gregersen,
initial 1990; Shaffer
levels & Harrison,
of,1998; an
adjustment have important Takeuchi, Yun, & Tesluk, 2002). Although these
effects.
As suggested by earlier constructs are closely
work,and negatively related, they are
changes
ences at work can theoretically serve as(e.g.,
distinct reference
Tett & Meyer, 1993). Meta- po
used by individuals analysestoindicateinform
that both expatriatecurrenand newcomer
reactions to work experiences.
adjustment negatively predict withdrawal Speci cognitions
larger the changes such asinpremature
work return intentions
experienc (Bauer et al.,
salient those experiences 2007; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005).
become for
and the more likely In addition
current to an averagework positive relationship
cond
influence subsequent between expatriate work adjustment and assign-
experiences and
work (Chen et al., 2011; Hausknecht, Sturman, & ment satisfaction, we expect that more positive
Roberson, 2011). Given that perceptions of adjust- changes in work adjustment will be particularly
ment are based on a sensemaking process, adjust- salient to expatriates, leading them to more highly
ment trends can impact future experiences and be- appraise their work experiences. Those experienc-
haviors via expectations of how these changes will ing more positive adjustment changes are more
continue to unfold (Chen et al., 2011). Indeed, just likely to anticipate further positive outcomes (Chen
as aircraft pilots determining the likelihood of a et al., 2011) and will therefore be more satisfied
safe landing can benefit from information about with their assignment and indicate greater inten-
their rate of the descent in addition to information tion to remain on assignment. Accordingly, we
about the absolute distance between ground and expect:
aircraft at a given moment, the rate and direction of
Hypothesis 5a. Changes in work adjustment pos-
adjustment change can go above and beyond an
itively relate to assignment satisfaction: Expatiates
absolute adjustment value to inform expatriates as
with more positive changes in work adjustment are
to their likely final success in assignment. Empiri-
more satisfied with their assignments.
cally, positive changes in employee attitudes (e.g.,
job satisfaction, commitment, justice perceptions) Hypothesis 5b. Changes in work adjustment
and performance have been shown to relate posi- negatively relate to premature return intention :
tively and uniquely to outcomes when compared Expatriates with more positive changes in work
with average levels of attitudes or performance adjustment are less likely to indicate prema-
(Bentein et al., 2005; Chen, 2005; Chen et al., 2011; ture return intentions.
Hausknecht et al., 2011).
Thus, we expect that positive changes in expatri-
ate work adjustment positively relate to expatriate METHODS
attitudinal outcomes, namely expatriates' assign-
ment satisfaction and intention to remain on as- Sample and Procedure
signment. We focus on these outcomes because We obtained data from 118 expatriates workin
both have been shown to be relevant to overall for a large multinational Global 100 company in th
adaptation exhibited by both expatriates and new- energy industry. Prior to data collection, we inter
comers (Bauer et al., 2007; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al.,
viewed 15 expatriate human resources (HR) man
2005). Assignment satisfaction reflects the extentagers
to in the firm to gauge how long it typically
which an expatriate is pleased with an assignment takes expatriates to adjust following reassignment.
or assignment experiences (cf. Hackman & Oldham, We specifically asked, "How long would you say
1976). That is, assignment satisfaction is the man-
on average, does it take expatriates in your firm t
ifestation of job satisfaction in the context ofadjust
an after starting a new international assign
expatriate assignment. In their meta-analysis, ment? By adjusting, we mean feeling comfortab

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
and business
carrying out their assignment development
tasks manager. All individ- (see
effectively"
Chen and Klimoski [2003] uals'
for assignments included new
a similar responsibilities.
interview-
However,
based approach). Most (13 out individuals
of were 15) tasked
ofwith accom-
those we
plishing specific, setlargely
interviewed indicated adjustment objectives and occurred
tended to
during the first - two to work
six under the same supervisor
months, which duringistheir
con-
sistent with time periods stay.captured
Thus, specific job demands within assign-
in recent new-
ments in this organization were
comer and expatriate adjustment unlikely to fluc-
studies (e.g.,
Chen, 2005; Harrison et
tuate al., 2011; Wang et al.,
after reassignment.
2011). Thus, we sought to capture work adjustment
change during the first three
Measures to four months follow-
ing an international assignment.
For 18 months, the firm Unless otherwise noted, all us
provided scales used were as-
monthly
with names and e-mail sessed on a scale ranging
addresses of from 1, "strongly dis-
expatriates
who had recently begun aagree,"
new to 5, "strongly agree." We provide reliabili-
international assign-
ties of, and
ment. We then contacted the expatriates correlations among, measured
via variables
e-mail
and asked them to respond in Tableconfidentially
1. For each of the antecedent variables,
and vol-
untarily to four surveys expatriates were instructed to respond
administered viawith a respect
secure
website one month apart to their overall assignments,
(times 1-4). rather
We than a specific
adminis-
time period.
tered the surveys every month to capture change in
Cross-cultural
a reliable fashion (cf. Mitchell motivation . We 2001;
& James, assessed cross-
Ploy-
cultural motivation
hart & Vandenberg, 2010). The first survey at time 1 using Ang et al.1)
(time 's
contained questions about (2007)the
five-item scale, which capturescross-
expatriates' cross-cul-
tural intrinsic motivation
cultural motivation, psychological (e.g., "I enjoy interacting
empowerment,
challenge and hindrancewith people from different
stressors, cultures") and self-effi-
organizational
cacy We
tenure, and language skills. (e.g., "Imeasured
am confident thatworkI can socialize
ad- with
justment at times 1,2, and locals
3in and
a cultureoutcome
that is unfamiliar to me"). Al-
variables
though
(i.e., expatriate assignment each of these dimensionsand
satisfaction informed our the-
prema-
oretical arguments,
ture return intention) at time 4. One both week
our theory following
and measure-
each survey administration,ment ultimately
we rely on cross-cultural
sent reminder motivation e-
mails; the average responseas a multidimensional
time for construct. Thus, in line with
survey com-
pletion was four days. Chen et al. (2010), we aggregated responses to all
items
Seventy expatriates (59 to create a single of
percent score. the sample)
provided complete data in Psychological
the times empowerment We measured
1-3 surveys
(used to test Hypotheses 1-4). psychological
To empowerment at time 1 using Spreit- 5,
test Hypothesis
we relied on data from 61 zeťsof
(1995) 12-item scale.
these All items were slightly
expatriates, who
provided complete data for rewordedallto capture
four the extent to which expatriates
required time
points. No significant differences felt empowered in their incurrent assignment (rather
demographic
and substantive variables existed between those than their broader job). This scale captures dimen-
who provided complete data (times 1-3 as well as sions of meaningfulness (e.g., "My job activities in
times 1-4) and those who provided data only at this assignment are personally meaningful to me"),
time 1. The final samples of expatriates {n = 70 and competence (e.g., "I am confident about my ability to
n = 61, for tests of Hypotheses 1-4 and Hypothesis do my job in this current assignment"), choice (e.g., "I
5, respectively) represented 25 different nationali- can decide on my own how to go about doing my
ties and were located in four different countries. Of work in this current assignment"), and impact (e.g.,
the sample of 70, there were 29, 29, 9, and 3 expa- "My impact on what happens in [Company Name] in
triates located in the US, Canada, UK, and Aus- this current assignment is large"). In line with prior
tralia, respectively. Average expatriate age was research (Seibert et al., 2011), we averaged items
42 years (s.d. = 8.8 years), ranging from 23 to across the four dimensions into a single score.
62 years; 81 percent were Caucasian, and 96 per- Challenge and hindrance stressors . We as-
cent were male. Average organizational tenure at sessed challenge stressors and hindrance stressors
time 1 was 11.9 years (s.d. = 14.6 years). Expatri- via six- and five-item scales, respectively, devel-
ate managerial assignments varied, but position titles oped by Cavanaugh et al. (2000; 1 "produces no
included regional manager, maintenance manager, stress," to 5 "produces a great deal of stress"). Ex-

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
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35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
ample items for challenge Analysis stressors Strategy include "t

amount of time I spend at work" and "the amou
To analyze the longitu
of responsibility I have."
data, which Example items
were nested within individuals (i.e., for hi
drance stressors include "the lack of job securit
within expatriates), Hypotheses 1, 3, and 4 were
have" and "the amount of red tape I need to g
tested in a two-level RCM using HLM 6 (Rauden-
through to get my job done."
bush, Bryk, & Congdon, 2004). Multiple work ad-
Work adjustment Work adjustment
justment scores for times 1-3 were nested was within mea-
sured with a three-item scale developed
expatriates and treated as a level 1 (within-individ- by Bla
and Stephens (1989). Expatriates
ual) variable, with all control and predictor vari- the e
indicated
tent to which they felt they
ables treated had
as level adjusted
2 (between-individual) vari- to "s
cific job responsibilities,"
ables. At level 1, we entered a time variable (0, standa
"performance 1, 2,
and expectations," and "supervisory
times responsibi
1-3 respectively); all level 2 variables were
ties." At each measurement time,
grand-mean-centered.1 expatriates
To test Hypothesis 2, we w
specifically instructed to focus on their
used single-level, mediated regression analyses (at experienc
within the past month of their
the between-expatriate assignment.
level), followed by tests of F
analyses of Hypotheses 2-4,
indirect we calculated
effects (MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Wil- wor
adjustment change using procedures
liams, 2004), using expatriates' initial developed
work adjust-
Chen and colleagues ment (Chen,and adjustment 2005;change scores Chen
obtained from et al
2011). Specifically, using random
the previous RCM tests. This coefficient
enabled us to test m
els (RCMs), we obtained whether unique Bayes
initial work adjustment estimate
(i.e., at time 1)
per expatriate for the relationship
mediated between motivational states between
(i.e., cross- tim
(coded 0, 1, and 2 for cultural
times 1, and
motivation 2, and 3)
psychological empower- and wo
adjustment, in such a wayment) andthat more
work adjustment change positive
(cf. Chen et al., (neg
ative) scores indicate2011). more positive
To test Hypothesis (negativ
5, we used single-level
change in work adjustmenthierarchicaloverregressiontime.analyses, using attitudes
Assignment satisfaction. We assessed
collected at time 4 (i.e., assignment satisfaction and assign
ment satisfaction using prematurea return
measure intention) as outcomes,
adapted and ini- fro
Hackman and Oldham's tial work
(1976)adjustmentfour-item
and work adjustment change job sat
as predictors.
faction scale; the original items were reworded
refer to the current expatriate assignment, rathe
than job (e.g., "Generally speaking, RESULTS I am very sati
fied with my assignment").
Measurement Invariance Test
Premature return intentions . We assessed pr
mature return intention We first tested whether a
using three-item
the three-item work ad- sc
developed by Kraimer and Wayne (2004).
justment measure exhibited measurement equiva- An e
ample item is "I am seriously
lency over time in LISREL considering
8.8 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, endi
my expatriate assignment early."
2006), following Chan and Schmitt (2000). A mea-
Control variables . We controlled
surement for organiza
model in which the item-specific errors
tional tenure and language
were freelyskills,
estimated forgiveneach time point, theirbut the esta
lished roles in predicting
factor loadingsexpatriate
were set to be equal across adjustme time
(Bhaskar-Shrinivas et points,
al.,fit2005).the data wellUsing ix*[df = 27] =compan 26.80,
records, we measured RMSEA organizational
= .00, CFI = 1.0). In comparison, tenurean alter- as
individual's number of native
years model, of in whichemployment
item-specific errors and at h
her current organization.factorToloadingsassess
were freely the estimatedproficiency
in each time
period,
expatriate language skills indid not result in a significant
his/her host country, improve-
ment inadapted
relied on a five-item scale model fit (A*2[A df = 2] = 25.7,
from n.s.,
Takeuchi
al. (2002, e.g., "I am confident in using the host cou
try's local language in general"). We also controlle
for prior international experiences (0,
1 Additional analyses indicated "no prior
no significant differ- int
national assignments," ences
and 1, "prior experience")
owing to the four host countries, and results did not
the number of days on a differ
current assignment
when controlling occurrin
for host-country differences, sup-
prior to our time 1 porting
measures. our decision to utilize a two-level model.

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
FIGURE 2
Effect of Interaction between Initial Adjustment and Time on Work Adjustment
completed time 1 data. To maintain a reasonable

RMSEA = .00, CFI = 1.0), indicating measurement
equivalence of work adjustment over time. indicator to sample size ratio, we used scale scores
of the two cross-cultural motivation dimensions
(i.e., self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation) and the
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
To ascertain that cross-cultural motivation, psy-
TABLE 3
chological empowerment, challenge stressors, hin-
drance stressors, and work adjustment captured Mediated Regression Analyses of Work
Adjustment Change
distinct constructs, we conducted confirmatory fac-
tor analyses (CFAs) in LISREL 8.8 (Jöreskog & Sör- Variables b s.e. R2
bom, 2006), using data from 105 expatriates who

Initial Work Adjustment
Organizational tenure 0.00 0.00
TABLE 2 Language skill 0.04 0.04
Past international experience -0.08 0.12
Random Coefficient Models of Expatriate Adjustment®
Days on assignment 0.00 0.00
Variable ß s.e. ~R2 Cross-cultural motivation 0.22* 0.09
Psychological empowerment 0.54* 0.11
Organizational tenure 0.00 0.00 Challenge stressors -0.01 0.06
Language skill 0.06 0.04 Hindrance stressors -0.09 0.06 .49*
Past international experience -0.01 0.12 Work Adjustment Change
Days on assignment 0.00 0.00 Organizational tenure 0.00 0.00
Cross-cultural motivation 0.23* 0.12 Language skill 0.01 0.01
Psychological empowerment 0.73* 0.16 Past international experience 0.05 0.04
Challenge stressors -0.08 0.08 Days on assignment 0.00 0.00
Hindrance stressors -0.08 0.08 Cross-cultural motivation 0.05 0.04
Time X cross-cultural motivation 0.04 0.07 Psychological empowerment 0.04 0.05
Time X empowerment -0.12 0.12 Challenge stressors 0.04* 0.02
Time X challenge stressors 0.12* 0.06 Hindrance stressors -0.01 0.02
Time X hindrance stressors -0.02 0.05 .27* Initial work adjustment -0.17* 0.05 .29*
a n = 70. a n = 70.
* p < .05 * p < .05

Two-tailed test. Two-tailed test.

ff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC
four psychological empowerment the assumption underlying Hypothesis 2, initial(i.e.,

dimensions
meaning, competence, autonomy, adjustment related negativelyand impact)
to work adjustment as
respective indicators ofchange these factors
(see Figure 2), in that workand created
adjustment ex-
two parcels each for the hibited a steeper negativeand
challenge slope for expatriates
hindrance
stressors factors; for work whose adjustment
initial work adjustmentwe was high
used(+1 s.d.)the
three items as indicators. The measurement model than for those whose initial work adjustment was
which allowed the five factors to correlate freely fit low (-1 s.d.). This suggested that initial work ad-
the data well (x2[df= 80] = 135.15, RMSEA = .08, justment could potentially mediate between ante-
CFI = .95), with all indicators loading significantlycedents and work adjustment change.
onto their respective factors (p < .05). Alternative
models that either set all five factors to correlate at
1.0 (x2[df= 90] = 591.15, RMSEA = .23, CFI = .54)
Predictors of Expatriate Work Adjustment
or set the cross-cultural motivation, psychological
empowerment, and work adjustment factors to cor- Tests of Hypotheses 1-4 were designed to ex-
relate at 1.0 ix2[df= 83] = 218.32, RMSEA = .13, plain the variance demonstrated between expatri-
CFI = .86) fit the data significantly worse (p < .05) ates in initial levels of, and changes in, work ad-
than the five-factor model, providing evidence that justment. To test each of these hypotheses, we
measures captured distinct constructs.2 entered our control and antecedent variables as
time-invariant (level 2) covariates. Table 2 contains
the results of the analyses for Hypotheses 1,3, and
Analysis of Expatriate Work Adjustment Change 4, whereas Table 3 summarizes results of the anal-
We followed guidelines provided by Bliese and yses for Hypothesis 2. RCM analyses of work ad-
Ployhart (2002) to test changes in work adjustment. justment (Table 2) indicated that our predictors
First, an intercept-only model estimated that accounted for 27 percent of the total variance in
49 percent of the variance in work adjustment in- initial work adjustment (Snijders & Bosker, 1999).
tercepts resided between expatriates and 51 per- Supporting Hypotheses la, lb, analyses controlling
cent resided within expatriates. Second, tests of the for organizational tenure, language skills, prior in-
fixed linear growth parameter indicated that, as ternational experience, and number of days on cur-
expected, on average (across expatriates), work ad- rent assignment, demonstrated significant positive
justment decreased over time (ß = -0.08, p < .05). relationships with initial levels of work adjustment
Additional analyses indicated that a fixed quadratic for both cross-cultural motivation ( ß = 0.23, p <
growth parameter was nonsignificant, and there was .05) and psychological empowerment ( ß = 0.73,
nonsignificant variance across expatriates in the qua- p < .05). As expected, challenge stressors did not
dratic trends. In contrast, there were significant dif- significantly predict initial levels of work adjust-
ferences in the linear slope, suggesting significant ment (ß = -0.08, n.s.). However, Hypothesis 4a
individual differences in linear work adjustment was not supported, in that hindrance stressors also
change across expatriates ( x 2 = 115.4, p < .01). did not relate to initial levels of work adjustment
Additional tests of alternative error structures sug- (ß = -0.08, n.s.).
gested nonsignificant (p > .10) levels of autocorre- Supporting Hypothesis 3, challenge stressors
lations and heteroskedasticity. Also, in line with demonstrated a significant relationship with work
adjustment trajectories over time (ß = 0.12, p <
.05). Hypothesis 4b, however, was not supported,
2 To further investigate the potential impact of overlap as hindrance stressors did not predict work adjust-
between cross-cultural motivation and psychological em- ment trajectories (ß = -0.02, n.s.). Figure 3 illus-
powerment, we also ran a second-order confirmatory factor trates the interaction between time and challenge
analysis on measures of these constructs, which indicated stressors (plotted per Aiken and West [1991]). In
acceptable fit and significant (p < .05) loading of both first-
line with Hypothesis 3, expatriates with higher lev-
and second-order indicators on their respective factors
els of challenge stressors maintained higher work
(^[df = 112] = 248.33, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .93. In addi-
tion, alternate RCMs in which we excluded all efficacy- adjustment over time, whereas those with lower
related items from measures of cross-cultural motivation challenge stressors experienced steeper decreases
and psychological empowerment did not materially change in work adjustment over time. Thus, there was a
our RCM results. This provides additional evidence for positive relationship between challenge stressors
these measures. and work adjustment change. The interaction be-

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
2014 Firth , Chen, Kirkman, and Kim 293
FIGURE 3
Effect of Interaction between Challenge Stressors and Time on Expatriate Work Adjustment
tween challenge stressors and time accounted for- 3

.03) on work adjustment change, through initial
work adjustment, were both statistically significant
percent of the variance in work adjustment change.
( p < .05). Thus, Hypotheses 2a and 2b were both
To test Hypothesis 2, which addresses the indi-
rect effects of expatriâtes' motivational statessupported.
on
work adjustment change, we used mediated regres-
sion analyses at the between-expatriate level (see
Table 3), 3 followed by tests of indirect effects using
Outcomes of Expatriate Work Adjustment
expatriates' initial work adjustment and adjust-
ment change scores (MacKinnon et al., 2004). We The hierarchical regressions used to test Hypoth-
obtained initial work adjustment and work adjust- eses 5a and 5b are summarized in Table 4. Support-
ment change scores (i.e., trajectories over times ing both Hypothesis 5a and Hypothesis 5b, work
1-3) for each individual from the RCMs reported adjustment changes significantly positively pre-
earlier and entered these scores into the appropri- dicted assignment satisfaction (ß = 2.76, p < .05)
ate regression equation (cf. Chen et al., 2011). In and significantly negatively predicted premature
line with Hypothesis 2, cross-cultural motivation return intentions (ß = -1.98, p < .05). These pre-
(ß = 0.22, p < .05) and psychological empower- dictors accounted for additional variance above
ment (ß = 0.54, p < .05) both positively and and beyond controls, antecedents of work adjust-
uniquely predicted initial work adjustment, and, in ment, and initial levels of work adjustment
turn, initial work adjustment negatively and (A R2 = .14, p < .05; A R2 = .08, p < .05, respec-
uniquely predicted work adjustment change tively). According to our predictions, changes in
(b = -.17, p < .05). In addition, the indirect effects work adjustment related positively to subsequent
of cross-cultural motivation (-.04; 95% confidence assignment satisfaction, and negatively to subse-
interval = -.08 to - .01) and psychological empow- quent premature return intentions.
erment (-.09; 95% confidence interval = -.16 to To further test whether changes in work adjust-
ment predicted assignment satisfaction and prema-
ture return intentions above and beyond average
3 Note that results from Table 3 closely match those
levels of work adjustment over times 1-3, we per-
from Table 2 (e.g., analyses in Table 3 replicate Table 2
formed an additional set of hierarchical regres-
with respect to significant predictors of initial work ad-
justment and work adjustment change). However, the sions. These analyses were identical to those re-
regression analyses in Table 3 allowed us to go further in ported above, with the exception that in the second
testing whether initial work adjustment uniquely pre- step, we controlled for the average level of work
dicts work adjustment change, which we could not esti- adjustment (over times 1-3) instead of initial work
mate in RCM (cf. Chen et al., 2011). adjustment. Results showed that work adjustment

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
TABLE 4
Regression Analyses of Outcomes of Work Adjustment"
Step and Variable ß s.e. R2 Afl2
Job Satisfaction
1. Organizational tenure 0.00 0.00
Language 0.04 0.08
Past international experience 0.15 0.28
Days on assignment -0.01 0.01
Cross-cultural motivation -0.01 0.22
Psychological empowerment 0.71* 0.28
Challenge stressors 0.03 0.15
Hindrance stressors -0.18 0.15 0.23*
2. Initial work adjustment 0.72* 0.31 0.31* 0.08*
3. Work adjustment change 2.76* 0.76 0.45* 0.14*
Premature Return Intention
1. Organizational tenure 0.00 0.01
Language -0.04 0.07
Past international experience -0.22 0.26
Days on assignment 0.01 0.01
Cross-cultural motivation 0.06 0.21
Psychological empowerment -0.53* 0.26
Challenge stressors 0.04 0.14
Hindrance stressors 0.37* 0.14 0.30*
2. Initial work adjustment -0.31 0.30 0.31* 0.01
3. Work adjustment change -1.98* 0.80 0.39* 0.08*
an = 61.
* p < .05
Two-tailed test.
change positively and uniquely predicted assign- Theoretical Contributions

ment satisfaction (ß = 1.72, A R2 = .06, p < .05) and
First, extending previous research on motivation,
negatively and uniquely predicted premature re-
stress, and expatriate work adjustment (Bhaskar-
turn intentions ( ß = -1.44, AR2 = .04, p < .05),
Shrinivas et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2010), our study
when average levels of work adjustment over times
1-3 were controlled for. shows that the impact of expatriates' motivational
states and experiences of stressors on work adjust-
ment is time dependent. Our theory suggests that
DISCUSSION
higher motivational states lead expatriates to im-
Building on a motivational framework, wemediately
delin- devote their efforts to accomplishing
their
eated and tested a longitudinal model of work ad- assignment goals and responsibilities, and
justment change. Our findings largely supporttheyour
therefore exhibit higher levels of initial work
adjustment.
expectations and lead us to draw three conclusions. However, we have shown further that
subsequent
First, initial levels of work adjustment reflect the decreases in work adjustment may ac-
extent to which expatriates are motivated to company
engagehigher initial adjustment levels. Our the-
in their assignments. Second, as expatriates orystrive
also suggests that experiencing higher levels of
challenge stressors encourages expatriates to per-
to adjust over time, their success in maintaining
sist in to
higher levels of adjustment is related negatively their efforts to pursue their assignment goals
over time
initial levels of work adjustment but positively to and therefore maintain more positive lev-
the presence of challenge stressors. Third, the ex- adjustment. Although we did not find
els of work
support for our hypotheses regarding hindrance
tent to which expatriates experience more positive
stressors
(or less negative) work adjustment change relates to and work adjustment, we can still con-
more positive assignment attitudes. We next dis- challenge stressors motivate expatriates
clude that
to persist in the work adjustment process. Thus,
cuss several theoretical and practical implications
our work can help shift researchers' focus from
of our findings for the expatriate and newcomer
adjustment literatures. what enables expatriates to adjust, to more sophis-

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
ticated questions strated

involving how
that expatriate work adjustment and
relates to at-
patriates adjust more quickly
titudes, our finding than
that changes in adjustment rates oth
incrementally predict subsequent
factors enable expatriates to attitudes
sustain are both h
adjustment over time.
novel and theoretically meaningful.
Second, the Lastly, our motivational
generally negative framework has also
tren
for work adjustmenthelped to integrate
over the expatriate
time and newcomer
is inte
literatures.
it is counter to the By viewing expatriates positive
generally as newcomers, t
we were able to draw from both literatures
adjustment trajectories described in order
Shrinivas et al. (2005).
to explain adaptive processes
Wethat, argue
we argue, are th
occurs at least in likely
part important for newcomers in both
because ofdomestic
expa
lation of their and international
effort aftercontexts. By initial
drawing out the un-adjus
derlying similarities
which is attributable tobetween high these two processes,
levels o
we argued that motivation-
By integrating control theory and stress-relevant
within
tivation framework,states are likely
we important
provide
for adjustment processes
a mo
planation for why in multiple contexts (e.g., in new work
expatriates assign-
experie
in work adjustment ments, regardlessoverof whether theytime - esp
are international
or not).
their initial levels ofThe work motivation framework we build
adjustment are
research has suggested
from, including control
that theory, also
control
helps to better th
of particular value in
integrate and extendexplaining
previous research from both th
process (Vancouver et
literatures. al.,
Although 2010),
we do not wish to blur impor- but
edge we are among tant the
distinctionsfirst
between expatriates
to and other
demon
ity in explaining adjustment
workers (see Harrison et al., 2004), this workpatter
paves
Notably, our findings with
the way for researchers to morerespect
directly tie the two to
work adjustmentliteratures
changes mirror
together in the future to gain better in- sim
in the job attitudes literature,
sight into how parti
individuals new to a work setting
explained by the
are able honeymoon-han
to adapt more effectively.
(Boswell et al., 2005, 2009). We stress that these
decreases in adjustment following higher initial
Managerial Implications
levels are likely to result more from gradual reca-
librations of effort in response to feedback than Our study also provides novel practical implica-
desires to "coast" or "give up." In addition, our tions. Extending prior work (e.g., Bhaskar-Shrini-
motivational framework contributes to prior vas et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2010), our findings
work detailing the merits of challenge stressors in suggest that expatriates high in cross-cultural mo-
developmental assignments by demonstrating tivation and psychological empowerment are more
that such stressors provide a critical upward shift likely to demonstrate higher initial levels of work
in adjustment trajectories by helping to maintain adjustment at early stages of an international as-
expatriates' effort over time. signment. Thus, managers might survey potential
Third, we found that although effects of average or expatriates to select those who exhibit higher cross-
initial levels of adjustment on outcomes are impor- cultural motivation and psychological empower-
tant, dynamic relationships between adjustment and ment. Additionally, organizations can take specific
outcomes are theoretically and practically relevant. actions to improve cross-cultural motivation prior
As theorized, we found that experiencing more pos- to assignment and empower expatriates in their
itive (or less negative) changes in work adjustment new assignments (cf. Ang et al., 2007; Spreitzer,
subsequently is associated with more positive ap- 1995). Examples would include providing informa-
praisals of work assignments. Additionally, these tion and helping potential expatriates acknowledge
changes are important indicators of the quality of positive and constructive benefits of better adjust-
work experiences above and beyond the initial ment in international assignments.
amount of adjustment and the average level of adjust- However, because expatriates with higher levels
ment experienced during the same period. Taken to- of initial motivation are more likely to experience
gether, we provide theoretical rationale and empirical decreases in work adjustment, our findings suggest
evidence for the unique role of changes in work ad- that they are also likely to demonstrate more nega-
justment as antecedents of subsequent expatriates' tive subsequent work attitudes. Thus, although ex-
attitudes. Thus, although prior work has demon- patriates with higher levels of motivation may

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
maintain higher levels nisms

of (i.e., motivation and emotion
adjustment thancontrol those
pro-
cesses) accountingthey
with lower levels of motivation, for our hypothesized
may also relation-
in-
terpret the decreasing changes
ships. Although
inwe theoretically
adjustment posited that more
these
negatively. These findings
processessuggest
were enacted, process-oriented
that managers research
is needed to
should take care to maintain more formally
high levels test the
of detailed mech-
expatri-
ate motivation over time. anisms posited in our model. Tothough,
Importantly, better explain the our
research also indicates adjustment
that process,
a powerful
we recommend that lever
future re- for
maintaining higher ratessearchof continue to adopt, andwork
expatriate rigorouslyadjust-
test, a
motivational process
ment - and subsequent outcomes - is the amount ofperspective in which expatri-
challenge stressors experienced. The
ates engage in strategies presence
that enable them to over- of
these stressors is largely come
under contextual
the andcontrol
personal challenges.
of organ- Such
studies could
izational leadership, and they canbridge
be important
used workto that models
ensure
individual
expatriates maintain high adaptation as
levels of a process
work with extant ex-
adjust-
patriate
ment. For example, leaders mayand newcomer research discretion
exercise on adjustment,
over the extent to which which toexpatriates
date has focused on more distal motiva-
experience
tional antecedents
time pressures, are responsible for(e.g., Chen et al., 2010;
multiple Harrison
challeng-
et al.,
ing projects, and find that 2011; Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller,
international assignments 2000;
Wang & Takeuchi, Thus,
are prerequisites for promotions. 2007). Future work should
aside from also
more
selecting individuals with specifically investigate
particular the role of intraper-
characteristics
sonal motivational
or motivational skills, managers processes, such
should also as effort,
considergoal
setting,
altering challenge stressor and goal striving,
levels to aid which are likely central
adjustment
to the
rates (cf. Dragoni, Tesluk, adjustment process.
Russell, & Oh, 2009). Our
findings also indicate that Moreover,
higher future research
levels shouldof
extendchallenge
our
findings by examining
stressors lead to more positive rates changes
ofinworkboth adjustment
adjust-
ment and, consequently, and antecedents
more of adjustment (i.e., changes
positive in the
attitudinal
motivation-
outcomes. This suggests that and stress-related variables).
managers mayTo ensureac-
complish our purpose
that expatriates remain satisfied and of understanding
focusedthe on workcom-
pleting their assignmentsadjustment process, we only focused
by increasing the on initial
extentlev- to
which challenge stressorsels are
of thesepresent.
antecedents in our study. However,
expatriates' motivational states and experiences of
Limitations and Future Research
stress and work demands may fluctuate over time
(e.g., in response to unexpected changes at work
The use of longitudinal, self-report data enabled [Louis, 1980]). Moving forward, research should
us to test our theoretical model and provide a collect repeated measures of motivation and stress-
deeper understanding of how adjustment unfolds related variables to consider more complex models
over time, but as with all methods, using this ap-that account for how fluctuations in such variables
proach requires trade-offs. Our sample was limited dynamically impact work adjustment patterns. An-
to four well-developed, Western host countries. We alytically, mixed-effects growth modeling or latent
focused on these four countries because of the large growth modeling could be utilized to capture such
percentage of all worldwide expatriates working in relationships (Ployhart & Vandenberg, 2010). Fu-
them. For example, in a 2005 census of 27 countries ture work should also account for the possibility
from the Organization for Economic Co-operationthat different antecedents are important to the work
and Development, expatriates in these four coun- adjustment process at different times (cf. Kanfer &
tries alone accounted for 62 percent (22.4 million of Ackerman, 1989). To extend our findings, future
36 million) of expatriates (Dumont & Lemaître, research should also include other types of adjust-
2005). Also, meta-analytic results indicate that the ment (e.g., interaction, general) and behavioral
effects of cultural novelty on work adjustment are forms of assignment effectiveness (e.g., job perfor-
relatively modest (p = -.12; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et mance, citizenship behavior). These different ad-
al., 2005). Still, future work ought to examine justment forms should also be examined longitudi-
whether our findings generalize to expatriates in a nally, as each form may demonstrate different
more culturally diverse set of countries. trajectories. Although different forms of adjustment
An additional limitation of our study is that we may have differential predictors, it is also possible
did not actually measure the underlying mecha- that enough overlap exists between them that it

35.154.245.7 on Sat, 04 Jul 2020 10:40:35 UTC
would tionalto
profitable be framework,
apply we have provided evidence that
a motivati
work examining to
the presencethem
of motivationally longitudi
relevant states (i.e.,
Bhaskar-Shrinivas cross-cultural
et al., motivation
2005). and psychological em-
powerment)on
Although its effects and stress-related
important cognitions (i.e., jo
indicates that workchallenge stressors) differentially impactchang
adjustment patterns
of adjustment
first several months of over time. These factors are amena-
reassignment is
ble to organizational
understand and account for efforts
in- suchits as selection,
own r
training, leadership,
work should investigate and job design interventions
longer and var -
that could increase
national assignment the likelihood that expatriates
durations. From
become better, and
standpoint, multiyear more quickly, adjusted. Our the- ar
assignments
mon (GMAC Global Relocation Services, 2004). We ory indicates that individuals may, of their own ac-
therefore caution against overgeneralizing our find- cord, proactively implement self-regulatory strategies
ings to adjustment processes that may unfold over that enable them to succeed in the novel, challenging
longer periods. Examining adjustment over a longer demands associated with expatriate assignments.
period of time would enable a more complete ac-
count of how and when expatriate adjustment pat-
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NEWCOMERS ABROAD: EXPATRIATE ADAPTATION DURING EARLY PHASES OF

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/43589256

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NEWCOMERS ABROAD: EXPATRIATE ADAPTATION DURING

lead to financial, professional, and personal costs

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uniquely influences important

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four psychological empowerment the assumption underlying Hypothesis 2, initial(i.e.,

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maintain higher levels nisms

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ysis: An introduction to self-regulation

Torbiorn, I. 1982. Living abroad: Personal adjustment

Wanberg, C. R., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. 2000. Predictors

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