Cockatoo

A cockatoo is any of the 21 parrot species belonging to the family

Cacatuidae, the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea. Cockatoo
Along with the Psittacoidea (true parrots) and the Strigopoidea
(large New Zealand parrots), they make up the order
Psittaciformes. The family has a mainly Australasian distribution,
ranging from the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian islands of
Wallacea to New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Australia.

Cockatoos are recognisable by the prominent crests and curved

bills. Their plumage is generally less colourful than that of other
parrots, being mainly white, grey or black and often with coloured
features in the crest, cheeks or tail. On average they are larger than
other parrots; however, the cockatiel, the smallest cockatoo
species, is a small bird. The phylogenetic position of the cockatiel
remains unresolved, other than that it is one of the earliest
offshoots of the cockatoo lineage. The remaining species are in
two main clades. The five large black coloured cockatoos of the Galah in Australia
genus Calyptorhynchus form one branch. The second and larger Scientific classification
branch is formed by the genus Cacatua, comprising 11 species of
white-plumaged cockatoos and four monotypic genera that Kingdom: Animalia
branched off earlier; namely the pink and white Major Mitchell's Phylum: Chordata
cockatoo, the pink and grey galah, the mainly grey gang-gang
cockatoo and the large black-plumaged palm cockatoo. Class: Aves

Cockatoos prefer to eat seeds, tubers, corms, fruit, flowers and Order: Psittaciformes
insects. They often feed in large flocks, particularly when ground- Superfamily: Cacatuoidea
feeding. Cockatoos are monogamous and nest in tree hollows.
Some cockatoo species have been adversely affected by habitat Family: Cacatuidae
loss, particularly from a shortage of suitable nesting hollows after G. R. Gray 1840
large mature trees are cleared; conversely, some species have
Type genus
adapted well to human changes and are considered agricultural
pests. Cacatua
Vieillot 1817[1]
Cockatoos are popular birds in aviculture, but their needs are
difficult to meet. The cockatiel is the easiest cockatoo species to Genera
maintain and is by far the most frequently kept in captivity. White
cockatoos are more commonly found in captivity than black Probosciger
cockatoos. Illegal trade in wild-caught birds contributes to the Callocephalon
decline of some cockatoo species in the wild. Nymphicus
Calyptorhynchus
Eolophus
Lophochroa
Contents Cacatua
Etymology
Taxonomy
Genera and species
Morphology
Voice
Distribution and habitat
Behaviour
Breeding
Diet and feeding
Predators and threats
Relationship with humans
Pests
Status and conservation
Aviculture
Culture
Intelligence Current range of cockatoos – red

Notes Finds of recent fossils – blue

References Synonyms
Cited texts
Plyctolophinae Vigors 1825[2]
External links

Etymology
The word cockatoo dates from the 17th century and is derived from Dutch kaketoe, which is from
Indonesian kakaktua. Seventeenth-century variants include cacato, cockatoon and crockadore, and cokato,
cocatore and cocatoo were used in the eighteenth century.[3][4] The derivation has also been used for the
family and generic names Cacatuidae and Cacatua, respectively.[5]

In Australian slang or vernacular speech, a person who is assigned to keep watch while others undertake
clandestine or illegal activities, particularly gambling, may be referred to as a "cockatoo".[6] Proprietors of
small agricultural undertakings are often jocularly or slightly disparagingly referred to as "cocky farmers."[7]

Taxonomy
The cockatoos were first defined as a subfamily Cacatuinae within the parrot family Psittacidae by the
English naturalist George Robert Gray in 1840, with Cacatua the first listed and type genus.[13] This group
has alternately been considered as either a full or subfamily by different authorities. The American
ornithologist James Lee Peters in his 1937 Check-list of Birds of the World, Sibley and Monroe in 1990
maintained it as a subfamily, while parrot expert Joseph Forshaw classified it as a family in 1973.[14]
Subsequent molecular studies indicate that the earliest offshoot from the original parrot ancestors were the
New Zealand parrots of the superfamily Strigopoidea, and following this the cockatoos, now a well-defined
group or clade, split off from the remaining parrots, which then radiated across the Southern Hemisphere
and diversified into the many species of parrots, parakeets, macaws, lories, lorikeets, lovebirds and other
true parrots of the superfamily Psittacoidea.[8][9][10][11][15][16][17][18][19]

The relationships among various cockatoo genera are largely resolved,[8][9][11][12][20][21] although the
placement of the cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) at the base of the cockatoos remains uncertain. The
cockatiel is alternatively placed basal to all other cockatoo species,[8][20] as the sister taxon to the black
cockatoo species of the genus Calyptorhynchus[11][12][21] or as the sister taxon to a clade consisting of the
white and pink cockatoo genera as well as the palm cockatoo.[9] The remaining species are within two main
clades, one consisting of the black species of the genus Calyptorhynchus while the other contains the
remaining species.[8][9][11][20][21] According to most authorities, the second clade includes the black palm
cockatoo (Probosciger), the grey and reddish galah (Eolophus), the gang-gang cockatoo (Callocephalon)
and the pinkish Major Mitchell's cockatoo (Lophochroa),[8][9][11][20] although Probosciger is sometimes
placed basal to all other species.[12] The remaining species are mainly white or slightly pinkish and all
belong to the genus Cacatua.[8][9][10][11][20] The genera Eolophus, Lophochroa and Cacatua are
hypomelanistic. The genus Cacatua is further subdivided into the subgenera Licmetis, commonly known as
corellas, and Cacatua, referred to as white cockatoos.[8][12][20][21][22] Confusingly, the term "white
cockatoo" has also been applied to the whole genus.[23][24] The five cockatoo species of the genus
Calyptorhynchus are commonly known as black cockatoos,[22] and are divided into two subgenera—
Calyptorhynchus and Zanda. The former group are sexually dichromatic, with the females having
prominently barred plumage.[25] The two are also distinguished by differences in the food-begging calls of
juveniles.[26]

The fossil record of cockatoos is even more limited than that of parrots in general, with only one truly
ancient cockatoo fossil known: a species of Cacatua, most probably subgenus Licmetis, found in Early
Miocene (16–23 million years ago) deposits of Riversleigh, Australia.[27] Although fragmentary, the
remains are similar to the western corella and the galah.[28] In Melanesia, subfossil bones of Cacatua
species which apparently did not survive early human settlement have been found on New Caledonia and
New Ireland.[29][30] The bearing of these fossils on cockatoo evolution and phylogeny is fairly limited,
although the Riversleigh fossil does allow tentative dating of the divergence of subfamilies.

Genera and species

There are about 44 different birds in the cockatoo family Cacatuidae

including recognized subspecies. The current subdivision of this
family is as follows:[Note 1]

Subfamily Nymphicinae

Genus Nymphicus
Cockatiel, Nymphicus hollandicus (Kerr, 1792)

Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae: The black cockatoos

Genus Calyptorhynchus (5 species)

Subgenus Calyptorhynchus – black-and-red cockatoos
The palm cockatoo has a strong bill
Red-tailed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus banksii and red cheeks. At 55–60 cm (22–
(Latham, 1790) (5 subspecies) 24 in) long and weighing 910–
Glossy black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus lathami 1,200 g (2.01–2.65 lb), it is the
(Temminck, 1807) (3 subspecies) largest cockatoo.[31]
Subgenus Zanda – black-and-yellow/white cockatoos
Yellow-tailed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus funereus (Shaw, 1794) (2–3 subspecies)
Carnaby's black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus latirostris Carnaby, 1948
Baudin's black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus baudinii Lear, 1832

Subfamily Cacatuinae
 Tribe Microglossini: One genus with one species, the black
palm cockatoo.
Genus Probosciger
Palm cockatoo, Probosciger aterrimus (Gmelin, 1788)
(4 subspecies)
Tribe Cacatuini: Four genera of white, pink and grey
species.
Genus Callocephalon
Gang-gang cockatoo, Callocephalon fimbriatum
(Grant, 1803)
Genus Eolophus
Galah, Eolophus roseicapilla (Vieillot, 1817) (3
subspecies)
Genus Lophochroa
Major Mitchell's cockatoo (also Leadbeater's Carnaby's black cockatoo with a zoo
cockatoo), Lophochroa leadbeateri (Vigors, 1831) (2 keeper at Taronga Zoo Sydney,
subspecies) Australia
Genus Cacatua (11 species)
Subgenus Cacatua – true white cockatoos
Yellow-crested cockatoo (also lesser sulphur-
crested cockatoo), Cacatua sulphurea (Gmelin,
1788) (4 subspecies)
Sulphur-crested cockatoo, Cacatua galerita
(Latham, 1790) (4 subspecies)
Blue-eyed cockatoo, Cacatua ophthalmica
Sclater, 1864
White cockatoo, Cacatua alba (Müller, 1776)
Salmon-crested cockatoo, Cacatua
moluccensis (Gmelin, 1788)
Subgenus Licmetis – corellas Major Mitchell's cockatoo flying at
Taronga Zoo Sydney.
Long-billed corella, Cacatua tenuirostris (Kuhl,
1820)
Western corella, Cacatua pastinator (Gould, 1841) (2 subspecies)
Little corella (also bare-eyed cockatoo), Cacatua sanguinea Gould, 1843 (4
subspecies)
Tanimbar corella (also Goffin's cockatoo), Cacatua goffiniana Roselaar and Michels,
2004[32]
Solomons cockatoo, Cacatua ducorpsii Pucheran, 1853
Red-vented cockatoo, Cacatua haematuropygia (Müller, 1776)

Morphology
The cockatoos are generally medium to large parrots of stocky build,
which range from 30–60 cm (12–24 in) in length and 300–1,200 g
(0.66–2.65 lb) in weight; however, one species, the cockatiel, is
considerably smaller and slimmer than the other species, being
32 cm (13 in) long (including its long pointed tail feathers) and 80–
100 g (2.8–3.5 oz) in weight.[6][31][33][34] The movable headcrest,
which is present in all cockatoos, is spectacular in many species;[35]
it is raised when the bird lands from flying or when it is aroused.[36]
Cockatoos share many features with other parrots, including the
characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot, with the two
middle toes forward and the two outer toes backward.[37] They differ
in the presence of an erectile crest and their lack of the Dyck texture
feather composition which causes the bright blues and greens seen in A captive sulphur-crested cockatoo
true parrots.[34] displaying its crest in the U.S.

Like other parrots, cockatoos have short legs, strong claws, a

waddling gait[34] and often use their strong bill as a third limb when climbing through branches. They
generally have long broad wings used in rapid flight, with speeds up to 70 km/h (43 mph) being recorded for
galahs.[38] The members of the genus Calyptorhynchus and larger white cockatoos, such as the sulphur-
crested cockatoo and Major Mitchell's cockatoo, have shorter, rounder wings and a more leisurely flight.[38]

Cockatoos have a large bill, which is kept sharp by rasping the two
mandibles together when resting. The bill is complemented by a
large muscular tongue which helps manipulate seeds inside the bill
so that they can be de-husked before eating.[6] During the de-
husking, the lower mandible applies the pressure, the tongue holds
the seed in place and the upper mandible acts as an anvil. The eye
region of the skull is reinforced to support muscles which move the
mandibles sideways.[34] The bills of male cockatoos are generally
slightly larger than those of their female counterparts, but this size
difference is quite marked in the palm cockatoo.[39]

The plumage of the cockatoos is less brightly coloured than that of

the other parrots, with species generally being either black, grey or
white. Many species have smaller areas of colour on their plumage,
often yellow, pink and red, usually on the crest or tail.[40] The galah
and Major Mitchell's cockatoo are more broadly coloured in pink
A pair of gang-gang cockatoos in tones.[41] Several species have a brightly coloured bare area around
NSW, Australia (male with red head the eye and face known as a periophthalmic ring; the large red patch
feathers). Cockatoos make lasting of bare skin of the palm cockatoo is the most extensive and covers
pair bonds. some of the face, while it is more restricted in some other species of
white cockatoo, notably the corellas and blue-eyed cockatoo.[41] The
plumage of males and females is similar in most species. The
plumage of the female cockatiel is duller than the male, but the most marked sexual dimorphism occurs in
the gang-gang cockatoo and the two species of black cockatoos in the subgenus Calyptorhynchus, namely
the red-tailed and glossy black cockatoos.[39] The iris colour differs in a few species, being pink or red in the
female galah and Major Mitchell's cockatoo and red-brown in some other female white cockatoo species.
The males all have dark brown irises.[39]

Cockatoos maintain their plumage with frequent preening throughout the day. They remove dirt and oil and
realign feather barbs by nibbling their feathers. They also preen other birds' feathers that are otherwise hard
to get at. Cockatoos produce preen-oil from a gland on their lower back and apply it by wiping their
plumage with their heads or already oiled feathers. Powder-down is
produced by specialised feathers in the lumbar region and distributed by the
preening cockatoo all over the plumage.[42]

Moulting is very slow and complex. Black cockatoos appear to replace their
flight feathers one at a time, their moult taking two years to complete. This
process is much shorter in other species, such as the galah and long-billed
corella, which each take around six months to replace all their flight
feathers.[42]

Voice

The vocalisations of cockatoos are loud and harsh.[6] They serve a number A white cockatoo's left foot
of functions, including allowing individuals to recognize one another, clasping aviary bars
alerting others of predators, indicating individual moods, maintaining the showing claws, scaly skin
cohesion of a flock and as warnings when defending nests. The use of calls and zygodactyly—the
and number of specific calls varies by species; the Carnaby's black cockatoo middle two toes forward
and the outer two toes
has as many as 15 types of call, whereas others, such as Major Mitchell's
backward.
cockatoo, have fewer. Some, like the gang-gang cockatoo, are comparatively
quiet but do have softer growling calls when feeding. In addition to
vocalisations, palm cockatoos communicate over large distances by
drumming on a dead branch with a stick.[43] Cockatoo species also make a characteristic hissing sound
when threatened.[36]

Distribution and habitat

Cockatoos have a much more restricted range than the true parrots,
occurring naturally only in Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and
some Pacific regions.[6] Eleven of the 21 species exist in the wild
only in Australia, while seven species occur only in the islands of
the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands. No cockatoo species are found in Borneo, despite their
presence on nearby Palawan and Sulawesi or many Pacific
islands,[44] although fossil remains have been recorded from New
Caledonia.[29]
The Tanimbar corella is restricted to
Three species occur in both New Guinea and Australia.[45] Some the islands of Tanimbar in
species have widespread distributions, with the galah, for example, Indonesia; a few feral escapees are
occurring over most of Australia, whereas other species have tiny found in Singapore.
distributions, confined to a small part of the continent, such as the
Baudin's black cockatoo of Western Australia or to a small island
group, such as the Tanimbar corella, which is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands of Indonesia. Some
cockatoos have been introduced accidentally to areas outside their natural range such as New Zealand,
Singapore, and Palau,[46] while two Australian corella species have been introduced to parts of the continent
where they are not native.

Cockatoos occupy a wide range of habitats from forests in subalpine regions to mangroves. However, no
species is found in all types of habitat.[47] The most widespread species,[6] such as the galah and
cockatiel,[48] are open-country specialists that feed on grass seeds.[6] They are often highly mobile fast
flyers and are nomadic. Flocks of birds move across large areas of the inland, locating and feeding on seed
and other food sources. Drought may force flocks from more arid areas to move further into farming
areas.[48] Other cockatoo species, such as the glossy black cockatoo, inhabit woodlands, rainforests,
shrublands and even alpine forests. The red-vented cockatoo inhabits mangroves and its absence from
northern Luzon may be related to the lack of mangrove forests there.[49] Forest-dwelling cockatoos are
generally sedentary, as the food supply is more stable and predictable.[50] Several species have adapted well
to human modified habitats and are found in agricultural areas and even busy cities.[51]

Behaviour
Cockatoos are diurnal and require daylight to find their food.[6] They are not early risers, instead waiting
until the sun has warmed their roosting sites before feeding. All species are generally highly social and
roost, forage and travel in colourful and noisy flocks. These vary in size depending on availability of food;
in times of plenty, flocks are small and number a hundred birds or less, while in droughts or other times of
adversity, they may swell up to contain thousands or even tens of thousands of birds; one record from the
Kimberley noted a flock of 32,000 little corellas. Species that inhabit open country form larger flocks than
those of forested areas.[52]

Some species require roosting sites that are located near drinking sites; other species travel great distances
between the roosting and feeding sites.[53] Cockatoos have several characteristic methods of bathing; they
may hang upside down or fly about in the rain or flutter in wet leaves in the canopy.[36] Cockatoos have a
preferred "footedness" analogous to human handedness. Most species are left-footed with 87–100% of
individuals using their left feet to eat, but a few species favor their right foot.[54]

Breeding

Cockatoos are monogamous breeders, with pair bonds that can last
many years. Many birds pair up in flocks before they reach sexual
maturity and delay breeding for a year at least. Females breed for the
first time anywhere from three to seven years of age and males are
often older. Sexual maturity is delayed so birds can develop the
skills for raising and parenting young, which is prolonged compared
with other birds; the young of some species remain with their
parents for up to a year.[55] Cockatoos may also display site fidelity,
returning to the same nesting sites in consecutive years.[43]
Hand-reared white cockatoo chicks
Courtship is generally simple, particularly for established pairs, with
bred for sale as pets.
the black cockatoos alone engaging in courtship feeding. Established
pairs do engage in preening each other, but all forms of courtship
drop off after incubation begins, possibly due to the strength of the pair-bond.[56]

Like most parrots, the cockatoos are cavity nesters, nesting in holes in trees,[57] which they are unable to
excavate themselves.[58] These hollows are formed from decay or destruction of wood by branches breaking
off, fungi or insects such as termites or even woodpeckers where their ranges overlap.[59] In many places
these holes are scarce and the source of competition, both with other members of the same species and with
other species and types of animal.[60] In general, cockatoos choose hollows only a little larger than
themselves, hence different-sized species nest in holes of corresponding (and different) sizes. If given the
opportunity, cockatoos prefer nesting over 7 or 8 metres (23 or 26 ft) above the ground[59] and close to water
and food.[61]

The nesting hollows are lined with sticks, wood chips and branches with leaves. The eggs of cockatoos are
oval and initially white, as their location makes camouflage unnecessary.[62] However, they do become
discoloured over the course of incubation. They range in size from 55 mm × 37 mm (2.2 in × 1.5 in) in the
palm and red-tailed black cockatoos, to 26 mm × 19 mm (1.02 in × 0.75 in) in the cockatiel.[62] Clutch size
varies within the family, with the palm cockatoo and some other larger cockatoos laying only a single egg
and the smaller species laying anywhere between two and eight eggs. Food supply also plays a role in clutch
size.[63] Some species can lay a second clutch if the first fails.[64] Around 20% of eggs laid are infertile.[65]
The cockatoos' incubation and brooding responsibilities may either be undertaken by the female alone in the
case of the black cockatoos or shared amongst the sexes as happens in the other species. In the case of the
black cockatoos, the female is provisioned by the male several times a day. The young of all species are born
covered in yellowish down, bar the palm cockatoo, whose young are born naked.[66] Cockatoo incubation
times are dependent on species size, with the smaller cockatiels having a period of around 20 days and the
larger Carnaby's black cockatoo incubating its eggs for up to 29 days.[6]

The nestling period also varies by species size, with larger species having longer nestling periods. It is also
affected by season and environmental factors and by competition with siblings in species with clutch sizes
greater than one. Much of what is known about the nestling period of some species is dependent on aviary
studies – aviary cockatiels can fledge after 5 weeks and the large palm cockatoos after 11 weeks.[6] During
this period, the young become covered in juvenile plumage while remaining in the hollow. Wings and tail
feathers are slow to grow initially but more rapid as the primary feathers appear. Nestlings quickly reach
about 80–90% of adult weight about two-thirds of the time through this period, plateauing before they leave
the hollow; they fledge at this weight with wing and tail feathers still to grow a little before reaching adult
dimensions.[67] Growth rate of the young, as well as numbers fledged, are adversely impacted by reduced
food supply and poor weather conditions.[68]

Diet and feeding

Cockatoos are versatile feeders and consume a range of mainly

Wild long-billed corellas in Perth.
The bird on the right is using its long
beak to dig for food in short grass.
vegetable food items. Seeds form a large part of the diet of all
species; these are opened with their large and powerful bills. The
galahs, corellas and some of the black cockatoos feed primarily on
the ground; others feed mostly in trees.[6] The ground-feeding
species tend to forage in flocks, which form tight, squabbling groups
where seeds are concentrated and dispersed lines where food is more
sparsely distributed;[69] they also prefer open areas where visibility
is good. The western and long-billed corellas have elongated bills to
excavate tubers and roots and the Major Mitchell's cockatoo walks
in a circle around the doublegree (Emex australis) to twist out and
remove the underground parts.[70]

Many species forage for food in the canopy of trees, taking advantage of serotiny (the storage of a large
supply of seed in cones or gumnuts by plant genera such as Eucalyptus, Banksia and Hakea), a natural
feature of the Australian landscape in dryer regions. These woody fruiting bodies are inaccessible to many
species and harvested in the main by parrots, cockatoos and rodents in more tropical regions. The larger
cones can be opened by the large bills of cockatoos but are too strong for smaller animals.[71] Many nuts and
fruits lie on the end of small branches which are unable to support the weight of the foraging cockatoo,
which instead bends the branch towards itself and holds it with its foot.[72]

While some cockatoos are generalists taking a wide range of foods, others are specialists. The glossy black
cockatoo specialises in the cones of trees of the genus Allocasuarina, preferring a single species, A.
verticillata. It holds the cones in its foot and shreds them with its powerful bill before removing the seeds
with its tongue.[73] Some species take large numbers of insects, particularly when breeding; in fact the bulk
of the yellow-tailed black cockatoo's diet is made up of insects. The large bill is used in order to extract
grubs and larvae from rotting wood. The amount of time cockatoos have to spend foraging varies with the
season.[72] During times of plenty they may need to feed for only a few hours in the day, in the morning and
evening, then spend the rest of the day roosting or preening in trees, but during the winter most of the day
may be spent foraging. The birds have increased nutritional requirements during the breeding season, so
they spend more time foraging for food during this time. Cockatoos have large crops, which allow them to
store and digest food for some time after retiring to a tree.[74]

Predators and threats

The peregrine falcon and little eagle have been reported taking galahs and the wedge-tailed eagle has been
observed killing a sulphur-crested cockatoo.[75] Eggs and nestlings are vulnerable to many hazards. Various
species of monitor lizard (Varanus) are able to climb trees and enter hollows. Other predators recorded
include the spotted wood owl on Rasa Island in the Philippines; the amethystine python, black butcherbird
and rodents including the giant white-tailed rat[76] in Cape York; and brushtail possum on Kangaroo Island.
Furthermore, galahs and little corellas competing for nesting space with the glossy black cockatoo on
Kangaroo Island have been recorded killing nestlings of the latter species there. Severe storms may also
flood hollows drowning the young and termite or borer activity may lead to the internal collapse of nests.[77]

Like other parrots, cockatoos can be afflicted by psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD). The viral
infection causes feather loss and beak malformation and reduces the bird's overall immunity. Particularly
prevalent in sulphur-crested cockatoos, little corellas and galahs, it has been recorded in 14 species of
cockatoo to date. Although unlikely to significantly impact on large, healthy populations of birds in the wild,
PBFD may pose a high risk to smaller stressed populations.[78]

A white cockatoo and a sulphur-crested cockatoo were found to be infected with the protozoon
Haemoproteus and another sulphur-crested cockatoo had the malaria parasite Plasmodium on analysis of
faecal samples at Almuñecar ornithological garden in Granada in Spain.[79] Like amazon parrots and
macaws, cockatoos frequently develop cloacal papillomas. The relationship with malignancy is unknown, as
is the cause, although a parrot papilloma virus has been isolated from a grey parrot with the condition.[80]

Relationship with humans

Human activities have had positive effects on some species of cockatoo and
negative effects on others. Many species of open country have benefited
greatly from anthropogenic changes to the landscape, with the great increase
in reliable seed food sources, available water and have also adapted well to a
diet including foreign foodstuffs. This benefit appears to be restricted to
Australian species, as cockatoos favouring open country outside Australia
have not become more abundant. Predominantly forest-dwelling species
have suffered greatly from habitat destruction; in the main, they appear to
have a more specialised diet and have not been able to incorporate exotic
food into their diet. A notable exception is the yellow-tailed black cockatoo
in eastern Australia.[81]

A sulphur-crested cockatoo
Pests visiting a balcony in eastern
Sydney for bird seeds
Several species of cockatoo can be serious agricultural pests.[82] They are
sometimes controlled by shooting, poisoning or capture followed by
gassing. Non-lethal damage mitigation methods used include scaring, habitat manipulation and the provision
of decoy food dumps or sacrifice crops to distract them from the main crop. They can be a nuisance in urban
areas due to destruction of property. They maintain their bills in the wild by chewing on wood but, in
suburbia, they may chew outdoor furniture, door and window frames;[51] soft decorative timbers such as
western red cedar are readily demolished.[83] Birds may also target external wiring and fixtures such as solar
water heaters,[51] television antennae and satellite dishes.[83] A business in central Melbourne suffered as
sulphur-crested cockatoos repeatedly stripped the silicone sealant from the plate glass windows.[84] Galahs
and red-tailed black cockatoos have stripped electrical cabling in rural areas and tarpaulin is targeted
elsewhere.[84] Outside Australia, the Tanimbar corella is a pest on Yamdena Island where it raids maize
crops.[85]

In 1995 the Government of the state of Victoria published a report

on problems caused by long-billed corellas, sulphur-crested
cockatoos and galahs, three species which, along with the little
corella, have large and growing populations, having benefited from
anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Subsequent to the findings
and publication of the report, these three species were declared
unprotected by a Governor in Council Order under certain
conditions and are allowed to be destroyed where serious damage is
being caused by them to trees, vineyards, orchards, recreational
reserves and commercial crops.[86] Damage covered by the report
included not only that to cereal crops, fruit and nut orchards and
some kinds of vegetable crops but also to houses and
Sulphur-crested cockatoos
communications equipment.[87] The little corella is a declared pest
damaging the Sturt Mall shopping
of agriculture in Western Australia, where it is an aviculturally
centre facade, made of polystyrene
introduced species. The birds damage sorghum, maize, sunflower,
chickpeas and other crops. They also defoliate amenity trees in parks
and gardens, dig for edible roots and corms on sports grounds and
race tracks, as well as chew wiring and household fittings.[88] In South Australia, where flocks can number
several thousand birds and the species is listed as unprotected, they are accused of defoliating red gums and
other native or ornamental trees used for roosting, damaging tarpaulins on grain bunkers, wiring and
flashing on buildings, taking grain from newly seeded paddocks and creating a noise nuisance.[89]

Several rare species and subspecies, too, have been recorded as causing problems. The Carnaby's black
cockatoo, a threatened Western Australian endemic, has been considered a pest in pine plantations where the
birds chew off the leading shoots of growing pine trees, resulting in bent trunks and reduced timber
value.[90] They are also known to damage nut and fruit crops,[91] and have learnt to exploit canola crops.[92]
The Baudin's black cockatoo, also endemic to the south-west of Western Australia, can be a pest in apple
and pear orchards where it destroys the fruit to extract the seeds.[90] Muir's corella, the nominate subspecies
of the western corella, is also a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, as well as being nationally
vulnerable and listed under state legislation as being "rare or likely to become extinct".[93]

Status and conservation

According to the IUCN and BirdLife International, seven species of cockatoo are considered to be
vulnerable or worse and one is considered to be near-threatened.[96][97] Of these, two species—the red-
vented cockatoo and the yellow-crested cockatoo—are considered to be critically endangered.[98]

The principal threats to cockatoos are habitat loss and the wildlife trade. All cockatoos are dependent on
trees for nesting and are vulnerable to their loss; in addition many species have specialised habitat
requirements or live on small islands and have naturally small ranges, making them vulnerable to the loss of
these habitats.[99] Cockatoos are popular as pets and the capture and trade has threatened some species;
between 1983 and 1990, 66,654 recorded salmon-crested cockatoos were exported from Indonesia, a figure
that does not include the number of birds caught for the domestic trade or that were exported illegally.[100]
The capture of many species has subsequently been banned but the
trade continues illegally. Birds are put in crates or bamboo tubing
and conveyed on boats out of Indonesia and the Philippines.[101] Not
only are the rare species smuggled out of Indonesia but also
common and rare cockatoos alike are smuggled out of Australia;
birds are sedated, covered in nylon stockings and packed into PVC
tubing which is then placed in unaccompanied luggage on
international flights.[101] Mortality is significant (30%) and eggs,
more easily hidden on the bodies of smugglers on flights, are
increasingly smuggled instead. Trafficking is thought to be run by The red-vented cockatoo is a
organised gangs, who also trade Australian species for overseas critically endangered species
species such as macaws coming the other way.[102] endemic to the Philippines.[94]

All species of cockatoo except the cockatiel are protected by the

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES), which restricts import and export of wild-
caught parrots to special licensed purposes. Five cockatoo species
(including all subspecies)—the Tanimbar corella (Cacatua
goffiniana), red-vented cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia),
Moluccan cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis), yellow-crested cockatoo
(Cacatua sulphurea) and palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus)—
are protected on the CITES Appendix I list. With the exception of
the cockatiel, all remaining cockatoo species are protected on the
The blue-eyed cockatoo is a
CITES Appendix II list.[103] vulnerable species endemic to New
Britain.[95]

Aviculture

Kept for their appearance, their intelligence and engaging

A wing-clipped pet. Salmon-crested
cockatoos, also known as Moluccan
cockatoos,[104] are the largest white-
coloured cockatoo species at about
52 cm (20 in) long and weighing
775–935 grams.[105] Cockatoos can
be noisy and demanding pets.
on Australian wildlife but birds seized by governments have been loaned.[113]
personalities,[6] cockatoos can nonetheless be problematic pets or
companion parrots.[106] Generally, they are not good at mimicking
human speech,[107] although the little corella is a renowned
talker.[108] As social animals, wild cockatoos have been known to
learn human speech from ex-captive birds that have integrated into a
flock.[109] Their care is best provided by those experienced in
keeping parrots.[106] Cockatoos are social animals and their social
needs are difficult to cater for,[106] and they can suffer if kept in a
cage on their own for long periods of time.[110]
The cockatiel is by far the cockatoo species most frequently kept in
captivity. Among U.S. bird keepers that participated in a survey by
APPMA in 2003/04, 39% had cockatiels, as opposed to only 3% that
had (other) cockatoo species.[111] The white cockatoos are more
often encountered in aviculture than the black cockatoos.[112] Black
cockatoos are rarely seen in European zoos due to export restrictions

Cockatoos are often very affectionate with their owner and at times other people but can demand a great
deal of attention. Furthermore, their intense curiosity means they must be given a steady supply of objects to
tinker with, chew, dismantle and destroy. Parrots in captivity may suffer from boredom, which can lead to
stereotypic behaviour patterns, such as feather-plucking. Feather plucking is likely to stem from
psychological rather than physical causes.[114] Other major drawbacks include their painful bites,[115] and
their piercing screeches.[116] The salmon-crested[117] and white cockatoo species are particular
offenders.[118] All cockatoos have a fine powder on their feathers, which may induce allergies in certain
people.[115] In general, the smaller cockatoo species such as Goffin's and quieter Galah's cockatoos are much
easier to keep as pets.[119] The cockatiel is one of the most popular and easiest parrots to keep as a
pet,[120][121] and many colour mutations are available in aviculture.[33]

Larger cockatoos can live 30 to 70 years depending on the species, or

occasionally longer, and cockatiels can live for about 20 years. As pets they
require a long-term commitment from their owners. Their longevity is
considered a positive trait as it reduces instances of the loss of a pet.[6] The
oldest cockatoo in captivity was a Major Mitchell's cockatoo named Cookie,
residing at Brookfield Zoo in Chicago, which lived to be 83 years old
(1933–2016).[122][123][124] A salmon-crested cockatoo named King Tut who
resided at San Diego Zoo was nearly 69 when he died in 1990 and a palm
cockatoo reached 56 in London Zoo in 2000.[125] However, anecdotal
reports describe birds of much greater ages.[125] Cocky Bennett of Tom
Ugly's Point in Sydney was a celebrated sulphur-crested cockatoo who was
reported to have reached an age of 100 years or more. He had lost his
feathers and was naked for much of his life.[126] A palm cockatoo was A pet cockatiel. The
reported to have reached 80 or 90 years of age in an Australian zoo,[43] and cockatiel is about 32 cm
a little corella that was removed from a nest in central Australia in 1904 was (13 in) long and is by far the
reported still alive in the late 1970s.[75] In February 2010, a white cockatoo smallest and lightest
named Arthur was claimed to be 90 years old; he had lived with a family for cockatoo.
generations in Dalaguete, Cebu, before being taken to Cebu City Zoo.[127]

Trained cockatoos are sometimes seen in bird shows in zoos. They are generally less motivated by food than
other birds; some may more respond to petting or praise than food. Cockatoos can often be taught to wear a
parrot harness, enabling their owners to take them outdoors. Cockatoos have been used in animal-assisted
therapy, generally in nursing homes.[128]

Cockatoos often have pronounced responses to musical sounds and numerous videos exist showing the birds
dancing to popular music. Research conducted in 2008 with an Eleonora cockatoo named Snowball had
indicated that this particular individual is indeed capable of beat induction—perceiving human-created
music and synchronizing his body movements to the beat.[129]

Culture

The earliest European depiction of a cockatoo is in the

falconry book De arte venandi cum avibus, written by
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.[130] The next
European depiction of a cockatoo, previously thought to
be the earliest, is present in the 1496 painting by Andrea
Mantegna titled Madonna della Vittoria. Later examples
were painted by Hungarian artist Jakob Bogdani (1660–
1724), who resided in Amsterdam from 1683 and then
England,[131] and appeared with numerous other birds
Dutch still life with cockatoo, circa 1640
in the bird pieces of the Dutch painter Melchior
d'Hondecoeter (1636–1695).[132] A cockatoo is the
unlucky subject in An Experiment on a Bird in the Air
Pump by English artist Joseph Wright of Derby, its fate unclear in the painting.[133] Cockatoos were among
the many Australian plants and animals which featured in decorative motifs in Federation architecture of the
early 20th century.[134] A visit to a Camden Town pet shop in 1958 inspired English painter William Roberts
to paint The Cockatoos, in the collection of the Tate Gallery.[135][136] American artist and sculptor Joseph
Cornell was known for placing cutout paper cockatoos in his works.[137]

The ACT Government adopted the gang-gang cockatoo as its official faunal emblem on 27 February
1997.[138] The short-lived budget airline Impulse Airlines featured a sulphur-crested cockatoo on its
corporate livery (and aeroplanes).[139] The palm cockatoo, which has a unique beak and face colouration, is
used as a symbol by the World Parrot Trust.[140]

Two 1970s police dramas featured protagonists with pet cockatoos. In the 1973 film Serpico, Al Pacino's
character had a pet white cockatoo and the television show Baretta saw Robert Blake's character with Fred
the Triton cockatoo.[141] The popularity of the latter show saw a corresponding rise in popularity of
cockatoos as pets in the late 1970s.[142] Cockatoos have been used frequently in advertising; a cockatoo
appeared in a 'cheeky' (and later toned-down) 2008 advertising campaign for Cockatoo Ridge Wineries.[143]

Intelligence

A team of scientists from Oxford University, the University of Vienna and the Max Planck Institute
conducted tests on ten untrained Tanimbar corellas (Cacatua goffini), and found that they were able to solve
complex mechanical puzzles.[144]

Notes
1. Parentheses around authority name indicate originally in a different genus.

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Cited texts
Athan, Mattie Sue (1999). Guide to companion parrot behavior: with full-color photos and
instructive line drawings (https://archive.org/details/guidetocompanion00atha). Woodbury, N.Y.:
Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-7641-0688-0.
Cameron, Matt (2007). Cockatoos. Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-
0-643-09232-7.
Christidis, Les; Boles, Walter (2008). Systematics and taxonomy of Australian birds.
Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Pub. ISBN 978-0-643-06511-6.
Forshaw, Joseph M. (2006). Parrots of the World; an Identification Guide (https://archive.org/d
etails/parrotsofworldid0000fors). Illustrated by Frank Knight. Princeton University Press.
ISBN 978-0-691-09251-5.
Forshaw, Joseph Michael; Cooper, William T. (1978). Parrots of the world (2nd ed.).
Melbourne: Lansdowne Editions. ISBN 978-0-7018-0690-3.
Cayley, Neville William; Lendon, Alan H. (1973). Australian parrots: in field and aviary. Sydney:
Angus & Robertson. ISBN 978-0-207-12424-2.
Low, Rosemary (1999). The loving care of pet parrots. Saanichton, B.C.: Hancock House.
ISBN 978-0-88839-439-2.

External links
Australian Faunal Directory (https://web.archive.org/web/20090701034706/http://www.environ
ment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/Cacatua_(Cacatua))
MyToos.com (http://www.mytoos.com/) – explaining many of the responsibilities of cockatoo
ownership
Cockatoo videos (http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/cockatoos-cacatuidae) on the Internet Bird
Collection

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