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Coal Rank
Coal rank is the measure of the degree of organic metamorphism (coalification) of a
coal, ranging from low-rank peat to high-rank meta-anthracite.
From: Coal and Peat Fires: A Global Perspective, 2011

Related terms:
Bituminous Coal, Coal Seam, Maceral, Vitrinite, Lignite, Reservoir

View all Topics

Introduction to Applied Coal Petrology

Colin R. Ward, Isabel Suárez-Ruiz, in Applied Coal Petrology, 2008

Evaluation and Significance of Coal Rank

Coal rank is commonly expressed in terms of vitrinite reflectance (see Chapter 2). Because it is measured by
optical microscopy and takes into account only one coal component, this parameter has the capacity to provide
an indicator that is independent of other factors (e.g., coal type or grade). Unlike other indicators, such as total
(organic) carbon, volatile matter, or calorific value, it is not dependent on the overall coal composition (e.g.,
relative proportions of different macerals); the only requirement for the determination is that vitrinite is present
in the coal.
Although vitrinite reflectance is widely used as a measure of coal rank, it is not always a truly independent rank
indicator. As discussed further in Chapter 2, some vitrinites may have anomalously low reflectance ( due, for
example, to the original depositional environment), a phenomenon known as reflectance suppression (Barker,
1991), which may give misleading results if other indicators are not taken into account. Despite the advantages
and simplicity of vitrinite reflectance, it is very difficult to find an indicator of coal rank that is totally independent
of the organic and inorganic composition or of other influencing factors such as the depositional environment of
the original peat deposit.
Despite the difficulties in identifying a robust rank indicator, a number of coal properties progressively change
with rank advance (Figure 1.3), and the rank of a coal is thus a major factor influencing its potential usage. For
example, the heating value determines how much coal is required to produce a given amount of steam and
hence to generate a given amount of electricity, and the rank thus represents the fundamental basis for assessing
the values of coals, per tonne, on the steaming coal market.

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Figure 1.3. Variation in some key coal properties with rank advance.
Source: Coal Geology and Coal Technology, by C. R. Ward (Ed.), “Blackwell Scientific Publications, Melbourne,” 345 pp., copyright 1984, with
permission from Blackwell.

The free-swelling index (FSI), which is important for both metallurgical and steaming coals, is also at least in part
a rank-dependent parameter, increasing with rank through the high-volatile bituminous range but decreasing
again above the medium volatile bituminous range. The free-swelling index also depends on the maceral
composition of the coal, with the vitrinite maceral group being the main contributor to swelling properties. Some
of the inertinite group macerals, and also the mineral matter, act as diluents, reducing the swelling properties
that would otherwise apply to vitrinite-rich coals at the relevant rank level.

Worldwide Coalbed Gas Development

Romeo M. Flores, in Coal and Coalbed Gas, 2014

Geologic Age and Coal Rank

The coal rank variations in the Cretaceous and Tertiary coal-bearing strata of the WCSB are mostly the reflection
of the maximum depth of burial and deformation as related to (Smith et al., 2004) the following: (1) basin
subsidence, (2) burial by thick Tertiary molasses and in part later eroded during the late stages of the Laramide
Orogeny, (3) tectonic burial by stacked thrust sheets, and (4) proximity to maximum tectonic deformation areas.
Thus, coal rank in the WCSB varies geologically and geographically. These variations in the patterns of
subsidence, orogenesis, and stratigraphic/sedimentologic fill in the Cordilleran foreland basin have created
distinct regions between which coal characteristics change and thus influence the mode of exploration and
development of coalbed gas (Beaton, 2003a; Smith et al., 1994; Taylor et al., 2008).
The coal deposits in the 15 Canadian coal basins occur in strata ranging in age from Devonian to Tertiary (Smith,
1989; Smith et al., 1994; Taylor et al., 2008; Vogler, 2006). However, the major targets of exploration and
development for coalbed gas are limited to the WCSB, which contains coal zones in the Jurassic to Tertiary
(Paleocene) strata (Figure 9.13). The Jurassic coals in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains and Foothills have
ranks that are high- to low-volatile bituminous with sparse anthracites in the Kootenay Group (Figure 9.12 and
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Figure 9.13) (Smith et al., 1994). The Early Cretaceous coals in the Rocky Mountain Inner Foothills between the
Front Ranges and Interior Plains range from medium- to low-volatile bituminous rank and from high-volatile
bituminous to anthracite in the Gates Formation in the Luscar Group (Beaton, 2003; Smith et al., 1994; Figure
9.12 and Figure 9.13). Early Cretaceous coals in the Mannville Group, which underlies the Interior Plains range
from subbituminous to high-volatile bituminous rank in the north and east, and high-volatile bituminous C-A in
the central Plains (Beaton, 2003; Figure 9.12 and Figure 9.13). Coal ranks of Mannville coals increase with depth
westward and these range from medium- to low-volatile bituminous coals. Thus, the regional vertical and lateral

variations in coal rank demonstrate the influence of sedimentary and tectonic burial as well as proximity to
deformation where folding and faulting might have increased rank.

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FIGURE 9.13. Generalized stratigraphic column showing geologic ages of rock units (e.g. groups and formations) from the Rocky Mountain
ranges and foothills to the plains in Western Canada Sedimentary Basin.
Source: Modified from Beaton (2003a).

Also, in the Interior Plains, the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary coals range from high-volatile bituminous to
subbituminous and lignite rank (Figure 9.12). The coal rank increases at depth and toward the Foothills typified
by the coal zone in the Upper Cretaceous Horseshoe Canyon Formation, which ranges from subbituminous to
high-volatile bituminous (Beaton, 2003; Smith et al., 1994). The Drumheller coal zone in the Horseshoe Canyon
Formation ranges from subbituminous B-A at shallow depths to high-volatile bituminous C in the deeper Central
Plains region. The coal zone in the Upper Cretaceous-Tertiary Scollard Formation (e.g. Ardley) ranges in rank
from subbituminous at the outcrop to high-volatile bituminous B at depth in the western Plains.

Coalbed Gas Plays in WCSB

According to the assessment report of the Canadian Gas Potential Committee (2005), the coalbed gas-in-place
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resource is about 14.8 Tcm and recoverable coalbed gas resource ranges from 0.3 to 1.3 Tcm. The coalbed gas-in-
place resource estimates presume full gas saturation of the coal reservoir. The majority of the coalbed gas in-
place resource of Canada (about 9.8 Tcm) is in the WCSB and specifically in the Cretaceous coals (e.g. Horseshoe
Canyon, Mannville; Petrel Robertson Consulting, 2010; Taylor et al., 2008). Commercial development of coalbed
gas in Canada started in 2000 and as of 2008, there are more than 6000 producing wells. Most of these coalbed
gas wells were drilled during the years 2004–2007 and are in the Cretaceous age coalbed gas plays within the
WCSB (Taylor et al., 2008). As of 2008, 28.1 million cubic meter (MMm3) of the coalbed gas is produced from the

WCSB coalbed gas plays. The coalbed gas production from 2000 to 2008 in WCSB in Alberta in the Cretaceous
Horseshoe Canyon and Mannville is shown in Figure 9.14 (Forward Energy, 2009).

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FIGURE 9.14. Chart showing 8 years coalbed gas production in the Cretaceous Horseshoe Canyon Formation and Mannville Group in WCSB,
Alberta, Canada.
Source: Adopted from Forward Energy (2009).

There are more than 40 potential coalbed gas plays found in coal zones in basins in Canada (Gatens, 2005).
Coalbed gas plays are characterized according to specific parameters of basins and coal zones (Dawson & Sloan,
2001; Forward Energy, 2009). Basin parameters include depths of coal beds, rank, gas content, permeability, and
degree of deformation (Dawson & Sloan, 2001). Based on overarching controlling factors of basin depth and
deformation, Dawson and Sloan (2001) divided the WCSB, from west to east, into four basin plays: (1) restricted
basins (British Columbia), (2) foothills and mountain regions (British Columbia and Alberta), (3) deep foreland
basin (Alberta and Saskatchewan), and (4) shallow foreland basin (British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan).
Coal zone parameters include depth, coal thickness, gas content, and gas-in-place resource (Forward Energy,
2009). The gas-in-place resource is estimated from the total gas content and total volume of coal (Chapter 6) per
section.
A combination of the coal zone parameters is summarized in Table 9.3 to characterize selected coalbed gas plays
in the WCSB The Scollard Belly River and part Horseshoe plays are in what are termed by Dawson and Sloan
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in the WCSB. The Scollard, Belly River, and part Horseshoe plays are in what are termed by Dawson and Sloan
(2001) as shallow foreland basins. Part of the Horseshow and Mannville plays are thought to be within a deep
foreland basin (Dawson and Sloan 2001). In all the selected coalbed gas plays discussed in this book, coal rank
increases with depth (vertical trend) and geographic areas (lateral trend). Mostly coal rank increases toward the
west or to the Foothills or toward the direction of deformation where the coal beds dip into the deeper part of the
foreland basin. The increase of coal rank at depth and to the west is concomitant with increase of gas content.
However, permeability, which conventionally decreases with depth due to overburden pressure, does not appear
to be a major factor in the gas content (e.g. Mannville). The Horseshoe Canyon and Mannville coalbed gas plays

have permeability up to 10 mD and the highest rate of gas production. However, Gentzis et al. (2008) reported
that the Mannville has locally variable permeability ranging from 1 to 4 mD. According to Taylor et al. (2008), the
daily production rate is 0.014 Bcm mainly from the Horseshoe Canyon (13.2 MMm3) and Mannville
(2.52 MMm3).

TABLE 9.3. Summary of Coal Reservoir Parameters in the WCSB, Which Includes the Coalbed Gas Plays, Depth, Coal Thickness and
Permeability, Gas Content, Rate of Gas Production, and Drilling. Compiled from Numerous References

Coalbed Coal Rank Coal Bed Gas Coal Depth Rate of Drilling References
Gas Plays (Vertical and Thickness Content Permeability (m) Gas
(Formation; Lateral Trends) (m) (cc/g) (mD) Production
Group) (MMm3)

Scollard Subbituminous to 3–15 0.94– <0.1–7 <750 No data No data. Smith et

high-volatile 4.06 Used vertical al. (1994),
bituminous C wells for Dawson et
(lateral trend). tests. al. (2000),
Subbituminous to Dawson
high-volatile and Sloan
bituminous B (2001),
(vertical trend). Beaton,
2003

Horseshoe Subbituminous to 1–4 0.78– 3–5 200– 13.2 Vertical; Beaton,

Canyon high-volatile 2.34 1000 horizontal 2003,
bituminous (lateral (multilateral) Taylor et
trend). al. (2008),
Subituminous B-A Forward
to high-volatile energy
bituminous C (2009)
(vertical trend)

Belly River Subituminous C-B 1–3 1–10 <750 3.36 No data Dawson
to high-volatile and Sloan
bituminous B (2001), APF
(lateral trend). energy
Subbituminuous (2004),
B-A to high- Taylor et
volatile al. (2008)
bituminous C
(vertical trend).

Manville Subbituminous to <15 4.68– <0.1–10 750– 2.52 Vertical; Dawson et

high-volatile 10.92 (1–4) 2000 horizontal al. (2000),
bituminous (lateral (8–15) Dawson
trend). and Sloan
High-volatile (2001),
bituminous C–A Beaton,
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bituminous C A Beaton,
Coalbed to medium
Coal Rank and Coal Bed Gas Coal Depth Rate of Drilling 2003,
References
Gas Plays low bituminous,
(Vertical and Thickness Content Permeability (m) Gas Baltoiu et
(Formation; Lateral
anthracite
Trends)
(vertical (m) (cc/g) (mD) Production al. (2008)
Group) trend) (MMm3) Taylor et
al. (2008),
Gentzis et
al. (2008)

cc/g, cubic centimeter per gram; mD, millidarcy; MMm3, million cubic meter.

Tectonic Setting and Gondwana Basin Architecture in the

Indian Shield
Subhrangsu K. Acharyya, in Developments in Structural Geology and Tectonics, 2019

15.6 Rank Paleodepth Relation

By computing paleodepth from the coal rank (Hacquebard and Cameron, 1989), the loss of cover in the Jharia
Basin has been estimated to be of the order of 3–3.8 km (Mishra et al., 1990; Chakrabarti, 1992a,b). The loss of
cover in other basins with low-rank (Ro max: 0.40%–0.60%), noncoking coals of the Talcher and the Godavari and
Wardha Valley basins are quite low (1.8–2 km). It is observed that higher cover (more than 3000 m) is restricted to
the part of the basin preserving high-rank coking coal (central-eastern segment of the Damodar Valley basins). A
part of the Satpura Basin also indicates higher depth of burial (approx. 3000 m), producing medium-coking coal.
Higher cover was possibly due to comparatively rapid sinking of the basin accommodating thicker pile of
sediments. Prevalence of low-rank coals in other basins was due to a shallower depth of burial and consequent
low burial temperature. It is concluded that shallowing of the basin, and consequent low burial temperature, in
general, affected the maturity of the coal (Chakrabarti, 1996).

Coal Composition and Reservoir Characterization

Romeo M. Flores, in Coal and Coalbed Gas, 2014

It was originally believed by most workers that coal rank is the major contributor to gas content until Bustin and
Clarkson (1998) revealed, “globally there is no or little correlation between coal rank and adsorption capacity”.
Also, these authors indicated that there is a good correlation between microporosity, vitrinite, and high-pressure
methane adsorption capacity. Despite these observations, many researches find no relationship between coal
composition and gas properties (Mares et al., 2009; Moore, 2012). Nevertheless, many studies have correlated
coal composition to microporosity (Busch & Gensterblum, 2011; Ceglarsk-Stefańska & Zarębska, 2002; Chalmers
& Bustin, 2007; Zhang et al., 2010). The key to connecting the dots from coal composition to gas content is partly
tied to vitrinite, which originated from woody plants in specific mire/bog depositional settings. However, there is
nonwoody coal composition (e.g. inertinite and mixed macerals) that shows positive correlation with gas content
(Mastalerz, Goodman, & Chirdon, 2012; Stricker, Flores, & Trippi, 2010). The similarity of gas adsorption capacity
of woody and nonwoody composition suggests that both have similar pore architecture (Chalmers & Bustin,
2007). Gas content or volume is controlled by the internal surface area (e.g. pores and fractures) of the coal
(Lamberson & Bustin, 1993). Thus, there are fundamental differences in adsorption capacity worldwide, which
cannot be accounted for by coal rank or composition.
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y p

Coal Gasification
Nicola J. Wagner, ... J.C. van Dyk, in Applied Coal Petrology, 2008

Fischer Assay/Gray-King Assay for Tar or Oil Production

During pyrolysis, liquid products are generated, the composition of which is dependent on coal rank,
petrographic composition, devolatilization kinetics, and operating temperature (Berkowitz, 1985). Laboratory-
scale quantities of light oils are typically determined using Fisher assay or Gray-King assay tests, both of which
determine the proportion of char, liquid hydrocarbon, water, and gas (by difference), thus measuring the
propensity of a coal to produce tar and light oils. Anthracite yields little or no tar due to low H/C ratios,
whereas sapropelic coals, with a high H/C and low O/C ratio, deliver more tar than humic coals of the same
rank (Berkowitz, 1985). Vitrinite is an important component for tar production. Maximum tar yields occur
between 500°C and 600°C with high heating rates; above 550°C, secondary reactions (cracking) may occur to
produce lighter hydrocarbon gases (Peters and Bertling, 1965).

Spontaneous Combustion and Coal Petrology

Maria Mastalerz, ... Jennifer M.K. O’Keefe, in Coal and Peat Fires: A Global Perspective, 2011

Coal Rank
Coal rank is the measure of the degree of organic metamorphism (coalification) of a coal, ranging from low-rank
peat to high-rank meta-anthracite (Table 3.1.5). Rank can be determined through a number of chemical and
physical parameters. In general, no single parameter can be used throughout the entire rank range. For example,
equilibrium moisture is one of the most appropriate parameters at low ranks, but gives way to heating value and
volatile matter at intermediate ranks and hydrogen at the highest ranks. Vitrinite reflectance is a good parameter
for many coal ranks, although it is of questionable value at the lowest ranks where interspecies differences in
wood types and their varying preservation could greatly influence individual values. For bituminous coals,
vitrinite reflectance is a commonly used rank parameter and has advantages over chemical parameters in being
based on one maceral, eliminating the chemical differences between macerals and the interfering effects of
mineral matter.

Table 3.1.5. The maximum value of rank parameters (after Diessel, 1992) with further subdivisions of lower rank coals after Teichmüller (in Stach
et al., 1982).

Vitrinite reflectance Vitrinite

(%) (Oil, 546 nm) reflectance (%)
(Teichmüller, 1982) (Oil, 546 nm)
(Diessel, 1992)

Rank stage Carbon Volatile Gross- In situ Rrandom Rmax Rank subclass Rrandom
(daf ) matter specific moisture
(%) (daf ) (%) energy (%)
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(%) (daf ) (%) energy (%)
(MJ/kg) Vitrinite reflectance Vitrinite
(%) (Oil, 546 nm) reflectance (%)
(Teichmüller, 1982) (Oil, 546 nm)
(Diessel, 1992)

Rank stage Carbon Volatile Gross- In situ Rrandom Rmax Rank subclass Rrandom
(daf ) matter specific moisture
Wood 50
(%) >65
(daf ) (%) energy (%)
(MJ/kg)
Peat 60 >60 14.7 75 0.20 0.20 0.26

Lignite 71 52 23 30 0.40 0.42 0.38

Subbituminous 80 40 33.5 5 0.60 0.63 C 0.42

B 0.49

A 0.65

High volatile 86 31 35.6 3 0.97 1.03 C 0.65

bituminous

B 0.79

A 1.11

Medium 90 22 36 <1 1.47 1.58 1.50

volatile
bituminous

Low volatile 91 14 36.4 1 1.85 1.97 1.92

bituminous

Semianthracite 92 8 36 1 2.65 2.83 2.58

Anthracite 95 2 35.2 2 6.55 7.00 5.00

Note: Overlap of subbituminous A and high volatile C bituminous ranks as expressed in vitrinite reflectance.
Distinction between subbituminous and high volatile bituminous coals must be made on other parameters: e.g.,
agglomerating properties of high volatile bituminous coals and solubility of subbituminous coals in KOH solutions.
daf: dry, ash free.

The initial stage of coalification is biochemical degradation which involves the chemical decomposition of plant
material aided by microorganisms. Whereas this process may be rapid in tropical environments, where
conditions are ideal for the bacteria and fungi, rapid plant growth may balance the increased rate of
decomposition. This early decomposition and degradation of organic matter is followed by humification.
Humification, the biochemical path from woody peat to the huminite macerals, affects the preservation of
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin (the most-resistant compound of the three) compounds in plant cell walls.
Humification begins with the oxidation of plant matter and attack by aerobic organisms such as fungi, insects,
and aerobic bacteria; with consequent extraction of hydrocarbon-rich functional groups and enrichment of the
refractory organic material in oxygen and carbon. Humic acids are formed during this process. Burial of the plant
material or degraded plant material below the groundwater table effectively stops oxidation or attack from

aerobic organisms. Anaerobic bacteria may continue to decompose the plant matter until it reaches a depth or
conditions unsuitable for their viability. Biochemical degradation ends with the polymerization of humic acids at
the rank of subbituminous coal
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the rank of subbituminous coal.
Physicochemical coalification that follows biochemical degradation is caused by the amount of heating of the coal
and, to a lesser extent, the pressure conditions during the coal’s history. Temperature increase has been
traditionally thought of as the product of greater depth of burial (and the prevailing geothermal gradient) (Hilt,
1873), but recent studies have led to the recognition that the flow of hydrothermal fluids through coal seams can
account for the heating (Hower and Gayer, 2002; Harrison et al., 2004). Physicochemical coalification causes
major changes in the coal properties, including changes in the thermal and mechanical properties (details in
Taylor et al., 1998).

Basic Factors Controlling Coal Quality and Technological

Behavior of Coal
Isabel Suárez-Ruiz, Colin R. Ward, in Applied Coal Petrology, 2008

Optical Anisotropy
When the coal rank increases and the structure of the carbonaceous material is reorganized, almost all the coal's
physical properties vary according to which part of the coal section is being considered. Thus vitrinite develops an
anisotropic behavior and exhibits bireflectance. Minimum reflectance is usually observed in the direction
perpendicular to the bedding plane and maximum reflectance in sections parallel to this plane. In sections with
an intermediate orientation, the reflectance is intermediate between the maximum and minimum values.
Bireflectance can be determined using polarized light and the rotating stage of the microscope. By measuring
the true maximum and minimum reflectances, the anisotropy can be calculated from the difference (Rmax – Rmin).
Methods for determining these parameters were developed by Ting and Lo (1978) and Ting (1978) and later
modified by Kilby (1988, 1991) and Duber et al. (2000). The anisotropy in a coal is linked more to the overlying
pressure and generally rises with increasing coal rank, but no strict relationship exists between rank and the
degree of anisotropy (Davis, 1984). Tectonic stress in directions other than vertical may also produce reflectance
maxima with different orientations (e.g., Hower and Davis, 1981, and Levine and Davis, 1989).

The Origin of Coalbed Methane

Ling Gao, ... Arndt Schimmelmann, in Coal Bed Methane, 2014

2.2.1 Methods for Characterizing the Origin of CBM

Originally, coal rank was used to diagnose the origins of associated coalbed gases. Coals of low rank with vitrinite
reflectance values, Ro <0.3% were considered to host biogenic gas whereas higher rank coals were assumed to
contain thermogenic gases (Claypool and Kaplan, 1974). However, with the recognition of secondary biogenic
gases (Rice, 1993; Scott et al., 1994), which overwhelmingly contribute to biogenic gas in coals with elevated
vitrinite reflectance (Ro ∼ 0.6–0.8%) (Russell, 1990; Scott et al., 1994), the chemical gas composition and the ratio
of the abundance of CH4 relative to higher hydrocarbons (i.e., “gas dryness”) became indispensable proxies for
evaluating the origin of coalbed gas (Stahl, 1973; Bernard, 1978; Schoell, 1980, 1983; Whiticar, 1996) (Table 2.1).
However, these chemical compositional indices may vary significantly, depending on geological conditions, and
thus sometimes result in ambiguous distinctions between biogenic and thermogenic coalbed gases.

TABLE 2.1. Frequently Used Proxies for Distinction between Thermogenic and Biogenic Coalbed Gases
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TABLE 2.1. Frequently Used Proxies for Distinction between Thermogenic and Biogenic Coalbed Gases

Origin of Gas

Parameters Thermogenic Biogenic Reference

Vitrinite reflectance (Ro in %) 0.6–3.0% 0.3–0.8% Rice (1993),

Scott et al.
(1994)

Hydrocarbon index [CH4/(C2H6 + C3H8)] &lt;20 &gt;1000 Bernard

(1978),
Strąpoć
et al. (2008a)

Gas wetness index2 &gt;3% &lt;3% Rice (1993)

C2+ = [(C2H6 + C3H8 + C4H10 + C5H12)/(CH4 + C2H6 + C3H8 + C4H10 + C5H12)]

CO2 content 2–15 vol% &lt;5 vol% Smith and

Pallasser
(1996)

δ13C of methane (in ‰ vs Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB) &gt;−50‰ &lt;−55‰ Schoell
(1980),
Whiticar
et al. (1986),
Whiticar
(1999)

δD of methane (in ‰ vs Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) −275 to −400 to Whiticar
−100‰ −150‰ (1999)
1
&lt;40‰ &gt;60‰ Smith and
Pallasser
(1996)

1
.
2
Gas wetness index is sometimes expressed as gas dryness ratio C1/(C2 + C3), which is officially called hydrocarbon
index. C1, methane; C2, ethane; C3, propane.

Advances of stable isotope analytical techniques during the past 30 years have made it possible to exploit the
carbon 13C/12C and hydrogen 2H/1H (or D/H) stable isotope ratios of individual gas components for classification
of natural gases. Isotope ratios are commonly expressed in δ13C and δD (or δ2H) notations where more negative
values indicate relative depletion in heavy isotopes 13C and D (expressed in ‰ on isotopic scales anchored by
VPDB and VSMOW) (Coplen, 1996). Based on a pioneering δ13C data set on methanes, Schoell (Schoell, 1980)
proposed that values below −55‰ indicated a biogenic source of natural gas whereas values greater
than −55‰ implied a thermogenic origin (Table 2.1). The threshold value of −55‰ was later recognized to be an
approximate guideline because biogenic methane can cover a wide range of Rice, 1993; Whiticar, 1999; Valentine
et al., 2004 values from −40 to −110‰ (Jenden and Kaplan, 1986; Whiticar et al., 1986) depending on the
isotopic composition of the original organic substrate, the biochemical methanogenic pathways, and
environmental factors (Rice, 1993; Whiticar, 1999; Valentine et al., 2004). Therefore, if values are in the
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range of −40 to −55‰, carbon isotopes alone cannot unequivocally characterize the proportion of biogenic
versus thermogenic gas components. Fortunately, hydrogen isotope ratios expressed as δD values offer a second,
entirely independent isotopic parameter for characterizing gas origins. In comparison with values,
Whiticar, 1999 values cover a much wider numerical range. Thermogenic gases express values from
approximately −275 to −100‰, and biogenic gases range from −400 to −150‰ (Whiticar, 1999). Owing to the
considerable overlap in values between some thermogenic and biogenic methanes (Figure 2.3(B)),
Whiticar, 1999; Strąpoć et al., 2007 alone also offers limited analytical distinction between different origins of
coalbed gases. However, combinations of both carbon and hydrogen stable isotope ratios of gas components
(e.g., methane, ethane, propane, CO2) and chemical gas compositional data greatly enhance the diagnostic
confidence (Whiticar, 1999; Strąpoć et al., 2007) (Figure 2.3).

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FIGURE 2.3. Origins of natural gases based on their chemical and compound-specific isotopic compositions. (A) Hydrocarbon index
C1/(C2 + C3) = [CH4/(C2H6 + C3H8)] and carbon isotopic difference between CO2 and CH4 ; (B) Carbon and hydrogen isotopic
ratios of methane distinguish biogenic from thermogenic natural gases, as well as biogenic gases formed by the CO2 reduction pathway from
those formed by the acetate fermentation pathway.
Adapted from Whiticar (1999).

Coal-Fire Microarthropods From the Centralia,

Pennsylvania and Healy, Alaska Mine Fires
Glenn B. Stracher, ... Nancy Lindsley-Griffin (late), in Coal and Peat Fires: A Global Perspective, 2019

Healy Mine Fire, Alaska

The subbituminous C rank coal at Healy (Figure 2.1.3) formed during the Tertiary Period. There is no written
record stating how and when the Healy Mine Fire started. One possibility is spontaneous combustion caused by
the solar heating of coal rubble and outcrops exposed on south-facing slopes during long summer days. Coal
fires are known to have occurred near Healy before coal mining began there in the early 1940s (Prakash et al.,
2013).
On August 23, 2003, microarthropods were collected from vegetation at two locations at the Healy Mine Fire
(Figure 2.1.17; Table 2.1.1: 8/23/2003). Springtails (e.g., Figure 2.1.11) were extracted from charred vegetation
collected adjacent to a gas vent where the temperature at about 5 cm inside the vent was 67°C. Aphids (Figure
2.1.18) were extracted from vegetation about 2 m downslope from the gas vent, and the soil temperature there
was 12°C.

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Figure 2.1.17. August 23, 2003, sampling locations for microarthropods at the Healy Mine Fire in Alaska. (A) Two gas vents, V1 and V2–P1, at
the Healy fire. No vegetation occurred adjacent to V1. Charred vegetation, from which springtails (e.g., Figure 2.1.11) were extracted,
occurred adjacent to vent V2–P1. The temperature at about 5 cm inside V2–P1 was 67°C. Field assistant John Styers is at the base of the slope.
(B) Charred vegetation, adjacent to gas vent V2–P1, from which springtails were extracted. (C) and (D) Vegetation sample V2–P3, about 2 m
downslope from gas vent V2–P1. Aphids (Figure 2.1.18) were extracted from this vegetation. The soil temperature here was 12°C. Also see
Table 2.1.1 (8/23/2003).
Photos by Anupma Prakash, 2003. Copyright © 2019 Glenn Blair Stracher. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Figure 2.1.18. Aphids from the Healy Mine Fire in Alaska. These Hexapoda insect members of the order Hemiptera (formerly order
Homoptera) and family Aphididae were extracted from vegetation sample V2–P3 (Table 2.1.1: 8/23/2003), about 2 m downslope from gas vent
V2–P1 illustrated in Figure 2.1.17. The soil temperature at V2–P3 was 12°C. (A) Image of three aphids acquired with a Leica DM E compound
microscope equipped with substage illumination and a Nikon Coolpix 990 camera. There are two aphids at the bottom of the image. One of
these aphids is partially beneath the other; some legs of aphid 1 overlap those of aphid 2, as seen above the label “Two Aphids” in the bottom
left-side of the figure. There are also legs that are stuck together and broken off from at least one of the aphids or an unidentified
microarthropod. Aphids have a fused thorax and abdomen. The cornicles secrete chemicals for defense and to warn other aphids of predation.
The cauda secrets honeydew, a fluid comprised of plant sugars that some insects feed on. (B) Image of an aphid acquired with an Olympus
SZX 16 stereo microscope equipped with overhead and oblique lighting and a built-in camera. The cauda is present, but the cornicles are
broken off.
Photo (A) by Jimmy Wedincamp, 2003 and (B) by John Shields, 2016. Copyright © 2019 Glenn Blair Stracher. Published by Elsevier Inc. All
rights reserved.

Coalification, Gasification, and Gas Storage

Romeo M. Flores, in Coal and Coalbed Gas, 2014

American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) Classification

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American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) Classification
The ASTM provides standards and guidelines to test and analyze coal to determine coal rank classification based
on properties progressively altered depending on the degree of metamorphism (ASTM, 2002; 2011). The United
States and Canada have followed the guidelines for coal rank classification developed by the American Standards
Association (ASA) and ASTM since 1936. Through time, ASTM continues to improve and develop guides,
practices, and test methods, which do not conform to the international coal rank codification system (Alpern et
al., 1989; IEA, 2009; United Nations, 1988a,b, 2004).
The ASTM coal rank classification is based on a number of parameters obtained by various prescribed tests, which
include calorific or heating value, volatile matter, moisture, ash, and fixed carbon (Figure 4.10). Calorific or
heating value of coal is defined as heat energy released as it undergoes complete combustion with oxygen.
Volatile matter is released gas when coal is heated in the absence of air at set conditions. The gases include
carbon dioxide, volatile organic and inorganic gases containing sulfur, and nitrogen. The moisture represents
water intrinsically contained in the coal, which is measured as the amount of water released when a coal sample
is heated at set conditions. The moisture does not include free water on the surface of the coal, which is removed
by air-drying the coal. Ash is an inorganic residue left over after a coal is completely combusted and is largely
composed of silica, aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium and other compounds. The ash yield may be different
from the original clay, quartz, pyrites, and gypsum contents in the coal prior to combustion. Fixed carbon is a
solid residue of organic matter after the release of volatile matter and moisture after complete combustion. Fixed
carbon is composed mainly of carbon and minor amounts of hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur. It is calculated by
subtracting from 100 the percentages of volatile matter, moisture, and ash. The ASTM coal rank classification
system is presented in Table 4.3.

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FIGURE 4.10. Diagram showing coal rank classification based on calorific value and percentage fixed carbon following ASTM International
(2002) and recognized by United States and Canada. Values in parenthesis are the calorific values in kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg).
Source: Adopted from Schweinfurth (2002).

TABLE 4.3. Coal Classification by the American Society for Testing Materials

Source: Adopted from ASTM (2011) and ASTM International (2002).

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