PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION The view ofanobjectas it actually appears to the observer when viewed from a fixed position relative ta the object is called perspective projection or perspective view. Anordinary photograph of an object is a perspective (see Fig. 8.1), In perspective pro- jection, the eye is assumed to be situated at a definite position relative to the object. The picture plane (vertical plane) is placed in between the object andthe aye. Visual | rays from the eye tothe object pierce the picture plane and form an image on it. This image is known as perspective of the object. Thus, the image or perspective obtained will depend on the relative position of the object, picture plane and point of sight. Perspective projection is sometimes called sceno- graphic projection or central Projection since the lines of sight converge to a single point or centre. GENERAL TERMS USED IN PERSPECTIVE The following are the various terms used in obtaining the perspective view (see figs. 8.2 and 8.3): 1, Ground plane (GP) : The horizontal plane on which the object is assumed to be situated is callad ground plane. 2. Station point (S): The point where the eye of the observer is located while viewing the object is called station point. Perspective view of a buildingAURILIAF'Y GROUND PLANE [AGP CENTRE OF VISION (C} HORIZON PLANE (HF) PERPENDICULAR AXIS [Pa) CENTRAL PLANE (CF) STATION PORT (3) 1EVE HSGRIBON LINE (HL ORECT PICTURE PLANE PP) GROUND LINE (GL) GROUND PLANE (GP) Terms used in perspective 3. Picture plane (PP): The vertical transparent plane located between the station point and the object is called picture plane. tris the plane on which the perspective af an abject is formed. 4. Horizon plane (HP) : An imaginary horizontal plane at the lavel of station point, i2., observer eye, is called horizon plane. This plane is above the ground plane and perpendicular to the picture plang. 5. Auxiliary ground plane (AGP) : A hori- zontal plane which is placed parallel and above the horizon plane is called auxiliary ground plane. The top view of the object is projected on this plane TOP VIEW 6. Ground line (GL) : The line of intersection ofthe picture plane with the ground planeis called ground line. 7. Horizon line (HL) : Theling of intersection of the horizon with the picture plane is called horizon line. It is parallel to the ground line. 8. Central plane (CP): An imaginary vertical Zz! | ANY COMWENIENT DISTANCE plane which passes through the station point and FRONT VIEW centre of vision is called central plane. 8. Perpendicular axis (PA) : Aline which is Fig. 8.3. drawn through the station point and perpendicular to the picture plane is called perpendicular axis. Itis also called line of vision or line af sight. 10. Centre of vision (C) : The point in which the perpendicular axis pierces the picture plane and is on the horizon line is called the centre of vision.11. Vanishing points (VP) : The points in space where, by definition, parallel lines meet are called vanishing points. On the drawing, the vanishing pointis the perspactive of the meeting point of the lines in space. Every set of parallel lines not parallel to the picture plane has a vanishing point. POSITION OF THE STATION POINT ‘The position of the station point is very important in making an attractive perspective. Therefore. it should be located at the paint so as to view the abject in the best manner. The following points should be taken into consideration for the selection of the station point:-— 1. For large objects (e.9., building, aeroplane), the station point is usually taken at a normal standing height of a person, i.¢.. about 1.8 meters. 2. For small objects, the station point should be fixed at such a height so as to give a good view of the top surface as well as side surfaces. 3. For objects having heights and widths more or less equal, the station point may be fixed in such a way that the angle between the visual rays fram the station point to the ‘outermost boundaries af the abject make approximately 30° angle. Fig. 8.4 shows the comparative elevation angles of view fram station point. In general, the best picturization is obtained at angle of about 20° to 30° ce ar iw Comparative elevation angles of view. Angles greater than 30° gives an unpleasing perspective 4. The distance of the station point from the picture plane should be equal to twice the greatest dimension of the object. 5. The station point shouldbe so situated in front of the object that the centre of the vision be somewhat near the picture's centre. LOCATION OF PICTURE PLANE Tha location of picture plane relative to the objectis of great importance fordetermining the size of the perspective view. In general, the picture plane is (i) in front of the object, (ii) behind the object; and (ii) behind the station paint. When the picture plane is placed in front of the object, its perspective will show tha object enlarged in size [see Fig. 8.5 (a}]. When the picture plane is placed behind the abject, the perspective will show the object reduced in size [see Fig. 8.5 (b)). Similarly, whan the picture plane is placed behind the station point, its perspective will be reversed [see Fig. 8.5 (c}]. ‘The above three perspectives differ in size but not in proportion. In general, for the best result the location of the picture plane should be between the object and the station paint. Important Note: When the picture plane coincides with the abject, perspective of the abject will be of its same sizeENLAAGED PERSPECTIVE REVERSED LINESOF PERSPECTIVE SIGHT STATION POINT PIGTURE PLANE (a) (b) (ey Fig. 6.5. Location of picture plane POSITION OF THE OBJECT WITH RESPECT TO HORIZON Fig. 8.6 shows the different positions af the object when placed on, above orbelow the horizon. When the object is placed abave the horizon, itis above tha level of the eye and will appear as seen from the below. Similarly, when the abject is below the horizon, it will appear as sean from above. Fig. 3.6. Position of object w.r-t. horizon TYPES OF PERSPECTIVE The following are the three types of perspective according to the number or vanishing points required in drawing the perspective -— 1. Parallel or one point perspective. 2. Angular ar two point perspective. 3. Oblique or three point perspective1. Parallel or one point perspective : When one face of the object is parallel to the picture plane and the other perpendiculars to it, the resulting picture is called parallel or one point perspective (see Fig. 8.7). The term one point refers ta the fact that such perspectives have only one principal vanishing points The parallel or one point perspective is used for the representation of interiors of building and machine parts. 2. Angular or two point perspective : When two faces of the object are inclined to picture plane and the other parallel to it, the resulting picture is called angular or two point perspactive (see Fig. 8.8). There are two principal vanishingpoints. In this case the required information, which is the same as that for parallel perspective is shown in Fig. 8.8. The angular or two paint is used for representing buildings in architectural drawing or large structures in civil engineering such as bridges or dams. TOP VIEW Top VIEW GL = Fig. 8.7. Parallel or one point Fig. 8.8. Anguiar or two point perspective perspective 3. Oblique orthree point perspec- VPs WP, tive : When all faces of the object are oblique to the picture plane, the resulting picture is called oblique or three point perspective. There are three principal van- ishing points in it. In this the actual con- structionis more complicated because the picture plane (PP) does not appear edge- wise in the top view (see Fig. 8.9). The oblique or three paint perspec- tive is used for drawing larger structures as viewed from a low ventage point. Fig. 8.9. Oblique or three point perspective WPyHOW TO OBTAIN A PERSPECTIVE VIEW The following two methods are used to obtain the perspective view : 1. Visual-ray method 2. Vanishing point method. 1. Visual-ray method : This method is based directly on the definition of a perspective Ht invalves in finding the piercing point of the visual ray with the picture plane. This method is very simple to understand and particularly useful for simple objects. By this method, the perspective of an objectis obtained by using the top and side views ‘or top and front views as explained below : Top and front views : In this mathod, draw the visual rays from the object to the station point and find where they pierce the picture plane. This method has been used in, where visual rays from the object to the station point have been drawn in the top and front views. The vertical projectors of the points where this line pierce the vertical plane is the perspective ‘of the object. The remaining visible corners of the object have been found in the same manner. They are then connected in the proper sequence to make the perspective. Top and side views : In this method as in the preceding one, it is necessary to draw the top and side views of the object and of the point of sight all in proper relationship to the reference planes. 2. Vanishing point method : This method consists of finding the perspective of an object. In practice, the point at which the visual ray from the eye to that infinitely distant vanishing point pierces the picture plane is referred to as the vanishing point. One of the points is the vanishing point for any series of parallel lines. The other is the piercing point ‘of the lines on the object that extended until they pierce the picture plane. The piercing point and the vanishing point determine the perspective of an infinite line. Here, vanishing of straight lines are madein use in addition totop view of the visualrays. In addition to top view, a front view ora side view of the object is also required to determine the heights. This method is comparatively simple than visual ray method. PERSPECTIVE OF CIRCLES The perspective view of a circle appears as a circle when it is parallel to the picture plane. In all other positions, the perspective of a circle will be an ellipse except when it lies in the central plane (see Fig. 8.15). The perspective of a circle, when it is not parallel to PP may be obtained by enclosing it in a square. The mid-points of the sides of the square are the four points and the points of intersection of the diagonals with the circle are the other four points for drawing the ellipse of the circle. Lines are drawn through these points parallelto the sides of the square. Then, perspective of the cirels along with parallel lines is drawn, locating the eight points.A straight line AB 60 mm long, is parallel to and 25 mm above the ground plane and inclined at 30° to the picture plane. The end Ais 20 mm behind the picture plane. The station point is 50 mm above the ground plane and 40 mm in front of the picture plane and lies in a central plane which passes through the mid point of AB. Draw its perspective view. [Fig. 8.14] ‘The following steps should be followed fordrawingthe perspective view of line AB; 1. Draw a horizontal line PP which represents the picture plane. As ABis parallel to GP, its top view will show is true length. Therefore, draw a line ab = 60 mm, inclined at 30° to PP and the end a, 20 mm above it. 2. [Draw a vertical line through m, the mid point of ab and mark the points, the top view of station point on it ata distance of 40 mm below PP. 3. Draw lines joining s with a and b, and intersecting PP and a,b, respectively 4, Draw the group line GLat any convenientdistance below PP and a horizon line HL, parallel to and 50 mm above GL. Project s" the front view on HL. 5. From ab, project the front view ab’, parallel to and 25 mm above GL. Draw lines joining s’ with a* and b’. 6. Through a, and b,, draw vertical lines respectively 7. Join A’ and 8’. Then A’B’ is the required perspective view of AB “Note: The perspective of AB can alsa be obiained with the help of side view instead of front view. intersect the lines a’s” at points A’ and B” a IN) w a z fb a 5 a = = 3 a 5 = Roa] ‘ei Fig. 8.14. Fig. 8.15.A circle of 50 mm diameter is lying on the ground plane touching the picture plane. The station point is 80 mm in front of the picture plane and 60 mm above the ground plane. Draw the perspective view of the circle, when the central plane passing through the centre of the circle. [Fig. 8.15] Solution : Draw a circle of 50 mm diameter, touching the picture plane (PP). Enclose the circle in. a square abed with side ab in PP. Draw the diagonals ac and bd; and horizontal 4-2 and ‘vertical 3-1 and diameters as shownin Fig. 8.15. Mark points 7 toon the circle. Through paints 7 and 8 draw vertical lines gh and fe. Draw lines GL and HL and mark 5, the top view of the station point. Project s toc’ on HL. The point c’ is the centre of vision to which the perspective of lines perpendicular to PP will converge. Now, draw the perspective view of the square. Join the diagonals intersecting each other ato” Through o’, draw horizontal and vertical lines, intersecting the sides at points 1°.2°,3° and 4” Draw perspectives of lines cutting the diagonals at paints 5°,6°7" and 8” (see fig 8.15). Draw the required ellipse of circle through points 1°, 5°, 2"_..... Itis noted here that the centre of the ellipse does not coincide with o’, the centre of the perspective af the square. A square ABCD of side 40 mm side has, its surface on the ground. Its edge AB is inclined at 30° to the plane and the corner Ais 10mm behind PP. The station point is 50 mm from the picture plane, 30 mm above the ground plane and lies 10 mm to the left of the comer A. Draw the perspective view of the square. [Fig. 9.16] Solution : Draw the top view of the square abcd, with edge ab inclined at 30° to PPand the comera 10 mmabovePP. Mark 5, the top view of station point and join it with corners a, b. c and d intersecting the PP at points a. b,c, and d, respectively. Draw ground line GL at any convenient distance below PP and a horizontal line HL, 30 mm above GL. Project 8’, the front view on HL Froma, b, ¢, and d project the frontview a’, b’c’andd’on GL. Draw lines joining s° with a’Jb’.c’ and d” (see Fig. 8.16). Through a,,b,, ¢, and d, draw verticals to intersect a’ s", b’s’,c’s andd’s’atpoints A’, B",C’,and D respectively. Join these points. Then AB" C" Dis the required perspective view. A rectangular block, 50 mm x 30mm = 20 mm is lying on the ground plane on one of its jongest faces. A vertical edge isin the picture plane and the longer face containing that edge makes an angle of 30° with the picture plane. The station point is 70 mm in front of theA rectangular pyramid, base 30 mmx 20 mm and axis 35 mm long, is placed on the ground plane on its base, with the longer edge of the base parallel toand 20 mmbehind the picture plane. The central plane is 30 mm to the right of the apex and the station point is 50 mm in front of the picture plane and 25 mm above the ground plane. Draw the perspective view of the pyramid. (Figs. 6.19 and 8.20] Solution : Fig. 8.19shows the perspective view of the pyramid obtained by means of top view and front view. Fig. 8.20 shows the perspective view oblained by visual ray method Draw the perspective view of a cube of 40 mm edge, lying on one of its faces on the ground plane, with an edge in the picture plane and all vertically faces. equally inclined to the picture plane. The station point is 55 mm in front of the picture plane, HL is 65 mm above the ground plane and lies in a central plane which is 19mm to the right of the centre of the cube. [Fig. 8.21] Solution : Fig. 8.21 shows the perspective view of the cube obtained by means of its top view and front view.Draw the perspective view of a straight line AB, 50 mm long. The station point(S)is 40 mm in frontof the picture plane (PP), 40 mmabove the ground plane (GP) and lies in a central plane (CP) in the given position. AB in GP and inclined at 30° to PP; A in PP; CP, 10 mm to the right of A. Solution : (i) Visual ray method—by top view and front view (see Fig. 8.23). Draw cb = 50mm andinclined at 30° to PP with the end aon PP. Project its front view a’b* on GL, Mark 5, the top view and s*, the front view of the station point S, Joins with a andb; and swith a” and b..As. Aisin PP and on GP, therefore, its perspective A will coincide with a’. B” will i on s‘b’ on a vertical fine drawn through b*. Join A’ with B*. Then A°B" is the required perspective view of AB. (i Visual ray method—by top view and side view (see Fig. 8.24) Draw the top view ab = 50 mm and side view a’ b™ as shown in Fig. 8.24. Mark s, the top view and 8”, the side view of the station point. Join s with aandb” ands""with a” andq’. As the end.A of the line ABis in PP and on GP, its perspective A’ will lig on GL on the vertical line drawn through a. The end B will be ata point of intersection of the vertical line drawn through b, and horiziontal line drawn through b’. Then A” 8 is the required perspective of AB. (iii) Vanishing point method [see Fig. 8.25]. Draw the top view ab = 50 mm inclined at 30° to PP with end a on PP.Marics, the top view of the station pointas shown in the figure. Draw a line sv parallel to ab. through v draw a vertical ling and mark V, the vanishing point on HL. A‘ will fig on GL on a vertical line drawn through a. Now join A’ with V. Drawa vertical line through’ and obtain B’ on A’V’. ThenA’B ‘isthe required perspective view of line AB.Draw the perspective view of a straight line AB, S0:mm long, parallel to GP and 15 mm above it; inclined at 30°to PP: A 10mm behind PP. The station point S is 40 mm in frantof PP and 45 mmabove GP and lies in a CP 10 mm toright of A. [Fig. 8.26] Solution : Draw the topviewab 50mm long and inclined at 30° to PP in such way that a is 10 mm behind PP. Mark s, the top view of station paint and draw sv parallel to ab. Through v draw vertical and ‘obtain the vanishing point V. Join s with a and b. As Ais 10 mm behind PP. Therefore, the line of the height will be necessary. Produce ba to intersect the PP at h. Draw the line of heights hH (see Fig. 8.26) Now mark the point a"on hH, 15 mm above GL. Join a’ with V and obtain the points A‘ and B’ on the line a’V. Then A’B is the required perspective view. Fig. 8.25. Fig. 8.27 shows the perspective view obtained by visual ray method. Fig. 8.26. By vanishing point method Fig. 8.27. By visual ray methodDraw the perspective view of a straight lies AB, 40mm long, parallel to both PP at GP; 5 mm above GP and 10 mm behind PP. The station point is 30 mm in front of PP and 40 mm above GP and lies in CP. 15 mm to the right of B. [Fig. 8.28] Fig. 8.28. Fig. 8.29. Draw the perspective view of a straightline AB, 40mm long, parallel to and 10 mm behind PP; inclined at 30° to GP : A 5 mm above GP. The station point is 35 mm in front of PP and 25 mm above GP; and lies in CP, 15 mm to the left of A. [Fig. 8.29] Fig. 8.31.‘A hexagonal prism, side of base 50 mm and height 70 mm, stands with its base on the ground. One rectangular face is parallel to the P.P. and 40 mm away from it and, the nearest vertical edge of this face is 30 mm to the left of the eye. The eye is 100 mm from the P.P. and 90 mm above the GP. Draw the perspective of the prism. Fig. 8.32] Solution : For its solution, see Fig. 8.32