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Affordance Based Geographical Studies (Very Interesting) PDF
Affordance Based Geographical Studies (Very Interesting) PDF
tions˙revisedendversion
RESEARCH ARTICLE
1. Introduction
Semantic heterogeneity is the main obstacle to use geographic data, like road net-
works, in service chains (Kuhn 2005). This is because information communities
need data from diverse external sources in order to produce information products,
and these products are often unintended by the data suppliers. Even though infor-
mal standards for road network labeling are available (e.g. the GDF standard, ISO
14825:2004), geometries and category labels in different commercial road network
databases are far from denoting equivalent things. Furthermore, the available cat-
egories often lack high-level features, like junctions and roads, as well as labels for
complex generalization tasks (Scheider and Schulz 2007).
The demand for business applications based on road networks largely exceeds
their original application in navigation systems (May et al. 2008). Non-standard
applications require non-standard (non-available) labels and attributes. User gener-
ated geodata, like Open Street Map (OSM), has become a competitor. Here, labels
can be freely attached to geometries without any top down constraints. Yet, the
many quality issues1 make semantic heterogeneity of such grass root labeling an
even greater challenge (Mathes 2004). Formal ontologies are seen as one means to
overcome such difficulties (Klien 2008). Today’s practice uses domain ontologies to
Figure 1. Two subgraphs commonly annotated with ‘road’ and ‘stacked interchange’.
annotate data models and instances with category labels (Maué et al. 2008). Yet
Hayes (1988) has pointed out that a logical theory aiming to describe the physical
world can be at most experimentally complete. This means an ontology is always
bound to include unintended models in its universe of interpretations. Thus, one
can never know whether a given data set is an intended model of the theory or
not. One could handle this problem, Hayes suggested, by tying the meaning of the
theory’s tokens to observational systems (Hayes 1988).
This symbol grounding problem (Harnad 1990) remains largely unsolved for most
ontologies: ultimately, the semantics of the primitive terms in an ontology have to
be specified outside symbol systems. Tying domain concepts like road and junction
to data about their instances, as was done for the concepts river and lake by Ben-
nett (2008), constrains these in potentially useful ways, but defers the grounding
problem to the symbol system of the instance data. Furthermore, the data model
is usually incomplete: Essential properties of the theory are not expressed as facts
in the data (Scheider and Kuhn 2008). One would prefer a method for grounding
ontological primitives in observation procedures in order to support more general
ontology and data mappings. If road network categories were definable from di-
rectly observable primitives, this would provide a common approach to semanti-
cally annotate and translate the contents of heterogeneous road network databases
and services. In recent work (Scheider et al. 2009), the authors have introduced
a general method for grounding geographic categories in Gibson’s meaningful en-
vironment (Gibson 1986). This method uses observable primitives for locations,
bodies and their locomotion through media. It allows to individuate bodies and
media based on the locomotion they afford.
In this article we give a definition of a junction based on locomotion affordances.
Navigation oriented road network data models commonly use graphs embedded
into the Euclidean plane (Figure 1). A network database expert might annotate
the subgraphs of Figure 1 with ‘road’ and ‘stacked interchange’ from left to right
(Scheider and Schulz 2007). He can do so because he is skilled in linking the graph
components to observable categories, i.e. to what a junction affords. But our pur-
pose is to provide a common semantic ground for such navigation oriented road
network databases and their features. In order to ground data in observations, we
introduce a grounded formal theory of channel networks in section 2 and show how
data models map into it. This section is an advancement and application of pre-
vious ideas (Scheider and Kuhn 2008, Scheider et al. 2009). In section 3, we use a
graph-theoretical abstraction of this theory to give an affordance-based definition
of an n-way junction. This is the paper’s major contribution. In section 4 we show
that this definition is satisfied by some of the most common junction types, before
we discuss what has been achieved and what remains to be done in the concluding
section 5.
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tions˙revisedendversion
Observable primitives for the individuation of road networks and their features
can be found in Gibson’s meaningful environment (2.1). We argue that channel
networks are special media that afford certain types of locomotion: They are partly
bounded by flat support surfaces for continuously movable bodies (2.2). They also
have observable turnoff restrictions (indicated e.g. by dotted or full lines on the road
surface). We account for these by introducing an affordance primitive for channels.
We also show how road network data models can be interpreted in this theory of
channels (2.3). We are then able to define a channel network by the movements it
affords (subsection 2.4). In the formal part of this section, we use first-order logic
and assume for convenience that all quantifers range over the domain of locations
of the meaningful environment, and that all free variables are all-quantified.
1 InScheider et al. (2009), we used the notion ‘place’ instead. But ‘place’ has many other connotations,
especially in spatial cognition.
2 We suppose that if humans point to some location, they always focus on some unique locus of attention.
We are currently working on a discrete and finite version of the continuous theory in Scheider et al. (2009)
with its preliminary notion of granularity.
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tions˙revisedendversion
duces identity into the environment, and is a prerequisite for giving identification
criteria to categories, as outlined by Guarino and Welty (2000). A mereological
sum + can be easily defined (we assume the same principles for the mereological
difference, denoted by the symbol −):
Definition 2.2: x + y = ız.(∀w.(O(w, z) → O(w, x) ∨ O(w, y)))
Axiom 2.3 : ∃j.φ(j) → (∃z∀y.(O(y, z) ↔ ∃x(φ(x) ∧ O(y, x))))
[existence of arbitrary sums]
This is the General Extensional Mereology GEM (Casati and Varzi 1999), in
which the fusion axiom schema assures that for any non-empty set of locations,
denoted by the predicate wild-card φ, there is a location z in the environment which
is the sum of that set.
How do humans perceive the properties of locations in the environment? We sug-
gest that fundamental properties are constructed by mental scanning (Langacker
2005), that is imagining a virtual movement of a virtual body (comparable concepts
are ‘fictive motion’ (Talmy 1996) and ‘situated simulation’ (Barsalou 2008)). Com-
plex shapes, for example, are perceivable through the length and direction of virtual
steps1 . Verticality is also perceivable as a property of steps (Scheider et al. 2009).
Without going into detail here, we assume that the environment is wholly covered
by steps, and that the domain of a step (consisting of the granular spherical ‘loci of
attention’) has a perceivable Euclidean structure (Scheider et al. 2009), similar to
the pointless theories of space of Borgo et al. (1996) or Bennett et al. (2000). Note
that the formal apparatus of the ‘meaningful environment’, which was described in
(Scheider et al. 2009) and is used here in parts, includes and substantially extends
the expressiveness of mereotopology, compare Bennett et al. (2000). It allows for
example to construct metric concepts like ‘depth’ and ‘length’ of bodies.
Our ideas about the things that are accessible by fictive motion were inspired by
Gibson (1986). We assume that humans can directly perceive whether locations af-
ford a certain type of action, and are thereby able to individuate bodies, media and
their surfaces. Affordances imply perceived virtual actions. A part of a medium, for
example, is a location in the environment that affords locomotion through it. The
classification of a medium is stable only in a certain locomotion context: water is
a medium for fish or divers, but not for pedestrians. In general, we assume that
humans have a corresponding sensor for each type of locomotion, leading to a mul-
titude of locomotion affordance primitives. Other simple affordances are smelling,
hearing and seeing, giving rise to corresponding media. Complex affordances, like
opening a door, are constructed from simple ones, like seeing and moving (Turner
2005). The most complex ones are social affordances, involving interactions with
the environment and other actors through conventional signs, like, for example, a
building with emergency exits.
The central idea of Gibson is that all categories of his meaningful environment
can be individuated from such affordances: Substances denote the rigid things in
a meaningful environment that do not afford locomotion through them. Surfaces
are located exactly where any motion must stop. More complex affordances, like
sitting or entering and leaving, give rise to subcategories of substances, like chair
and door.
In this paper, we re-use the primitive binary affordance relation for air medium
connectedness, AirC, introduced in Scheider et al. (2009), which denotes a pair of
1 Consider e.g. Marr’s (Marr and Nishihara 1978) reduction of the shape representation problem to a
configuration of cylinders. Each cylinder can be interpreted as a straight path of a certain length, and their
configuration by relative directions can reconstruct complex shapes.
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tions˙revisedendversion
Figure 3. Illustration of a channel. It is part of an air medium which is located just above a flat smooth
surface. Furthermore, it restricts supported movements to enter and leave at separate portals by convention.
1 This strong requirement can be satisfied even in complicated traffic situations, e.g. at signalized crossings
or ‘yield’/‘give way’ roads. In these cases, we intend to allow for temporary channels, which cease to exist
for that time interval in which a crossing channel happens to exist (Scheider and Kuhn 2008). This, of
course, requires a temporal version of the theory, which is not in the scope of this paper.
2 See Ebbinghaus and Flum (2005) for a discussion of the expressiveness of finite first-order theories.
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tions˙revisedendversion
Note how the road network data model (right) is supposed to be interpreted in
the channel network theory (left): Any adjacent and consecutive pair of sides of
embedded street segments which is not affected by turnoff prohibition is equiv-
alent to a tuple of channels of the LeadsT o relation3 (Scheider and Kuhn 2008).
The existence of turnoff restrictions has formal consequences: The embedded street
segment graph (depicted by the undirected graph on the right hand side of Fig-
ure 4 and Figure 5) needs to be supplemented by a second relation on top of it
(depicted separately as dotted arrow). This is because the LeadsTo relation would
not be captured otherwise: the two branching edges of a diametrical bifurcation
(Figure 5.2), for example, are connected at a common node, but do not lead to
each other. Especially interesting are pairs of channels that are support connected
but neither one leads to the other. A plausible model for this are neighboring chan-
nels built on the same surface, like the neighboring sides of a bidirectional road
without a median strip (see the bidirectional way in Figure 4.2 or the diametrical
bifurcation in Figure 5.2).
Hence, a road network can be appropriately represented by a subgraph of the line
graph 1 of a street segment graph, i.e. a graph with nodes for channels and edges
for only those connected channel pairs where one channel leads to the other. Such
a restricted line graph offers also an appropriate way of modeling turning costs in
route planning (Winter 2002).
Channel networks are media that afford mutual reachability between all its parts.
The ternary relation ReachableF romIn is recursively definable as the transitive
3 At signalized intersections, this is a triple rather than a tuple, including one temporary channel. Temporary
channels exist only during green phases and do not have data equivalents.
1 A line graph L(G) of a graph G is the graph on G-edges in which two G-edges are adjacent as vertices if
and only if they are adjacent in G (Diestel 2000).
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Note that wholeness requires for a channel network that reachability amongst
its channels be reflexive (all channels of the network can be reached by navigation
from themselves in the network) and symmetric (it is always possible to return
to the origin). It also requires that the network exclusively consists of channels.
Furthermore, as was discussed by Scheider and Kuhn (2008) in greater detail,
every channel network must consist of at least two mutually reachable channels
(minimal model): There must be at least one channel by definition of a whole
(Definition 2.7), but because this channel has to be reachable from itself inside
the network (Definition 2.13), and leadsTo is irreflexive by Axiom 2.9, there has
to be another non-overlapping one. A channel network also does not contain any
graveyards and factories, channels without the possibility to leave or enter. This
follows directly from Definition 2.6 and the minimal model.
Our theory of channel networks partly satisfies a certain graph theory. We call
this theory the channel digraph. Channel digraphs will be used in the following text
and figures in order to describe our formalism on another abstraction level, and in
order to make it more amenable to data structures and algorithmic standards that
are based on graphs.
If we take the set of channels of a channel network as the set of vertices V , and
the relation LeadsTo as the arc relation A (directed edges), then the resulting graph
D(V, A) is a directed graph without loops (arcs connecting one vertex to itself, due
to Axiom 2.9) and multiple arcs (arcs with the same incident vertices). For an arc
e = (x, y) we call the incident vertex x the initial, and y the terminal vertex of e.
The following graph theoretical notions will be used to further describe chan-
nel digraphs (Berge 1991): A chain is a sequence of vertices and arcs c =
(x0 , e1 , x1 , e2 , x2 , ..., xq−1 , eq , xq ), such that either ek = (xk , xk−1 ) or ek =
(xk−1 , xk ). Chains are called elementary if each inner vertex x1 ...xq−1 appears
only once. A chain that does not contain the same arc twice is called simple. A
2 Even though the transitive closure is not in general first-order definable, this restriction does not apply
here because the domain of channels is finite. The semantics of this recursive formula can be given by a
least fixpoint in a finite model, compare Ebbinghaus and Flum (2005), page 220.
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Figure 6. a) Not strongly connected block b) strongly connected, but not a block c) strongly connected
block, but not 2-reachable whole d) 2-reachable whole
Figure 7. An induced subgraph of a channel network and its entries and exit vertices (indicated by dotted
arrows, gates are narrowly dotted).
Figure 9. Illustration of junction properties by a median u-turn channel subgraph (a). If one leaves out
the grey parts in b, c and d, this violates some of the required properties for junctions. For details see text.
road, a dual carriageway, intersects the minor road, which is a bidirectional road.
It is prohibited to turn off to the left from the major road or onto the major road
at the intersection point. These left turns are only possible via u-turn channels
(see data model in Figure 8). Channels are indicated by arrows alongside their
embedded street segment lines. Note that the bidirectional street segments have
two channels, one for each direction, while the dual carriageway consists of one-way
street segments. The LeadsTo relation among channels is indicated by grey curved
arrows that lead from a channel to its successor. Exits and entries of the subgraph
are numbered anticlockwise. Feature external channels are in grey. We will refer to
the correspondent channel digraph in Figure 9 a, in which channels are depicted
as vertices and the LeadsTo relation as arcs. The exits and entries in these figures
have equivalent numbers.
The first and most obvious property is that junctions afford paths from each entry
to each exit (except the one in the opposite direction) (total reachability). Thus they
enforce a navigational choice. If a driver has entered a junction, he is afterwards
forced to take a directional decision by taking one of a set of n − 1 paths inside of
it. Note that this property also allows drivers coming from different directions to
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Figure 10. Illustration of the minimality properties by a median u-turn channel subgraph. a) It is always
possible to add roads (left) and superfluous channels (right) and still meet requirements one and two for
junctions. b) This subgraph even meets the first minimality requirement. For details see text.
take the same exit. Each entry is used by people driving into different directions,
and each exit is used by people coming from different directions. Together with the
minimality assumption, this property also implies that a junction is a connected
subgraph. If one leaves out the dotted arc in Figure 9 b, then entries one, two and
four are affected and lose their paths to exits three and four, so that this subgraph
is not a junction anymore.
The second property, discreteness of navigational action, seems to be common to
every road network feature, thus also to a road. If people are speaking of ‘staying
on or leaving a road/junction’, we suggest that they mean discrete actions: The
process of entering, staying on, or leaving a road/junction is unambiguous for a
moving object inside of a channel. So roads and junctions are assumed to have
mutually exclusive entry and exit channels (gates). An obvious reason for this is
that navigational actions are kept simpler and more transparent for other road
users. The subgraph in Figure 9 c (in black) is a part of the median u-turn that
also satisfies the total reachability assumption. But because neighboring exits and
entries collapse, this subgraph violates the discreteness property. Even if one adds
the two entries (En1, En3) and exits (Ex4, Ex2) like in Figure 9 d, one will not
yet have identified a proper junction for the same reasons. Only if one adds the
two channels at the centre of the bidirectional road (Figure 9 a), this assumption
is met.
We furthermore need minimality assumptions for junctions. This is because one
can usually supplement a junction with further channels such that it satisfies the
first two properties. In Figure 10 a, we have extended the median u-turn at the
left end by completing the dual carriageway road. At the right end, we have added
two channels. Junctions are required to be minimal in the following two senses: In
a first sense, a junction is minimal because it never contains a smaller junction.
We imply a criterion of individuation based on minimality, because junctions keep
the first two properties if one adds an extra road to them (Figure 10). In a second
sense, we require a minimal vertex degree for entries and exits: This is because
entries and exits should afford either a navigational choice or a path from another
entry, or to another exit. In the first case, the entry has more than one successor,
and the exit has more than one predecessor. In the second case, the entry has an
internal predecessor, and the exit has an internal successor. Why is this a legitimate
property of junctions? Take for example the entry En2’ with cardinality one in
Figure 10 a. All paths from this entry must cross the one edge incident to En2’.
And because no other path (from another entry) uses this edge, the subgraph can
safely be shortened by this edge while retaining its total reachability property. The
same applies for exits.
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tions˙revisedendversion
Figure 11. (a) A 4-way intersection (source: public domain), (b) its data model and (c) the corresponding
channel digraph.
Will will now show that our definition is satisfied by instances of the most common
junction types. The first example we examine is a simple 4-way intersection (Fig-
ure 11). The subgraph consists of four entry and four exit gates without internal
channels, and these are directly connected by LeadsTo edges. As the subgraph is
the minimal model for a 4-way junction, it is minimal in the first sense, and because
each gate is a vertex with three successors (resp. predecessors), it is also minimal
in the second sense.
A junction type similar to the median u-turn is a diamond interchange (Fig-
ure 12). Here two major roads with different speed limits intersect. The long ramps
indicate the faster road. The channels of the faster road are unnecessary for the
individuation of a 4-way junction, therefore they are marked as feature external
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tions˙revisedendversion
Figure 12. (a) A diamond interchange aerial photo (source: public domain (USGS)), (b) its data model
and (c) channel digraph.
Figure 13. (a) A jughandle intersection (source: public domain (USGS)), (b) data model and (c) channel
digraph .
(grey). As one can see all entries and exits are totally reachable gates with vertex
degree two. The model is also minimal in the first sense: Although there is an
elementary circuit due to the u-turns in the middle of the minor road, satisfying
properties one, two, and four in section 3.2, this circuit does not have gates. Any
other totally 4-reachable subgraph does not comply with property four.
Another well known junction type is a jughandle intersection (Figure 13). It
prevents left-turns and right-turns from the major road at the intersection point
by providing only appropriate ramps. Properties one, two, and four of section 3.2
are satisfied, and the model is also minimal because all its induced subgraphs are
either not totally reachable or introduce non-gates.
A ‘prototype’ junction is the cloverleaf interchange (Figure 14), mainly used
for highways and high speed roads to prevent left turns by so called loop roads.
The junction is totally reachable (it is possible to drive on an elementary circuit
consisting of exactly those loops), and obviously has gates of degree two (properties
one, two and four of section 3.2). It is also minimal: although the inner circuit is
totally reachable in four directions and all its vertices have a degree of two, they
are not gates. All other subgraphs contradict one of the junction properties.
In addition to these models, our definition of a junction (Definition 3.6) is also
satisfied by the following 4-way types: quadrant roadway intersection, stacked in-
terchange, continuous flow intersection, and the following 3-way types: trumpet
interchange and semi-directional T-interchange1 . The considered junction types
1 See Rodegerdts et al. (2004) for an extensive list of signalized junction types with description.
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tions˙revisedendversion
Figure 14. (a) A cloverleaf interchange (by kind permission of Rijkswaterstaat, Adviesdienst Geo-
informatie en ICT, Beeldbank VenW, Netherlands), (b) its data model and (c) channel digraph.
2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junction_(traffic)
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REFERENCES 17
theorems or other observations (in the latter case using the theory as a semantic
link). We demonstrated this by giving an affordance-based definition of a junction
which is satisfied by the most common junction models. The theory could be used
in order to develop explanation-based classifiers (in the spirit of Mitchell et al.
(1986)) and semantic consistency checkers for road network categories, such as
those of OSM. The theory is not bound to be interpreted into a certain data model
because it comes with a domain independent observation procedure. It therefore
constitutes a link between the worlds of data, observation and domain ontologies.
We are aware that there are other useful perspectives on road network databases,
for example as a representation of constructed infrastructure, or as a reference
frame for address data. Still, the affordance based approach and the proposed
formalism, which also encompasses complex metric concepts (compare the example
‘waterdepth’ in Scheider et al. (2009)), are useful as a common semantic ground
for these perspectives.
As a next step, we intend to develop appropriate graph based classification and
search algorithms to demonstrate the usefulness of the theory. We furthermore
intend to account for the graded structure (Lakoff 1990) of road network categories.
In addition, the underlying grounded theory of the meaningful environment is still
under development, in particular with respect to the issues of finite granularity,
uncertainty and temporality.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the reviewers for their insightful comments. This work
is funded by the Semantic Reference Systems II project granted by the German
Research Foundation (DFG KU 1368/4-2).
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